Difference between revisions of "Charisma" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Charisma''' One hundred word summary summarizing the article must go here. Touch on all key points of the article subsections, and be sure to include in this space.  
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The term '''charisma''' originates from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word χάρισμα meaning "gift" or "divine favor" and most often refers to a rare trait found in certain human [[personality|personalities]] which can include extreme charm, a "magnetic" quality of personality and/or appearance, and an innate and powerfully sophisticated personal ability to [[communication|communicate]] and [[persuasion|persuade]]. It refers especially to a quality in certain people, both women and men, who easily draw the attention and admiration, or in negative cases hatred, of others due to an alluring quality of personality.
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Charismatic leaders are those whose charismatic qualities inspires others to follow them. Whether such leadership has beneficial results or not depends on other aspects of the leader, namely whether their [[motivation]] is self-centered or for the good of all, whether they have the ability to develop effective strategies to accomplish their goals, and whether the content of their message and goals enhances or reduces the quality of life of members of the society.
  
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==Definition==
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==Characteristics==
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The word '''''charisma''''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word χάρισμα ''(kharisma)'', "gift" or "divine favor," from ''kharizesthai'', "to favor," from ''kharis'', "favor") refers to a rare trait found in certain human personalities usually including extreme charm and a "magnetic" quality of personality and/or appearance along with innate and powerfully sophisticated personal communicability and persuasiveness; in short, [[charisma]] is often used to describe a seemingly uncanny ability to charm or influence people. It refers especially to a quality in certain people who easily draw the attention and admiration (or even hatred if the charisma is negative) of others due to a "magnetic" quality of personality and/or appearance. Though the term as it stands is extremely difficult to define, other similar terms/phrases related to ''charisma'' include: [[wiktionary:grace|grace]], exuberance, [[equanimity]], [[mystique]], positive energy, "right stuff," joie de vivre, [[charm]], personal magnetism, personal appeal, "electricity," and [[allure]], among many [http://thesaurus.reference.com/search?q=charisma others]<ref>[http://thesaurus.reference.com/search?q=charisma Thesaurus — alternate terms for "charisma"]</ref>. Usually many of these qualities must be present within a single individual for the person to be considered ''highly charismatic'' by the public and their peers.
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[[Image:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Jesus]] is considered by many to be an example of a charismatic authority.]]
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'''Charismatic''' individuals generally project unusual confidence, serenity, assertiveness, authenticity, and focus, along with superb [[communication]] skills. Other similar terms or phrases related to charisma can include: grace, exuberance, equanimity, mystique, positive energy, "right stuff," joie de vivre, charm, personal magnetism, personal appeal, "electricity," and allure. Many of these qualities must be present within an individual in order for the person to be considered "charismatic" by the public and their peers.
  
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Charismatic individuals generally project unusual confidence, calmness, assertiveness, authenticity, and focus, along with superb communication skills. To the early Greeks, charisma was said to be a "gift of grace," implying that this "divine quality" was an inborn trait; today however, many believe it can be taught and/or learned despite the persistent inability to accurately define or even fully understand it. In many individuals, the use of this charisma leads to [[Charisma#Charismatic Authority|charismatic authority]] allowing the individual to influence and lead others.
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To the early Greeks, charisma was said to be a "gift of grace," implying that this "divine quality" was an inborn trait. Today, many believe charisma can be taught or even learned, despite a persistent inability to accurately define or even fully understand the complex term. In many individuals, the use of charisma can lead to the development of a [[Charisma#Charismatic Authority|charismatic authority]] which may allow the individual to influence and lead others.
  
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[[Image:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Jesus]] is considered by many to be an example of a '''charismatic''' authority]]
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The study, recognition, and development of charisma in individuals is of particular interest to [[sociology|sociologist]]s, [[psychologist]]s, popular [[politics|politician]]s, [[oratory|public speaker]]s, and entertainers. In recent years the study of charisma has also reached areas of the [[business]] community and other areas involving [[leadership]] studies or leadership development.
  
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== Characteristics ==
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Charisma has also been defined as a "set of behaviors or traits"; for example, a modern psychological approach posits that charisma is basically aggregative, a conglomeration of distinct [[personality]] traits that meld well in certain individuals to form the broad quality known as charisma. Theatrically, charisma is prevalent [[Theater|on-stage]] and in [[film]]s, and can be encapsulated in verbal and non-verbal communication.
  
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In his writings about charismatic authority, Weber applies the term [[charisma]] to "a certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. These are such as are not accessible to the ordinary person, but are regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader [...] How the quality in question would be ultimately judged from an ethical, aesthetic, or other such point of view is naturally indifferent for the purpose of definition." <ref>Weber, Maximillan. ''Theory of Social and Economic Organization.'' Chapter: "The Nature of Charismatic Authority and its Routinization" translated by A. R. Anderson and Talcot Parsons, 1947. Originally published in 1922 in German under the title [http://www.textlog.de/7415.html ''Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft'' chapter III, § 10] (available online) <br /> Original German: "»Charisma« soll eine als außeralltäglich (ursprünglich, sowohl bei Propheten wie bei therapeutischen wie bei Rechts-Weisen wie bei Jagdführern wie bei Kriegshelden: als magisch bedingt) geltende Qualität einer Persönlichkeit heißen, um derentwillen sie als mit übernatürlichen oder übermenschlichen oder mindestens spezifisch außeralltäglichen, nicht jedem andern zugänglichen Kräften oder Eigenschaften oder als gottgesandt oder als vorbildlich und deshalb als »Führer« gewertet wird."</ref>
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==Charismatic Authority==
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Charismatic authority is defined as the "power legitimized on the basis of a leader's exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, which inspire loyalty and obedience from followers." <ref>D. Kendall, J. Murray, and R. Linden, ''Sociology in Our Time''. (Wadsworth Publishing; Scarborough, Ont. 2000. ISBN 0495096563) </ref>. As such, it rests almost entirely on the [[leadership|leader]]; the absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authority's power dissolving. However, due to its idiosyncratic nature and lack of formal [[organization]], charismatic authority depends strongly on the perceived [[legitimacy]] of the authority figure. For instance, a charismatic leader in a [[religion|religious]] context might promote an unchallenged [[belief]] that he or she has been touched by [[God]], in the sense of a [[guru]] or [[prophet]]. Should the strength of this belief fade, the power of the charismatic leader may also fade, which is one of the ways in which this form of authority shows itself to be unstable.  
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In contrast to the popular use of the term, "charismatic leader," German [[sociology|sociologist]] [[Max Weber]] saw charismatic authority not so much attributed to the character traits of the charismatic leader but as developing out of a relationship between the leader and followers. Weber believed the validity of charisma to be founded on its [[recognition]] by certain followers. He believed this recognition to be based not on the grounds of legitimacy, but on a sense of duty belonging to certain followers who believe they are especially chosen to recognize and confirm the exceptional qualities of their leader.  
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According to Weber, a charismatic leader is not solely of a positive force. Many sociologists argue that both [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Adolf Hitler]] could exemplify the characteristics of charismatic leaders. Furthermore, society often remains neutral towards both positive and negative forms of charismatic domination. French sociologist [[Pierre Bourdieu]] supported many of Weber’s claims, and further stressed a leader to have charisma only if other people "accept" that he or she may have it. Bourdieu argued that charisma usually depends on an "inaugural act," such as a decisive battle or moving speech after which the person will be regarded as a charismatic leader.
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===Routinization===
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Charismatic authority almost always evolves in the context of traditional authority which provides comparative forms and boundaries. However, by its nature, charismatic authority tends to challenge conventionally accepted forms of authority and is therefore often considered [[revolution]]ary. This constant challenge that charismatic authority presents to older forms of authority must eventually subside or be incorporated into a society through the process of routinization.  
  
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The study, recognition, and development of charisma in individuals is of particular interest to [[sociologist]]s/[[psychologist]]s, popular (usually national) [[politician]]s, [[public speaker]]s, [[actor]]s, [[Movie star|movie-star]]s/[[Movie producer|movie-producers]], [[casting director]]s, [[Pop musician|pop-music star]]s, trainers/coaches targeting the upper-echelons of the business community ([[CEO]]s), and [[academics]] or others involved in [[leadership]] studies or [[leadership development]], among others. <ref>[http://cms.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-20050502-000001.html The Psychology of Charisma] — from [[Psychology Today]] magazine</ref>
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Routinization is the process by which charismatic authority is replaced by a rationally established authority. Such routinization can be seen in the example of the prophet [[Muhammad]], who maintained charismatic authority among his followers, although he was eventually succeeded by the traditional authority and structure of [[Islam]].
  
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[[Pierre Bourdieu]] did not have a very different position from that of Weber's, but he stressed that a leader has charisma only if other people ''accept'' that s/he has it. Bourdieu argued that charisma usually depends on an "inaugural act" such as a decisive battle or moving speech after which the charismatic person will be regarded as such.
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Politically, charismatic rule can be found in various [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian states]], [[Autocracy|autocracies]], [[dictatorship]]s, and [[Theocracy|theocracies]]. In many circumstances when the leader of such a state dies or leaves office and a new charismatic leader does not appear, such a regime is more likely to fall. As in the example of Islam, a [[religion]] which evolves its own [[priesthood]] and establishes a set of laws and rules is most likely to lose its charismatic character and eventually move toward a second type of authority upon the removal of that leader.
  
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Charisma has also been studied as a ''set of behaviors/traits''; for example, a modern psychological approach posits that charisma is basically aggregative, a conglomeration of distinct personality traits that meld well in certain individuals to form the broad quality known as [[charisma]]. Theatrically, charisma can actually be performed [[Theatre|on-stage]] and in [[film]]s, and is encapsulated in [[verbal]] and [[non-verbal communication]].
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==The Study of Charismatic Leadership==
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The study of charismatic leadership has been undertaken by many professional scholars throughout history. In particular, the relationship between charismatic leadership and the onset of [[new religious movement]]s has been closely monitored by scholars of a [[sociology|sociological]], [[psychology|psychological]], and [[religion|religious]] background. Some historical patterns have emerged.  
  
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Professor [[Richard Wiseman]] says that a charismatic person has three attributes:
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According to psychologist Richard Wiseman,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4579681.stm Charisma: a step-by-step guide] BBC News. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref> a charismatic person has three attributes:
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#they feel emotions themselves quite strongly;
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#they feel [[emotion]]s themselves quite strongly;
 
#they induce them in others;
 
#they induce them in others;
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#and they are impervious to the influences of other charismatic people. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4579681.stm Charisma: a step-by-step guide] — from [[BBC]] News</ref>
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#and they are impervious to the influences of other charismatic people.  
  
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==Charismatic Authority==
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In regards to religious charisma, [[George D. Chryssides]] has asserted that not all new religious movements have charismatic leaders, and that there are differences in the hegemonic styles among those movements that do. However [[Eileen Barker]] has claimed that in many new religious movements there is often employed a founder or leader who wields charismatic authority and is believed to have some special powers or knowledge. Barker asserts that almost by definition, charismatic leaders are unpredictable, for they are not bound to tradition or rules. In many circumstances, Barker asserts a warning when a leader who lacks accountability requires from their following an unquestioned obedience, and subsequently encourages a growing dependency upon the movement for all material, spiritual, and social resources.  
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[[Charisma|Charismatic]] authority is 'power legitimized on the basis of a leader's exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, which inspire loyalty and obedience from followers' <ref>Kendall, Diana, Jane Lothian Murray, and Rick Linden. ''Sociology in our time'' (2nd ed.), 2000. Scarborough, On: Nelson, 438-439.</ref>.  As such, it rests almost entirely on the [[leadership|leader]];  the absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authority's power dissolving.   However, due to its idiosyncratic nature and lack of formal [[organization]], charismatic authority depends much more strongly on the perceived [[legitimacy]] of the authority than Weber’s other forms of authority.  For instance, a charismatic leader in a [[religion|religious]] context might require an unchallenged [[belief]] that the leader has been touched by [[God]], in the sense of a [[guru]] or [[prophet]]. [http://atheism.about.com/od/religiousauthority/a/types_2.htm] Should the strength of this belief fade, the power of the charismatic leader can fade quickly, which is one of the ways in which this form of authority shows itself to be unstable. In contrast to the current popular use of the term ''charismatic leader'', Weber saw charismatic authority not so much as character traits of the charismatic leader but as a relationship between the leader and his followers &mdash; much in the same way that [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]] would transform [[Gustave Le Bon]]'s [[crowd psychology]] through the notion of [[identification]] and of an [[Ideal of the Ego]]. The validity of charism is founded on its "[[recognition]]" by the leader's followers (or "adepts" - ''Anhänger''). This recognition "is not (in authentic charism) the grounds of legitimity, but a ''duty'', for those who are chosen, in virtue of this call and of its confirmation, to recognize this quality. "Recognition" which is, psychologically, a completely personal abandon, full of [[faith]], born either from enthusiasm or from necessity and hope. No prophet has seen his quality as depending from the crowd's opinion towards himself," although his charisme risks disappearing if he is "abandoned by God" or if "his government doesn't provide any prosperity to those whom he dominates."
 
  
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Note that according to Weber, a charismatic leader does not have to be a positive force;  thus, both [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Adolf Hitler]] could be reasonably considered charismatic leaders. Furthermore, sociology is [[axiology|axiologically]] neutral (''Wertfreie Soziologie'') towards various forms of charismatic domination: it does not makes difference between the charisma of a [[Berserker]], of a [[shaman]], of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|the founder]] of [[Mormonism]] or of the one displayed by [[Kurt Eisner]]. For Weber, sociology considers these types of charismatic dominatione in "an identical manner than the charisma of [[hero]]s, prophets, the "greatest" saviours according to common appreciation."
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Australian psychologist [[Len Oakes]], who authored a dissertation regarding prophetic charisma, invited eleven charismatic leaders to complete a [[psychometrics|psychometric]] test, which he labeled the "adjective checklist." Though Oakes found the group “quite ordinary,” the findings of his study led him to argue that the majority of charismatic leaders exhibit traits of [[narcissism]], display an extraordinary amount of energy, and an inner clarity unhindered by the anxieties and guilt that afflict most people.
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The [[sociologist]] [[Max Weber]] defined '''charismatic authority''' as "resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him."  Charismatic authority is one of three forms of [[authority]] laid out in Weber's [[tripartite classification of authority]], the other two being [[traditional authority|traditional]] authority and [[rational-legal authority|rational-legal]] authority. The concept has acquired wide usage among sociologists.
 
  
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Similar terms include "charismatic domination" , or "charismatic leadership."
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==Charismatic Leaders==
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The following is a small sample of people whose leadership has been characterized, according to listed sources, as based on charismatic authority according to the sociological concept defined by [[Max Weber]] as "resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him.<ref>Max Weber, ''Legitimation, Method, and the Politics of Theory''. (Sheldon S. Wolin. ''Political Theory'', Vol. 9. 1981) </ref>"
  
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=== Routinizing Charisma ===
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===Political Leaders===  
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Charismatic authority almost always evolves in the context of examples of traditional or rational-legal authority which provide forms and boundaries, but by its nature tends to challenge currently accepted forms of authority and thus is often seen as [[revolutionary]].  [http://cbae.nmsu.edu/~dboje/teaching/503/weber_links.html] However, the constant challenge that charismatic authority presents to older forms of authority must eventually either subside or be incorporated into the society.  The way in which this happens is called ''routinization''.  
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*[[Alexander the Great]] <ref> Thomassen, B. Who was Alexander the Great? Department of International Relations. The American University of Rome. Rome, Italy.</ref>
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*[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] <ref> "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk," [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555416/Mustafa_Kemal_Ataturk.html Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007] http://encarta.msn.com 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation.</ref>
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*[[Napoleon Bonaparte]] <ref> Kreis, Steven. [http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture15a.html Europe & the Superior Being]. The History Guide: Lectures on Modern European Intellectual History. Retrieved 17 April 2007. </ref>
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*[[Winston Churchill]] <ref> Robert, Andrew. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/hitler_churchill_01.shtml Secrets of Leadership: Hitler and Churchill]. BBC News. 26 February 2006.  </ref>
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*[[Mahatma Gandhi]] <ref> Rudolph, Susanne. Ghandi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma. University of Chicago Press; Chicago, 1983. ISBN 0226731367 </ref>
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*[[Che Guevara]] <ref> Canby, Peter. [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/05/18/reviews/970518.18canbyt.html Poster Boy for the Revolution]. The New York Times. 18 May 1997.  </ref>
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*[[Adolf Hitler]] <ref> Robert, Andrew. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/hitler_churchill_01.shtml Secrets of Leadership: Hitler and Churchill]. BBC News. 26 February 2006.  </ref>
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*[[John F. Kennedy]] <ref> Schoenberg, Philip. [http://www.presidentialexpert.com/leadership_john_f_kennedy.html John F. Kennedy on Leadership]. The Presidential Expert. Retrieved 17 April 2007.  </ref>
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*[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] <ref> Carson, Clayborne. [http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/additional_resources/articles/charisma.htmMartin Luther King Jr.: Charismatic Leadership in a Mass Struggle]. Journal of American History 74, September 1987.  </ref>
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*[[Nelson Mandela]] <ref> Sanford, John. [http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2002/january30/sampson-130.html Nelson Mandela's Sway]. Stanford Report. 30 January, 2002. </ref>
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*[[Mao Zedong]] <ref> Robinson, J. Mao After Death: Charisma and Political Legitimacy. Asian Survey, Vol. 28, No. 3. March, 1988. </ref>
  
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Routinization is the process by which ‘charismatic authority is succeeded by a bureaucracy controlled by a rationally established authority or by a combination of traditional and bureaucratic authority’ (Turney, Beeghley, and Powers, 1995 cited in Kendal et al. 2000). For example, [[Muhammad]], who had charismatic authority as "The Prophet" among his followers, was succeeded by the traditional authority and structure of [[Islam]], a clear example of routinization.
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===Religious Leaders=== 
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* [[Abraham]] <ref> Hershey H. Friedman, and Mitchell Langbert, Abraham as a Transformational Leader. ''Journal of Leadership Studies'' (2000) </ref>
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* [[Moses]] <ref> Rapoport, D. Moses. Charisma and Covenant. The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 32, No. 2. June 1979. </ref>
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* [[Elijah]] <ref> Gerald Larue, [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/chap16.html Old Testament Life and Literature: Prophecy and the Earliest Prophets]. (1997) Retrieved 17 April 2007. </ref>
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* [[Jesus]] of Nazareth <ref name=walters> B. Walters, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0SOR/is_3_64/ai_109568893 Charisma, Converts, Competitors]. ''Society of Religion'', (Fall 2003). </ref>
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* [[Saint Paul]] of Tarsus <ref name=walters/>
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* [[Muhammad]] <ref> H. Dabashi, Authority in Islam. ''Contemporary Sociology'', Vol. 20, No. 5. September 1991. </ref>
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* [[Bahá'u'lláh]] <ref> Cole, J. [http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/trans/vol5/son/son.htm Bahá'u'lláh Tablet of the Son]. Translations of Shaykhi, Babi and Baha’I Texts. Vol. 5, No. 2. May 2001. </ref>
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* [[Sun Myung Moon]] <ref> Lewis Rambo, [http://www.springerlink.com/content/r1164n8751x65w48/ Charisma and Conversion]. ''Pastoral Psychology'', Springer Netherlands. Volume 31, Number 2. December 1982. </ref>
  
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Some leaders may employ various tools to create and extend their charismatic authority, for example utilizing the science of [[public relations]].
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===Female Leaders===
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*[[Cleopatra]] <ref>Amy Crawford, [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/issues/2007/april/cleopatra.php?page=2 Who Was Cleopatra?]. Smithsonian.com History. Retrieved 19 April, 2007</ref>
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*[[Diana, Princess of Wales]] <ref>Jenny Kim, [http://www.amherst.edu/~prism/death/kim.html An Enduring Story]. Prism Online. Amhert College. Amherst, Massachusetts. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>
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*[[Joan of Arc]] <ref> Stephen Richey, ''Joan of Arc the Warrior Saint'' (Greenwood Publishing, 2005 ISBN 0275981037).</ref>
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*[[Mother Jones]] <ref>Foner, P. Mother Jones Speaks: Speeches and Writings of a Working-Class Fighter. Pathfinder Press, 1995. ISBN 0873488105</ref>
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*[[Mother Teresa]] <ref> Chawla, Navin. Mother Teresa: The Authorized Biography. Element Books, 1996. ISBN 1852309113 </ref>
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*[[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis]] <ref>Schwalbe, Carol. [http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-4415802_ITM Jacqueline Kennedy & Cold War Propaganda]. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, March 2005. </ref>
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*[[Eleanor Roosevelt]] <ref>Gerber, R. Leadership the Eleanor Roosevelt Way. Portfolio Publishing; New York, 2003. ISBN 9781591840206</ref>
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*[[Harriet Tubman]] <ref>Driggs, M. [http://www.harriettubman.com/callhermoses.html They Called Her Moses]. Harriet Tubman.com Retrieved 19 April, 2007. </ref>
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*[[Oprah Winfrey]] <ref> Guilfoyle, Desmond. The Charisma Effect: How to Captivate an Audience. McGraw Hill Education. 2002. ISBN 007471144X. </ref>
  
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As in the example of Islam, a religion which evolves its own [[priesthood]] and establishes a set of laws and rules is likely to lose its charismatic character and move towards another type of authority upon the removal of that leader.
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== Notes ==
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<div class="references-small">
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In politics, charismatic rule is often found in various [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian states]], [[Autocracy|autocracies]], [[dictatorship]]s and [[Theocracy|theocracies]]. In order to help to maintain their charismatic authority, such regimes will often establish a vast [[personality cult]], which can be seen as an attempt to lend legitimacy by an appeal to other forms of authority. When the leader of such a state dies or leaves office and a new charismatic leader does not appear, such regime is likely to fall shortly afterwards if it is unable to survive without the personal attraction of the ruler, or it may become routinized as described above.
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<references />
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</div>
  
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==Understanding Charismatic Leaders==
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==References==
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Weber’s model of charismatic leadership giving way to institutionalization is endorsed by several academic sociologists, such as [[Eileen Barker]]. Barker discusses that in new religious movements there is often a founder or leader who wields charismatic authority and who is believed to have some special powers or knowledge. She asserts that almost by definition, charismatic leaders are unpredictable, for they are not bound  tradition or rules. Such leaders may be accorded by the followers the right to pronounce on all aspects of their lives. In those cases, Barker asserts a warning when the leader lacks any accountability and there is an authority structure requiring unquestioning obedience and encouraging a growing dependency upon the movement for material, spiritual and social resources. <ref>[[Eileen Barker|Barker, E]]. ''New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction'' (1990), Bernan Press, ISBN 0-11-340927-3</ref>. [[George D. Chryssides]] asserts that not all new religious movements have charismatic leaders, and that there are differences in the hegemonic styles among those movements that do. <ref>[[George D. Chryssides|Chryssides, George D.]] ''Unrecognized charisma? A study and comparison of four charismatic leaders: Charles Taze Russell, Joseph Smith, L Ron Hubbard, Swami Prabhupada.'' Paper presented at the 2001 International Conference The Spiritual Supermarket: Religious Pluralism in the 21st Century, organised by INFORM and [[CESNUR]] (London, April 19-22, 2001). [http://www.cesnur.org/2001/london2001/chryssides.htm  Available online]</ref>
 
  
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[[Len Oakes]], an [[Australia|Australian]] psychologist who wrote a dissertation about charisma, asserts that criticisms of Weber's theory have led to significant modification of some aspects, but not its main concepts, had eleven charismatic leaders to fill in a psychometric test, which he called the [[adjective checklist]] and found them as a group quite ordinary. Following the [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalyst]] [[Heinz Kohut]], Oakes argues that charismatic leaders exhibit traits of [[narcissism]] and also argues that they display an extraordinary amount of energy, accompanied by an inner clarity unhindered by the anxieties and guilt that afflict more ordinary people. He did however not fully follow Weber's framework of charismatic authority.<ref>Oakes, Len: ''Prophetic Charisma: The Psychology of Revolutionary Religious Personalities'', 1997, ISBN 0-8156-0398-3</ref>
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*Barker, Eileen. 1990. ''New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction''. Bernan Press. ISBN 0113409273
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*Chryssides, George D. 2001. [http://www.cesnur.org/2001/london2001/chryssides.htm ''Unrecognized Charisma? A Study and Comparison of Four Charismatic Leaders'']. presented at the 2001 International Conference: The Spiritual Supermarket: Religious Pluralism in the 21st Century. London, England.
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*Geoghegan, Tom. 2005. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4579681.stm ''A Step By Step Guide to Charisma'']. BBC News.
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*Kendall, D., J. Murray & R. Linden. 2000. ''Sociology in Our Time''. Wadsworth Publishing; Scarborough, Ont. ISBN 0495096563
  
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==Notes==
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==External Links==
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<references />
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All links retrieved December 3, 2023.
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*[http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/charisma.htm Charisma] ''The Encyclopedia of Religion & Society''
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*[http://atheism.about.com/od/religiousauthority/a/types_2.htm Charismatic Authority: Emotional Bonds Between Leaders and Followers]
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*[http://www.frugalmarketing.com/dtb/charisma.shtml Why Charisma Matters] Tony Alessandra.
  
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==Bibliography==
 
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*D. Aberbach. ''Charisma in Politics, Religion and the Media: Private Trauma, Public Ideals''. NYU Press, 1996. ISBN 0814706479.
 
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*R. T. Bradley. ''Charisma and Social Structure: A Study of Love and Power, Wholeness and Transformation''. iUniverse, 2000. ISBN 1583480021.
 
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*A. E. Bryman. ''Charisma and Leadership in Organizations''. SAGE Publications, 1992. ISBN 0803983182.
 
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*S. L. Carlton-Ford. ''The Effects of Ritual and Charisma: The Creation of Collective Effervescence and the Support of Psychic Strength''. Taylor & Francis, 1993. ISBN 0815312512.
 
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*W. Clark. ''Academic Charisma and the Origins of the Research University''. Univ. of Chicago Press, 2006. ISBN 0226109216.
 
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*S. Coleman. ''The Globalisation of Charismatic Christianity''. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000. ISBN 0521660726.
 
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*J. A. Conger, et al. ''Charismatic Leadership in Organizations''. Sage Publications, 1998. ISBN 0761916342.
 
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*J. A. Conger. ''The Charismatic Leader: Behind the Mystique of Exceptional Leadership''. Jossey-Bass Pub., 1989. ISBN 1555421717.
 
  
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==External links==
 
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*[http://www.latimes.com/features/health/la-he-charisma29may29,0,6643499.story?coll=la-headlines-health The 'It' Factor] from the [[LA Times]]
 
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*[http://www.latimes.com/features/health/la-he-charismaside29may29,0,4830456.story?coll=la-home-health Charm, Graciousness — and Attitude] from the LA Times
 
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*[http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-20050502-000001.html The X-Factors of Success] from Psychology Today
 
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*[http://whyfiles.org/205charisma/ The Character of Charisma] from whyfiles.org, a 4 part series
 
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*[http://cbae.nmsu.edu/~dboje/teaching/338/charisma.htm Max Weber and Charisma]
 
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*[http://atheism.about.com/od/religiousauthority/a/types_2.htm Charismatic Authority] from about.com
 
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*[http://www.frugalmarketing.com/dtb/charisma.shtml Why Charisma Matters] from Tony Alessandra Ph.D.
 
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*[http://www.vocalist.org.uk/charisma.html Charisma] from vocalist.org
 
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*[http://www.core-edge.com/FAQ%27s.htm Charisma FAQ]
 
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*[http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/charisma.htm ''Charisma''] by Thomas Robbin in the ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Society'', edited by William H. Swatos: ISBN 0-7619-8956-0
 
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*[http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/essays/essays/toward_a_theory_of__the_routiniz.htm Toward a Theory of the Routinization of Charisma  — April 1972]
 
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*[http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/charisma.htm ''Charisma''] by Thomas Robbin in the ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Society'' edited by William H. Swatos (February 1998) ISBN 0-7619-8956-0
 
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*[http://atheism.about.com/od/religiousauthority/a/types_2.htm Charismatic Authority: Emotional Bonds Between Leaders and Followers]
 
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*[http://cbae.nmsu.edu/~dboje/teaching/503/weber_links.html Weber links]
 
  
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{{Credit2|Charisma|71513894|Charismatic_authority|76642132|}}
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{{Credits|Charisma|71513894|Charismatic_authority|76642132|List_of_charismatic_leaders_as_defined_by_Max_Weber's_classification_of_authority|119449063|}}

Latest revision as of 01:46, 4 December 2023


The term charisma originates from the Greek word χάρισμα meaning "gift" or "divine favor" and most often refers to a rare trait found in certain human personalities which can include extreme charm, a "magnetic" quality of personality and/or appearance, and an innate and powerfully sophisticated personal ability to communicate and persuade. It refers especially to a quality in certain people, both women and men, who easily draw the attention and admiration, or in negative cases hatred, of others due to an alluring quality of personality.

Charismatic leaders are those whose charismatic qualities inspires others to follow them. Whether such leadership has beneficial results or not depends on other aspects of the leader, namely whether their motivation is self-centered or for the good of all, whether they have the ability to develop effective strategies to accomplish their goals, and whether the content of their message and goals enhances or reduces the quality of life of members of the society.

Characteristics

Jesus is considered by many to be an example of a charismatic authority.

Charismatic individuals generally project unusual confidence, serenity, assertiveness, authenticity, and focus, along with superb communication skills. Other similar terms or phrases related to charisma can include: grace, exuberance, equanimity, mystique, positive energy, "right stuff," joie de vivre, charm, personal magnetism, personal appeal, "electricity," and allure. Many of these qualities must be present within an individual in order for the person to be considered "charismatic" by the public and their peers.

To the early Greeks, charisma was said to be a "gift of grace," implying that this "divine quality" was an inborn trait. Today, many believe charisma can be taught or even learned, despite a persistent inability to accurately define or even fully understand the complex term. In many individuals, the use of charisma can lead to the development of a charismatic authority which may allow the individual to influence and lead others.

The study, recognition, and development of charisma in individuals is of particular interest to sociologists, psychologists, popular politicians, public speakers, and entertainers. In recent years the study of charisma has also reached areas of the business community and other areas involving leadership studies or leadership development.

Charisma has also been defined as a "set of behaviors or traits"; for example, a modern psychological approach posits that charisma is basically aggregative, a conglomeration of distinct personality traits that meld well in certain individuals to form the broad quality known as charisma. Theatrically, charisma is prevalent on-stage and in films, and can be encapsulated in verbal and non-verbal communication.

Charismatic Authority

Charismatic authority is defined as the "power legitimized on the basis of a leader's exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, which inspire loyalty and obedience from followers." [1]. As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader; the absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authority's power dissolving. However, due to its idiosyncratic nature and lack of formal organization, charismatic authority depends strongly on the perceived legitimacy of the authority figure. For instance, a charismatic leader in a religious context might promote an unchallenged belief that he or she has been touched by God, in the sense of a guru or prophet. Should the strength of this belief fade, the power of the charismatic leader may also fade, which is one of the ways in which this form of authority shows itself to be unstable.

In contrast to the popular use of the term, "charismatic leader," German sociologist Max Weber saw charismatic authority not so much attributed to the character traits of the charismatic leader but as developing out of a relationship between the leader and followers. Weber believed the validity of charisma to be founded on its recognition by certain followers. He believed this recognition to be based not on the grounds of legitimacy, but on a sense of duty belonging to certain followers who believe they are especially chosen to recognize and confirm the exceptional qualities of their leader.

According to Weber, a charismatic leader is not solely of a positive force. Many sociologists argue that both Winston Churchill and Adolf Hitler could exemplify the characteristics of charismatic leaders. Furthermore, society often remains neutral towards both positive and negative forms of charismatic domination. French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu supported many of Weber’s claims, and further stressed a leader to have charisma only if other people "accept" that he or she may have it. Bourdieu argued that charisma usually depends on an "inaugural act," such as a decisive battle or moving speech after which the person will be regarded as a charismatic leader.

Routinization

Charismatic authority almost always evolves in the context of traditional authority which provides comparative forms and boundaries. However, by its nature, charismatic authority tends to challenge conventionally accepted forms of authority and is therefore often considered revolutionary. This constant challenge that charismatic authority presents to older forms of authority must eventually subside or be incorporated into a society through the process of routinization.

Routinization is the process by which charismatic authority is replaced by a rationally established authority. Such routinization can be seen in the example of the prophet Muhammad, who maintained charismatic authority among his followers, although he was eventually succeeded by the traditional authority and structure of Islam.

Politically, charismatic rule can be found in various authoritarian states, autocracies, dictatorships, and theocracies. In many circumstances when the leader of such a state dies or leaves office and a new charismatic leader does not appear, such a regime is more likely to fall. As in the example of Islam, a religion which evolves its own priesthood and establishes a set of laws and rules is most likely to lose its charismatic character and eventually move toward a second type of authority upon the removal of that leader.

The Study of Charismatic Leadership

The study of charismatic leadership has been undertaken by many professional scholars throughout history. In particular, the relationship between charismatic leadership and the onset of new religious movements has been closely monitored by scholars of a sociological, psychological, and religious background. Some historical patterns have emerged.

According to psychologist Richard Wiseman,[2] a charismatic person has three attributes:

  1. they feel emotions themselves quite strongly;
  2. they induce them in others;
  3. and they are impervious to the influences of other charismatic people.

In regards to religious charisma, George D. Chryssides has asserted that not all new religious movements have charismatic leaders, and that there are differences in the hegemonic styles among those movements that do. However Eileen Barker has claimed that in many new religious movements there is often employed a founder or leader who wields charismatic authority and is believed to have some special powers or knowledge. Barker asserts that almost by definition, charismatic leaders are unpredictable, for they are not bound to tradition or rules. In many circumstances, Barker asserts a warning when a leader who lacks accountability requires from their following an unquestioned obedience, and subsequently encourages a growing dependency upon the movement for all material, spiritual, and social resources.

Australian psychologist Len Oakes, who authored a dissertation regarding prophetic charisma, invited eleven charismatic leaders to complete a psychometric test, which he labeled the "adjective checklist." Though Oakes found the group “quite ordinary,” the findings of his study led him to argue that the majority of charismatic leaders exhibit traits of narcissism, display an extraordinary amount of energy, and an inner clarity unhindered by the anxieties and guilt that afflict most people.

Charismatic Leaders

The following is a small sample of people whose leadership has been characterized, according to listed sources, as based on charismatic authority according to the sociological concept defined by Max Weber as "resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him.[3]"

Political Leaders

Religious Leaders

Female Leaders

Notes

  1. ↑ D. Kendall, J. Murray, and R. Linden, Sociology in Our Time. (Wadsworth Publishing; Scarborough, Ont. 2000. ISBN 0495096563)
  2. ↑ Charisma: a step-by-step guide BBC News. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
  3. ↑ Max Weber, Legitimation, Method, and the Politics of Theory. (Sheldon S. Wolin. Political Theory, Vol. 9. 1981)
  4. ↑ Thomassen, B. Who was Alexander the Great? Department of International Relations. The American University of Rome. Rome, Italy.
  5. ↑ "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 http://encarta.msn.com 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation.
  6. ↑ Kreis, Steven. Europe & the Superior Being. The History Guide: Lectures on Modern European Intellectual History. Retrieved 17 April 2007.
  7. ↑ Robert, Andrew. Secrets of Leadership: Hitler and Churchill. BBC News. 26 February 2006.
  8. ↑ Rudolph, Susanne. Ghandi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma. University of Chicago Press; Chicago, 1983. ISBN 0226731367
  9. ↑ Canby, Peter. Poster Boy for the Revolution. The New York Times. 18 May 1997.
  10. ↑ Robert, Andrew. Secrets of Leadership: Hitler and Churchill. BBC News. 26 February 2006.
  11. ↑ Schoenberg, Philip. John F. Kennedy on Leadership. The Presidential Expert. Retrieved 17 April 2007.
  12. ↑ Carson, Clayborne. Luther King Jr.: Charismatic Leadership in a Mass Struggle. Journal of American History 74, September 1987.
  13. ↑ Sanford, John. Nelson Mandela's Sway. Stanford Report. 30 January, 2002.
  14. ↑ Robinson, J. Mao After Death: Charisma and Political Legitimacy. Asian Survey, Vol. 28, No. 3. March, 1988.
  15. ↑ Hershey H. Friedman, and Mitchell Langbert, Abraham as a Transformational Leader. Journal of Leadership Studies (2000)
  16. ↑ Rapoport, D. Moses. Charisma and Covenant. The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 32, No. 2. June 1979.
  17. ↑ Gerald Larue, Old Testament Life and Literature: Prophecy and the Earliest Prophets. (1997) Retrieved 17 April 2007.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 B. Walters, Charisma, Converts, Competitors. Society of Religion, (Fall 2003).
  19. ↑ H. Dabashi, Authority in Islam. Contemporary Sociology, Vol. 20, No. 5. September 1991.
  20. ↑ Cole, J. Bahá'u'lláh Tablet of the Son. Translations of Shaykhi, Babi and Baha’I Texts. Vol. 5, No. 2. May 2001.
  21. ↑ Lewis Rambo, Charisma and Conversion. Pastoral Psychology, Springer Netherlands. Volume 31, Number 2. December 1982.
  22. ↑ Amy Crawford, Who Was Cleopatra?. Smithsonian.com History. Retrieved 19 April, 2007
  23. ↑ Jenny Kim, An Enduring Story. Prism Online. Amhert College. Amherst, Massachusetts. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
  24. ↑ Stephen Richey, Joan of Arc the Warrior Saint (Greenwood Publishing, 2005 ISBN 0275981037).
  25. ↑ Foner, P. Mother Jones Speaks: Speeches and Writings of a Working-Class Fighter. Pathfinder Press, 1995. ISBN 0873488105
  26. ↑ Chawla, Navin. Mother Teresa: The Authorized Biography. Element Books, 1996. ISBN 1852309113
  27. ↑ Schwalbe, Carol. Jacqueline Kennedy & Cold War Propaganda. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, March 2005.
  28. ↑ Gerber, R. Leadership the Eleanor Roosevelt Way. Portfolio Publishing; New York, 2003. ISBN 9781591840206
  29. ↑ Driggs, M. They Called Her Moses. Harriet Tubman.com Retrieved 19 April, 2007.
  30. ↑ Guilfoyle, Desmond. The Charisma Effect: How to Captivate an Audience. McGraw Hill Education. 2002. ISBN 007471144X.

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