Difference between revisions of "Apollo" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Lycian Apollo Louvre left.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Lycian Apollo, early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth century Greek original ([[Louvre Museum]])]]
 
[[Image:Lycian Apollo Louvre left.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Lycian Apollo, early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth century Greek original ([[Louvre Museum]])]]
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In [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], '''Apollo''' ([[Greek language|Ancient Greek]] {{Polytonic|Ἀπόλλων}}, ''Apóllōn''; or {{Polytonic|Ἀπέλλων}}, ''Apellōn''), the ideal of the ''[[kouros]]'' (a beardless youth), was the archer-god of medicine and healing, light, truth, archery and also a bringer of death-dealing [[pestilence|plague]].
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In [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], '''Apollo''' ([[Greek language|Ancient Greek]] {{Polytonic|Ἀπόλλων}}, ''Apóllōn''; or {{Polytonic|Ἀπέλλων}}, ''Apellōn'') was the god of light, truth, archery, music, medicine and healing but also the bringer of deathly plague. The mythological son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], he was the twin brother of [[Artemis]] (goddess of the moon).  
  
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As the patron of Delphi ("Pythian Apollo"), Apollo was an oracular god. Moreover, he was the prophetic deity of the [[Delphic Sibyl|Delphic Oracle]], as well as one of the most important and many-sided of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]]. In [[Classical antiquity|classical times]], he took the place of [[Helios]] as god of the sun. However, Apollo and Helios remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts.<ref> For the iconography of the Alexander-Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. "Helios," in ''Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt'' '''2''', pp. 117-23; cf. Yalouris, no. 42.</ref>. Apollo also had dominion over [[Colonies in antiquity|colonists]], over [[medicine]] (mediated through his son [[Asclepius]]), and was the patron defender of herds and flocks.  As the leader of the [[Muse]]s ('''''Apollon Musagetes''''') and director of their choir, he is a god of music and [[poetry]]. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[Paean]]s.
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As one of the most popular of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]] and the patron of the ancient [[Oracle]] at [[Delphi]], Apollo was considered to have dominion over [[medicine]] (through his son [[Asclepius]]), over colonists, was the defender of herds and flocks and the patron of music and [[poetry]]. More importantly, he was eventually identified with the Sun god [[Helios]] usurping the latter god's place in the Greek pantheon. However, Apollo and Helios remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts.<ref>H. Hoffman, "Helios" in ''Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt'' 2, (1963):117-123; cf. Yalouris, no. 42.</ref>
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Apollo is the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and the [[twins|twin]] brother of the chaste huntress Artemis, who took the place of [[Selene]] in some myths as goddess of the moon.
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In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason &mdash;characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of these two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus.<ref>Powell, 164.</ref> This contrast is visually represented in the Bourghese Vase.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borghese_Vase Borghese Vase]. Retrieved August 15, 2007.</ref>
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Apollo is known in Greek-influenced [[Etruscan mythology]] as '''Apulu'''. In Roman mythology he is known as '''Apollo''' and increasingly, especially during the third century B.C.E., as ''Apollo Helios'' he became identified with [[Sol]], the Sun. In Hellenistic times, Apollo became conflated with [[Helios]], [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister similarly equated with [[Selene]], [[lunar deity|goddess of the moon]]. However, Apollo and Helios remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts.<ref> For the iconography of the Alexander-Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. "Helios," in ''Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt'' '''2''', pp. 117-23; cf. Yalouris, no. 42.</ref>
 
  
 
==Etymology==
 
==Etymology==
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The etymology of the theonym is uncertain. It may have had an original meaning of "the destroyer", cognate to ἀπόλλυμι "destroy" (c.f. [[Apollyon]]).
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The etymology of the theonym is uncertain, to the extent that Farnell's majesterial study states that "none of the various etymological theories and guesses are worth mentioning."<ref>Farnell (Vol. 4), 98.</ref> This rather dire conclusion is echoed by Rose, who argues that "since his name apparently is not Greek, or at least, no reasonably certain Greek etymology has yet been found for it, we may suppose that the invaders, on their way into Greece, found and adopted him, no one can say where or when, but certainly before they reached Greece proper; and we may also not improbably suppose that, once in Greece, they identified the god they had made their own with local deities of somewhat similar character."<ref>Rose, 136.</ref>
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Several instances of [[popular etymology]] are attested from ancient authors. Thus, [[Plato]] in ''[[Cratylus]]'' connects the name with ἀπόλυσις "redeem", with ἀπόλουσις "purification", and with ἁπλοῦν "simple", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name,  Ἄπλουν, and finally with Ἀει-βάλλων "ever-shooting". The ἁπλοῦν  suggestion is repeated by [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' in the sense of "[[1 (number)|unity]]".{{Fact|date=April 2007}} [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric απελλα, which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκος ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.
 
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==Cult sites==
 
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Unusual among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: [[Delos]] and [[Delphi]].  In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.<ref>Burkert 1985:43.</ref> [[Theophoric names]] such as ''Apollodorus'' or ''Apollonios'' and cities named [[Apollonia]] are met with throughout the Greek world. Apollo's [[Cult (religion)|cult]] was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 B.C.E.
 
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===Oracular shrines===
 
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Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in Delphi, and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. His oracular shrine in Abea in [[Phocis]], was important enough to be consulted by [[Croesus]] ([[Herodotus]], 1.46).
 
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Looking at the ancient oracular shrines to Apollo from the oldest to the youngest we find:
 
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* In [[Didyma]], an oracle on the coast of [[Anatolia]], south west of [[Lydia]]n ([[Luwian]]) [[Sardis]], in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple.
 
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* In [[Hieropolis]], Asia Minor, priests breathed in vapors that for small animals were highly poisonous. Small animals and birds were cast into the Plutonium, named after [[Pluto]]&mdash;the god of death and the underworld&mdash;as a demonstration of their power.  Prophecy was by movements of an archaic aniconic wooden ''[[xoanon]]'' of Apollo.
 
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* In [[Delos]], there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The [[Heiron]] (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was born.
 
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* In [[Corinth]], the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of [[Tenea]], from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War
 
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* In [[Bassae]] in the [[Peloponnese]]
 
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* In [[Abae]], near Delphi
 
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* In [[Delphi]], the [[Pythia]] became filled with the ''[[pneuma]]'' of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the [[Adyton]].  Apollo took this temple from [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].
 
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* At [[Patara]], in [[Lycia]], there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos.  As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman.
 
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* At [[Clarus]], on the west coast of [[Asia Minor]]; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a ''pneuma'', from which the priests drank.
 
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* In [[Segesta]] in [[Sicily]], the latest of the series,  another oracle of Apollo was seized originally from [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].
 
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Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo.
 
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* In [[Oropus]], north of [[Athens]], the oracle [[Amphiaraus]], was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.
 
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* in [[Labadea]], 20 miles east of Delphi, [[Trophonius]], another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.
 
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==Festivals==
 
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The chief Apollonian festivals were the [[Carneia]], [[Carpiae]], [[Daphnephoria]], [[Delia]], [[Hyacinthia]], [[Pyanepsia]], [[Pythia]] and [[Thargelia]].
 
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==Attributes and symbols==
 
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Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and [[arrow]]. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]), the [[plectrum]] and the sword. Another common emblem was the [[sacrificial tripod]], representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The [[laurel tree|laurel]] bay plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the [[laurel wreath|crown of victory]] at these games. The [[palm tree|palm]]  was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included [[wolf|wolves]], [[dolphin]]s, [[roe deer]], [[swan]]s, [[grasshopper]]s (symbolizing music and [[song]]), [[hawk]]s, [[raven]]s, [[crow]]s, [[snake]]s (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), [[mice]] and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin.
 
  
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As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization,  750–550 B.C.E.  According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists found the city of [[Troy]]. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of ''Wilusa'', which is now regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Illios]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]).
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However, several instances of popular etymology are attested in the works of ancient authors. For example, [[Plato]] in ''Cratylus'' connects the name with ἀπόλυσις "redeem," with ἀπόλουσις "purification," and with ἁπλοῦν "simple," in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, Ἄπλουν, and finally with Ἀει-βάλλων "ever-shooting." <ref>Plato. Retrieved August 15, 2007.''Cratylus''. Translated in English and Introduced by B. Jowett (1892). Accessed online at [http://olldownload.libertyfund.org/EBooks/Plato_0294.pdf The Online Library of Liberty]. 73-74. Discussed in an academic context in Christine J. Thomas, "The Case of the Etymologies in Plato's Cratylus," ''Philosophy Compass'' 2:2 (2007), 218–226.</ref> The ἁπλοῦν suggestion is repeated by [[Plutarch]] in ''Moralia'' in the sense of "unity".<ref>Plutarch, ''Moralia'', available online at [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Set.php?recordID=0062 The Online Library of Liberty].</ref> Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric απελλα, which means "assembly," so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκος ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.<ref>Discussed in Farnell, 99.</ref>
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In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason&mdash;characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives [[Apollonian and Dionysian]]. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for [[Hyperborea]], he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the [[Borghese Vase]].
 
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Apollo is often associated with the [[Golden Mean]]. This is the Greek [[ideal]] of [[moderation]] and a [[virtue]] that opposes [[gluttony]].
 
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==Roman Apollo==
 
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The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as [[Phoebus]]. There are traditions that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings of Rome]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]]. In [[430 B.C.E.]], a temple was dedicated to Apollo on the occasion of a [[pestilence]]. During the [[Second Punic War]] in [[212 B.C.E.]], the ''[[Ludi Apollinares]]'' ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor. In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the [[battle of Actium]], Augustus enlarged [[Temple of Apollo Sosianus|his old temple]], dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted [[quinquennial]] games in his honour. He also erected [[Temple of Apollo (Palatine)|a new temple]] on the [[Palatine Hill|Palatine hill]] and transferred the [[secular games]], for which [[Horace]] composed his ''[[Carmen Saeculare]]'', to Apollo and [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]].
 
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==Origins of the cult of Apollo==
 
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It appears that both [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] Apollo came to the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] during the [[Archaic period in Greece|Archaic Period]] (i.e. from c.[[1100s B.C.E.|1,100 B.C.E.]] to c.[[800s B.C.E.|800 B.C.E.]]) from [[Anatolia]]. [[Homer]] pictures him on the side of the [[Trojan]]s, against the [[Achaean]]s, during the [[Trojan War]] and he has close affiliations with a [[Luwian]] deity, ''[[Apaliuna]]'', who in turn seems to have traveled west from further east. The [[Late Bronze Age]] (from [[17th century B.C.E.|1,700 B.C.E.]] - [[1200s B.C.E.|1,200 B.C.E.]]E) [[Hittite]] and [[Hurrian]] ''Aplu'',{{Fact|date=February 2007}} like the Homeric Apollo, was a god of [[plague]]s, and resembles the mouse god ''Apollo Smintheus''. Here we have an [[apotrope|apotropaic]] situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it, merging over time through fusion with the [[Mycenae]]an "doctor" god Paieon (PA-JA-WO in [[Linear B]]); [[Paean]], in Homer, was the Greek physician of the gods. In other writers, the word is a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of [[healing]], but it is now known from Linear B that Paean was originally a separate deity.
 
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Homer left the question unanswered, whilst [[Hesiod]] separated the two and, in later poetry Paean was invoked independently as a god of healing. It is equally difficult to separate Paean or Paeon in the sense of "healer" from Paean in the sense of "song." It was believed to refer to the ancient association between the healing craft and the singing of [[spells]], but here we see a shift from the concerns to the original sense of "healer" gradually giving way to that of "[[hymn]]," from the phrase Ιή Παιάν.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
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Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods (i.e. [[Dionysus]], [[Helios]], [[Asclepius]]) associated with Apollo. About the [[4th century B.C.E.|fourth century B.C.E.]], the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo became recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the [[Python (mythology)|Python]] led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an [[army]] on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.
 
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Hurrian Aplu itself seems to be derived from the Babylonian "Aplu" meaning a "son of"&mdash;a title that was given to the Babylonian plague god, [[Nergal]] (son of [[Enlil]]). Apollo's links with  oracles again seem to be associated with wishing to know the outcome of an illness.
 
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[[Image:Apollo1.JPG|thumb|366px|right|Apollo with a radiant [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]] in a Roman floor mosaic, [[El Djem]], Tunisia, late 2nd century]]
 
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Apollo killed the Python of Delphi and took over that oracle, so he is vanquisher of unconscious terrors.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} He is golden-haired like the sun; he is an archer who shoots arrows of insight{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and/or death; he is a god of music and the lyre. Healing belongs to his realm: he was the father of Asclepius, the god of [[medicine]]. The Muses are part of his retinue, so that music, [[history]], [[dream]]s,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} poetry and [[dance]] all belong to him.
 
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[[Image:Roman Statue of Apollo.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Apollo (the "Adonis" of Centocelle), Roman after a Greek original ([[Ashmolean Museum]])]]
 
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== Apollo in art ==
 
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In art, Apollo is depicted as a handsome beardless young man, often with a lyre (as [[Apollo Citharoedus]]) or bow in his hand. The [[Apollo Belvedere]] is a [[marble]] [[sculpture]] that was rediscovered in the late [[15th century]]; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of [[Classical Antiquity]] for Europeans, from the [[Renaissance]] through the [[nineteenth century]]. The marble is a [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor [[Leochares]], made between 350 and 325 B.C.E.
 
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The lifesize so-called "[[Adonis]]" found in 1780 on the site of a ''[[Roman villa|villa suburbana]]'' near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle now in the [[Ashmolean Museum]], Oxford, (''illustration, left'') is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. It was probably never intended as a [[cult object]], but was a [[pastiche]] of several fourth-century and later Hellenistic model types, intended to please a Roman connoisseur of the second century CE, and to be displayed in his villa.
 
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In the late second century CE floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman ''Thysdrus'' (''illustration, above right''), he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]], though now even a god's divine [[nudity|nakedness]] is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from [[Hadrumentum]], is in the museum at [[Sousse]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |title=http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |accessdate= |format= |work= }}</ref> The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling [[Hairstyle|hair cut]] in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the third century B.C.E. to depict [[Alexander the Great]] (Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980). Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ will be beardless and haloed.
 
  
 
==Mythology==
 
==Mythology==
 
===Birth===
 
===Birth===
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When [[Hera]] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "[[terra firma]]", or the mainland, or any [[island]]. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island, and she gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.
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After one of Zeus's frequent sexual exploits, Leto (the soon-to-be mother of Apollo and [[Artemis]]) found herself pregnant. When the jealous [[Hera]] became aware of the titaness's state, she vengefully banned Leto from giving birth on "terra firma," or the mainland, or any [[island]]. Condemned by the Queen of the Gods to wander the earth, Leto fortuitously found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island, which allowed her to circumvent Hera's fiat and give birth there. Afterwards, Zeus, who may have been involved in the orchestration of such a geological improbability, secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.<ref>Gantz, 86.</ref>
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:Rejoice, blessed Leto, for you bare glorious children, the lord Apollo and Artemis who delights in arrows; her in Ortygia, and him in rocky Delos, as you rested against the great mass of the Cynthian  hill hard by a palm-tree by the streams of Inopus.<ref>''Homeric Hymn to Apollo'' (III 11.1-18), available online at the [http://omacl.org/Hesiod/hymns.html Online Medieval and Classics Library]. Accessed April 23, 2007.</ref>
  
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It is also stated that Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a [[necklace]], nine yards long, of [[amber]]. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (ἡβδομαγενης) of the month Thargelion &mdash;according to Delian tradition&mdash; or of the month Bysios&mdash; according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and [[full moon]], were ever afterwards held sacred to him.
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In a parallel account, it is suggested that Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]] (the goddess of childbirth) in order to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods, sympathetic to her plight, tricked Hera into releasing the birthing-god by offering her an enormous amber necklace.<ref>Powell, 167; See also the ''Homeric Hymn to Apollo'': "But Leto was racked nine days and nine nights with pangs beyond wont.  And there were with her all the chiefest of the goddesses, Dione and Rhea and Ichnaea and Themis and loud-moaning Amphitrite and the other deathless goddesses save white-armed Hera, who sat in the halls of cloud-gathering Zeus.  Only Eilithyia, goddess of sore travail, had not heard of Leto's trouble, for she sat on the top of Olympus beneath golden clouds by white-armed Hera's contriving, who kept her close through envy, because Leto with the lovely tresses was soon to bear a son faultless and strong" (ll. 89-101).</ref> Mythographers posit that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo on the island of Ortygia, and that she assisted her mother in crossing the sea to Delos the next day to birth her twin. Apollo was born on the seventh day (ἡβδομαγενης) of the month Thargelion &mdash;according to Delian tradition&mdash; or of the month Bysios&mdash; according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full [[Moon|moon]], were ever afterwards held sacred to him.<ref>Parke, 146-149.</ref>
  
 
=== Youth ===
 
=== Youth ===
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In his youth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]] because Python had attempted to rape Leto while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophesies.  Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].
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Though Apollo came to be associated with music, magic and medicine, his youth was filled with violence and bloodshed. For instance, Apollo, while still a youth, killed the chthonic dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]] that lived in [[Delphi]] beside the Castalian Spring. The young god was motivated by his prey's attempt to rape Leto (his mother) while she was pregnant. Though successful in combat, Apollo had to be punished for his victory, since Python was a child of [[Gaia]].<ref>Apollodorus, 1.4.1.</ref>
  
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Apollo has his ominous aspects, too. [[Marsyas]], a [[satyr]] who dared challenge him to a music contest, was flayed after he lost. Apollo brought down arrows of plague upon the Greeks because they dishonored his priest [[Chryses]]. Apollo's arrows of plague struck [[Niobe]], who, excessively proud of her seven sons and seven daughters, had disparaged Apollo's mother, Leto, for having only two children (Apollo and Artemis).
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More blatantly, the young Apollo was occasionally famed for his wanton cruelty. In one case, he ordered the flesh flayed from [[Marsyas]], a [[satyr]], who dared challenge him to a music contest.<ref>Apollodorus, 1.4.2.</ref> He also afflicted men with his arrows of plague, infecting the Greeks (who had dishonored his priest [[Chryses]]) and, in particular, [[Niobe]], who had disparaged Apollo's mother, Leto, for having only two children (Apollo and Artemis) compared to her own brood of (12 or) 14. In the latter case, Apollo and his sister also cold-bloodedly slay all of her children as well.<ref>Apollodoros, 3.5.6; Rose, 144.</ref>
  
 
=== Apollo and Admetus ===
 
=== Apollo and Admetus ===
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When Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius, with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead (transgressing [[Themis]] by stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever, but was instead sentenced to one year of [[Penal labour|hard labor]] as punishment, thanks to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as shepherd for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.
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After a feud with Zeus (culminating in Zeus' murder of [[Asclepius]] and Apollo's retaliatory killing of the [[Cyclops]]), Apollo was threatened with permanent banishment to the darkness of [[Tartarus]]. Fortunately for the god of light, his mother intervened on his behalf, and convinced the King of the Gods to accept one year of hard labor as an alternate punishment. During this time, Apollo served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae (in Thessaly). Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on him. Specifically, Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the [[Moirae|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time if another took his place.<ref>Powell, 410; Apollodorus, 1.9.15.</ref>
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Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughter of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirae|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his elderly parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to "persuade" [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.
 
  
 
=== Apollo during the Trojan War ===
 
=== Apollo during the Trojan War ===
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Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in retribution for [[Agamemnon]]'s insult to [[Chryses]], a priest of Apollo whose daughter  [[Chryseis]] had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''.  
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Though Apollo was not a central player in the events surrounding the [[Trojan war]], his intervention was decisive in turning the tide of battle on more than one occasion. In one case, the invading Greeks captured Chryseis (the daughter of Chryses, a priest of Apollo) and refused to release her. The grief-stricken priest prayed to his patron, who responded by launching volley upon volley of plague arrows into the Greek encampment, decimating many of the invaders. Responding to this, [[Agamemnon]] agreed to return the girl to her father, but then confiscated Briseis (the prize of Achilles) to be his own. This singular act spawned the storied wrath of the slighted warrior, who then refused to fight for the Greek army, thus yielding one of the central events of the ''[[Iliad]]''.<ref>Powell, 519-520.</ref>
  
−
When [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]] (''[[Iliad]]''), Apollo rescued him. First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to [[Pergamos (Troy)|Pergamos]], a sacred spot in [[Troy]].  
+
In a later Roman version of the conflict, Apollo is also credited with guiding Menelaüs' aim when the king fires the shot that ultimately kills [[Achilles]].<ref>Powell, 512 ff. 9.</ref>
  
−
Apollo aided [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] in the killing of [[Achilles]] by guiding the arrow of his bow into [[Achilles]]' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering [[Troilus]], the god's own son by [[Hecuba]], on the very altar of the god's own temple.
+
=== Apollo's consorts and children ===
 +
Despite the god's physical beauty, he was often depicted as tremendously unlucky in love. This theme was particularly well-developed in materials from the later classical period.
  
−
=== Niobe ===
 
−
A queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], [[Niobe]] boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two.  Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters.  Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually).  Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.  A devastated Niobe fled to [[Mount Sipylon]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept.  Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]].  Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.
 
−
 
−
=== Apollo's consorts and children ===
 
 
====Female lovers====
 
====Female lovers====
−
Apollo chased the nymph [[Daphne]], daughter of [[Peneus]], who had scorned him. His infatuation was caused by an arrow from [[Eros (god)|Eros]], who was jealous because Apollo had made fun of his archery skills. Eros also claimed to be irritated by Apollo's singing. Simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a lead (hate) arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother Earth, or, alternatively, her father - a river god - to help her and he changed her into a [[Bay Laurel|Laurel tree]], which became sacred to Apollo: see [[Apollo and Daphne]].
+
In a typical account, Apollo's advances on the the nymph [[Daphne]], daughter of [[Peneus]], were unilaterally rebuffed. Though the god did not know it, his infatuation had been caused by an arrow from [[Eros (god)|Eros]], who was piqued with Apollo for mocking his archery skills. To further savor his revenge, had also shot a lead (hate) arrow into Daphne, which caused her feelings of intense repulsion. Following a spirited chase, Daphne prayed to Mother Earth (or alternatively to her father, a river god) to help her, and she was transformed into a [[Bay Laurel|laurel tree]], which thereafter became sacred to Apollo.<ref>Gantz, 90-91.</ref>
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Apollo had an affair with a human princess named [[Leucothea]], daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well.  [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.
 
−
 
 
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[[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved.  She fled from him and dived into the spring at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire poets.
 
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By [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], Apollo had a son named [[Aristaeus]], who became the patron god of cattle, [[fruit trees]], hunting, husbandry and [[bee-keeping]]. He was also a [[culture-hero]] and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives.
 
−
 
 
−
With [[Hecuba]], wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], Apollo had a son named [[Troilius]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilius reached the age of twenty alive.  He was ambushed and killed by [[Achilles]].
 
−
 
 
−
Apollo also fell in love with [[Cassandra]], daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilius' half-sister.  He promised Cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards.  Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that no one would ever believe her.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Coronis]], daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]], was another of Apollo's liaisons.  Pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]].  A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.
 
  
−
In [[Euripides]]' play ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'', Apollo fathered [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] by [[Creusa]], wife of [[Xuthus]]. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked [[Hermes]] to save the child and bring him to the oracle at [[Delphi]], where he was raised by a priestess.
+
The catalogue of failed romances continues with Marpessa, who chose Idas (a mortal) over Apollo; Castilia, a nymph fled into a mountain spring rather than accept his advances; [[Cassandra]], who he offered the gift of prophecy, rejected him anyway (and was resultantly cursed); Coronis, the human princess who bore the god's son [[Asclepius]], cuckolded him with a human prince. However, and in spite of his numerous romantic disasters, the god did succeed in fathering several children, including Troilius, Asclepius, Aristaeus (the patron god of cattle), and Ion.<ref>Powell, 173-176.</ref>
  
 
====Male lovers====
 
====Male lovers====
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[[Image:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Apollo and Hyacinthus'''<br>Jacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving]]
+
Apollo had the most conspicuous male relationships of all the [[Greek Gods]]. He was the god of the ''palaestra'', the athletic gathering place for youth (who, not incidentally, competed in the nude), and his male lovers were all younger than him. Hyacinthus, a [[Sparta]]n prince, was one of these male lovers—beautiful and athletic. It is said the pair were practicing throwing the discus when Hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus blown off course by [[Zephyrus]], who was jealous of Apollo and loved Hyacinthus as well. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality, wishing to join his lover in mortal death. Further, he transformed Zephyrus into the wind so that he could never truly touch or speak to anyone again. Out of the blood of his slain lover, it is said Apollo created the [[hyacinth flower]] as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with ''άί'' ''άί'', meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus, which commemorated these event, was an important celebration in Spartan religious life.<ref>Gantz, 94.</ref>
  
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Apollo, the eternal beardless [[kouros]] himself, had the most prominent male relationships of all the [[Greek Gods]]. That was to be expected from a god who was god of the [[palaestra]], the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed [[Nudity in sport|in the nude]], a god said to represent the ideal educator and therefore the ideal [[erastes]], or lover of a boy (Sergent, p.102). All his lovers were younger than him, in the style of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek pederastic relationships]] of the time. Many of Apollo's young beloveds died "accidentally", a reflection on the function of these myths as part of [[rite of passage|rites of passage]], in which the youth died in order to be reborn as an adult.
+
Another male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion, but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[Pilum|javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo turned the despondent boy into a [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] tree, which is associated with grief because the droplets of sap that form upon the trunk have the appearance of amber tears.<ref>Micha F. Lindemans, "Cyparissus" in [[http://www.pantheon.org/articles/c/cyparissus.html Encyclopedia Mythica]]. Accessed online April 24, 2007.</ref>
−
 
 
−
[[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] was one of his male lovers. Hyacinthus was a [[Sparta]]n prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair were practicing throwing the [[discus]] when Hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus blown off course by [[Zephyrus]], who was jealous of Apollo and loved Hyacinthus as well. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said in some accounts to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality, wishing to join his lover in mortal death and made Zephyrus into the wind so that he could never truly touch or speak to anyone again. Out of the blood of his slain lover Apollo created the [[hyacinth (flower)|hyacinth flower]] as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with ''άί'' ''άί'', meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.
 
−
 
 
−
One of his other liaisons was with [[Acantha]], the spirit of the [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] tree. Upon his death, he was transformed into a sun-loving herb by Apollo, and his bereaved sister, Acanthis, was turned into a [[European Goldfinch|thistle finch]] by the other gods.
 
−
 
 
−
Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[Pilum|javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo turned the sad boy into a [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] tree, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.
 
  
 
=== Apollo and the birth of Hermes ===
 
=== Apollo and the birth of Hermes ===
−
[[Hermes]] was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]]. His mother, [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]]. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre and Hermes invented a kind of pipes-instrument called a [[syrinx]].
+
Apollo was also the first victim of [[Hermes]], the god of thieves and tricksters. When the latter deity was born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, he was hidden in cave by his mother, [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]], who feared the wrath of Hera if she discovered the paternity of the new-born god. Thus, she wrapped the infant in blankets and stowed him away, but the clever Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Thereafter, Hermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the entrails. He used the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell to make the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe the elder god's accusation. Zeus intervened and—claiming to have seen the events—sided with Apollo. Before the god of music could demand restitution, Hermes began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo immediately fell in love with the instrument and offered to simply exchange: the cattle for the lyre, and proceeded to forgive the young god for his transgression. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre and Hermes invented a kind of pipes-instrument called a ''syrinx.''<ref>See the ''Homeric Hymn to Hermes'', [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/homer/hymns.htm Homeric Hymns], accessed April 22, 2007.</ref>
−
 
 
−
Later, Apollo exchanged a [[caduceus]] for a [[syrinx]] from Hermes.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Other stories ===
 
−
Apollo gave the order through the Oracle at Delphi, for [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] to kill his mother, [[Clytemnestra]], and her lover, [[Aegisthus]].  Orestes was punished fiercely by the [[Erinyes]] (the [[Furies]], [[female]] personifications of [[vengeance]]) for this crime.  Relentlessly pursued by the Furies, Orestes asked for the intercession of [[Athena]], who decreed that he be tried by a [[jury]] of his [[peer]]s, with Apollo acting as his attorney.
 
−
 
 
−
In the [[Odyssey]], [[Odysseus]] and his surviving crew landed on an island sacred to Helios the sun god, where he kept sacred cattle. Though Odysseus warned his men not to (as [[Tiresias]] and [[Circe]] had told him), they killed and ate some of the cattle and Helios had [[Zeus]] destroy the ship and all the men save [[Odysseus]].
 
−
 
 
−
Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who committed suicide when he lost.
 
−
 
 
−
Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mt. Olympus]].
 
−
 
 
−
It was also said that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperboreans]] during the winter months, a swan that he also lent to his beloved Hyacinthus to ride.
 
−
 
 
−
Apollo turned [[Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]].
 
  
 
==== Musical contests ====
 
==== Musical contests ====
 
===== Pan =====
 
===== Pan =====
−
Once [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[lyre]], to a trial of skill. [[Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]].
+
Once [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, thus  challenging Apollo—the god of the lyre—to a trial of skill. Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. The ill-fated monarch dissented, questioning the justice of the award. Affronted, Apollo decided that he would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to transform into the ears of a donkey.<ref>Rose, 145; Gantz, 95.</ref>
  
−
===== Marsyas =====
+
==Attributes and symbols==
−
[[Image:The Flaying of Marsyas.jpg|thumb|230px|''The Flaying of Marsyas'' by [[Titian]], c.1570-76.]]
+
Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow, the ''kithara'' (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]), the plectrum and the sword. Other well-established emblems were the sacrificial tripod representing his prophetic powers, and the [[Golden Mean]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, grasshoppers (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (in reference to Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and [[griffin]]s (mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin).<ref>Rose, 134-144; Gantz, 87-96; Powell, 164-177.</ref>
−
[[Marsyas]] was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. Marsyas lost and was [[flaying|flayed]] alive in a cave near [[Calaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. His blood turned into the river Marsyas.
 
  
−
Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the [[flute]]), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive. [taken from ''MAN MYTH & MAGIC'' by Richard Cavendish]
+
The Pythian Games that were held every four years at [[Delphi]], were conducted in the god's honor. It was at these games that the laurel bay plant, generally used in expiatory sacrifices, was used to construct the crown of victory.<ref>Dillon, 99-101.</ref>
  
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== Graeco-Roman Epithets and Cult Titles ==
+
== Graeco-Roman epithets and cult titles ==
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Apollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of [[epithet]]s applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in [[Latin literature]], chief among them '''[[Phoebus]]''' ("shining one"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light.
+
Apollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of [[epithet]]s applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to him. However, while Apollo had a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occurred in Latin literature, chief among them ''Phoebus'' ("shining one"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans to denote Apollo's role as the god of light.<ref>These various roles and functions are discussed throughout Farnell's fourth volume.</ref>
  
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In Apollo's role as healer, his appellations included '''Akesios''' and '''Iatros''', meaning "healer". He was also called '''Alexikakos''' ("restrainer of evil") and '''Apotropaeus''' ("he who averts evil"), and was referred to by the Romans as '''Averruncus''' ("averter of evils"). As a plague god and defender against rats and locusts, Apollo was known as '''Smintheus''' ("mouse-catcher") and '''Parnopius''' ("grasshopper"). The Romans also called Apollo '''Culicarius''' ("driving away [[midge (insect)|midges]]"). In his healing aspect, the Romans referred to Apollo as '''Medicus''' ("the Physician"), and a [[Roman temple|temple]] was dedicated to ''Apollo Medicus'' at Rome, probably next to the temple of [[Bellona]].
+
In Apollo's role as healer, his appellations included ''Akesios'' and ''Iatros'', meaning "healer." He was also called ''Alexikakos'' ("restrainer of evil") and ''Apotropaeus'' ("he who averts evil"), and was referred to by the Romans as ''Averruncus'' ("averter of evils"). As a plague god and defender against rats and locusts, Apollo was known as ''Smintheus'' ("mouse-catcher") and ''Parnopius'' ("grasshopper"). The Romans also called Apollo ''Culicarius'' ("driving away midges"). In his healing aspect, the Romans referred to Apollo as ''Medicus'' ("the Physician"), and a [[Roman temple|temple]] was dedicated to ''Apollo Medicus'' at Rome, probably next to the temple of [[Bellona]].
  
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As a god of archery, Apollo was known as '''Aphetoros''' ("god of the bow") and '''Argurotoxos''' ("with the silver bow"). The Romans referred to Apollo as '''Articenens''' ("carrying the bow") as well. As a pastoral shepherd-god, Apollo was known as '''Nomios''' ("wandering").
+
As a god of archery, Apollo was known as ''Aphetoros'' ("god of the bow") and ''Argurotoxos'' ("with the silver bow"). The Romans referred to Apollo as ''Articenens'' ("carrying the bow") as well. As a pastoral shepherd-god, Apollo was known as ''Nomios'' ("wandering").
  
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Apollo was also known as '''Archegetes''' ("director of the foundation"), who oversaw colonies. He was known as '''Klarios''', from the Doric ''klaros'' ("allotment of land"), for his supervision over cities and colonies.
+
Apollo was also known as ''Archegetes'' ("director of the foundation"), who oversaw colonies. He was known as ''Klarios'', from the Doric ''klaros'' ("allotment of land"), for his supervision over cities and colonies.
  
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He was known as '''Delphinios''' ("Delphinian"), meaning "of the womb", in his association with ''Delphoi'' ([[Delphi]]). At Delphi, he was also known as '''Pythios''' ("Pythian"). An [[aitiology]] in the [[Homeric hymns]] connects the epitheton to [[dolphin]]s. '''Kynthios''', another common epithet, stemmed from his birth on Mt. [[Cynthus]]. He was also known as '''Lyceios''' or '''Lykegenes''', which either meant "wolfish" or "of [[Lycia]]", Lycia being the place where some postulate that his cult originated.
+
He was known as ''Delphinios'' ("Delphinian"), meaning "of the womb," for his association with the temple at ''Delphoi'' ([[Delphi]]). At Delphi itself, he was also known as ''Pythios'' ("Pythian"). ''Kynthios'', another common epithet, stemmed from his birth on Mt. [[Cynthus]]. He was also known as ''Lyceios'' or ''Lykegenes'', which either meant "wolfish" or "of [[Lycia]]," Lycia being the place where some postulate that his cult originated.
  
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Specifically as god of prophecy, Apollo was known as '''Loxias''' ("the obscure"). He was also known as '''Coelispex''' ("he who watches the heavens") to the Romans. Apollo was attributed the epithet '''Musagetes''' as the leader of the [[muse]]s, and '''Nymphegetes''' as "[[nymph]]-leader".
+
In his role as god of a prophecy, Apollo was known as ''Loxias'' ("the obscure"). He was also known as ''Coelispex'' ("he who watches the heavens") to the Romans. Apollo was attributed the epithet ''Musagetes'' as the leader of the [[muse]]s, and ''Nymphegetes'' as "[[nymph]]-leader."
  
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'''Acesius''' was a surname of Apollo, under which he was worshipped in [[Elis]], where he had a temple in the [[agora]]. This surname, which has the same meaning as ''akestor'' and ''alezikakos'', characterized the god as the averter of evil.<ref name=Smith>"Acesius". ''Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology''. London, 1880. </ref>
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''Acesius'' was a surname of Apollo, under which he was worshipped in [[Elis]], where he had a temple in the [[agora]]. This surname, which has the same meaning as ''akestor'' and ''alezikakos'', characterized the god as the averter of evil.<ref name=Smith>"Acesius." ''Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology''. London, 1880.</ref>
  
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== Celtic Epithets and Cult Titles ==  
+
==Cult sites==
 +
Unusual among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: [[Delos]] and [[Delphi]].  In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they both had shrines in some localities.<ref>Burkert, 43.</ref> The expansiveness of the god's cult is demonstrated by the incidence of theophoric names (such as ''Apollodorus'' or ''Apollonios'') and toponyms (such as [[Apollonia]]), which were common in the Greek world. Apollo's [[Cult|cult]] was already fully established at the beginning of the historical period of Greek civilization (about 650 B.C.E.). Further, as Farnell summarizes, Apollo was "a Panhellenic god [who] survived almost down to the close of paganism as a brilliant and clearly-outlined figure of the genuinely national religion: and in reviewing his cults one is surveying the career of a people in its transition from the lower barbarism into the highest social and intellectual life."<ref>Farnell, 98.</ref>
  
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'''Apollo''' was worshipped throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. In the traditionally [[Celtic nations|Celtic]] lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character. <ref>Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Miranda J. Green, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997</ref>
+
One of his most important temples dedicated to the Pythian Apollo is described in a Homeric Hymn:
 +
:And thence you went speeding swiftly to the mountain
 +
:ridge, and came to Crisa beneath snowy Parnassus, a foothill
 +
:turned towards the west: a cliff hangs over if from above, and a
 +
:hollow, rugged glade runs under. There the lord Phoebus Apollo
 +
:resolved to make his lovely temple, and thus he said:
 +
:&nbsp;
 +
:"In this place I am minded to build a glorious
 +
:temple to be an oracle for men, and here they will always bring
 +
:perfect hecatombs, both they who dwell in rich Peloponnesus and
 +
:the men of Europe and from all the wave-washed isles, coming to
 +
:question me.  And I will deliver to them all counsel that cannot
 +
:fail, answering them in my rich temple."
 +
:&nbsp;
 +
:When he had said this, Phoebus Apollo laid out all
 +
:the foundations throughout, wide and very long; and upon these
 +
:the sons of Erginus, Trophonius and Agamedes, dear to the
 +
:deathless gods, laid a footing of stone.  And the countless
 +
:tribes of men built the whole temple of wrought stones, to be
 +
:sung of for ever.<ref>''Homeric Hymn to the Pythian Apollo''. Available online at [http://omacl.org/Hesiod/hymns.html Online Medieval and Classics Library]. Accessed April 24, 2007.</ref>
  
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'''[[Apollo Atepomarus]]''' ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at [[Mauvrieres]] (Indre) under this name. Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. <ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII, 1863-1986</ref><ref>Pagan Celtic Britain, A. Ross, 1967</ref><ref>The Gods of the Celts, M.J. Green, 1986, London</ref>
+
===Oracular shrines===
 +
The most famous [[Oracle|oracular shrine]] in the Greek world, located at Delphi, was dedicated to Apollo. Other notable temples could be found in Clarus and Branchidae. In addition, his oracular shrine in Abea (Phocis), was considered to be important enough that is was consulted by [[Croesus]].<ref>The History of [[Herodotus]], translated by George Campbell Macaulay, 1:46. Accessed online at [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext01/1hofh10.txt Project Gutenberg]. Retrieved August 15, 2007.</ref>
  
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'''[[Apollo Belenus]]''' ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of [[Gaul]], North [[Italy]] and [[Noricum]] (part of modern [[Austria]]. Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. <ref>Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae, J. Zwicker, 1934-36, Berlin</ref><ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum V, XI, XII, XIII</ref><ref>''Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule'', Ogam (vol 6), J. Gourcest, 1954</ref><ref>''Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l'Est'', Revue archeologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est (vol 2), E. Thevonot, 1951</ref><ref>''Temoignages du culte de l'Apollon gaulois dans l'Helvetie romaine'', Revue celtique (vol 51), 1934</ref>
+
The following is an annotated list of the various oracular shrines dedicated to Apollo throughout the Hellenic world:<ref>Described in Farnell, 98-355.</ref>
 +
* Didyma, on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, where priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple.
 +
* [[Hieropolis]], Asia Minor, where priests breathed in vapors that for small animals were highly poisonous. Small animals and birds were cast into the Plutonium, a sacrificial pit named after [[Pluto]]&mdash;the god of death and the underworld&mdash;as a demonstration of their power.  Prophecy was by movements of an archaic aniconic wooden ''xoanon'' of Apollo.
 +
* [[Delos]], where there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The [[Heiron]] (Sanctuary) of Apollo was located adjacent to the Sacred Lake, which was revered as the deity's birthplace
 +
* [[Corinth]], at the town of Tenea
 +
* Bassae, in the Peloponnese
 +
* Abae, near Delphi
 +
* [[Delphi]], where the [[Pythia]] became filled with the ''pneuma'' (breath or fumes) of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton. In the mythic past, Apollo is thought to have taken this temple from [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].
 +
* Patara, in Lycia, where there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi, the Patarian oracle was a woman.
 +
* Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor, where, as at [[Delphi]], there was a holy spring that gave off a ''pneuma'', from which the priests drank.
 +
* Segesta, in Sicily
  
−
'''[[Apollo Cunomaglus]]''' ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine in [[Wiltshire]]. Apollo Cunomaglus may have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. <ref>The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Whilshire 1956-1971, Society of Antiquaries of London</ref>
+
==Roman Apollo==
 +
The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as [[Phoebus]]. Regardless, the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the ''Roman Kingdom'', during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus. In 430 B.C.E.., a Roman temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus on the occasion of a pestilence. This structure was located outside the heart of Rome, past "the porta Carmentalis between the [[Forum Holitorium]] and the [[Circus Flaminius]]."<ref>[[Asconius]]., on Cicero's 'oratum in toga candida' 90‑91. Supporting this, Livy places the structure in the ''prata Flaminia'' ("Flaminian meadows"), as this area was then known. [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/livy/liv.3.shtml#63 Livy 3.63].(in Latin) See also: [http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Apollo novaroma.org]; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Apollo_Sosianus wikipedia.org]. Retrieved August 15, 2007.</ref> During the [[Second Punic War]] in 212 B.C.E., the ''Ludi Apollinares'' ("Apollonian Games") were also instituted in the god's honor.
  
−
'''[[Apollo Grannus]]'''. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo <ref>The Celtic Heritage in Hungary, M. Szabo, 1971, Budapest</ref><ref>Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris</ref><ref>La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris</ref>
+
In the time of Augustus, who considered himself to be under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, the worship of Apollo developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the battle of Actium, Augustus enlarged the Temple of Apollo Sosianus (the selfsame temple of Apollo Medicus described above), dedicated a portion of the spoils to the god, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected the Temple of Apollo in Palatine Hill, Rome, and rededicated the secular games, for which Horace composed his ''Carmen Saeculare'', to Apollo and Diana.<ref>For a general overview of Apollo in Roman religion, see Wissowa (in German) or Ando's ''Roman Religion'' (in English). For specifics on the temple of Apollo and the Apollonian Games, see Sander M. Goldberg's "Plautus on the Palatine," ''The Journal of Roman Studies''. Vol. 88  (1998), pp. 1-20. 10.</ref><ref>For more information, Horace's ''Carmen Saeculare'' (in English) can be accessed online at [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/dsndc10.txt Project Gutenberg]. Retrieved August 15, 2007.</ref>
  
−
'''Apollo Maponus'''. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may a local fusion of Apollo and [[Maponus]].
+
== Celtic epithets and cult titles ==
 +
*'''Apollo''' was worshipped throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. In the traditionally [[Celtic nations|Celtic]] lands, he was most often seen as a healing and sun god and was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character.<ref>Miranda J. Green, ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997).</ref>
  
−
'''[[Apollo Moritasgus]]''' ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. <ref><Alesia, archeologie et histoire, J. Le Gall, 1963, Paris</ref>
+
*'''Apollo Atepomarus''' ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvrieres (Indre) under this name. Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. <ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII, 1863-1986.</ref><ref>A. Ross, ''Pagan Celtic Britain'', (Hutchinson Radius, 1967).</ref><ref>M.J. Green, ''The Gods of the Celts'', (London: Sutton Publishing, 1986).</ref>
  
−
'''[[Apollo Vindonnus]]''' ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at [[Essarois]], near [[Chatillon-sur-Seine]] in [[Burgundy]]. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. <ref>Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris</ref>
+
*'''Apollo Belenus''' ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, North Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. <ref>J. Zwicker, ''Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae'', (Berlin: 1934-36).</ref><ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' V, XI, XII, XIII</ref><ref>J. Gourcest, "Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule," ''Ogam'' (vol 6), 1954.</ref><ref>E. Thevonot, "Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l'Est," ''Revue Archeologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est'' (Vol. 2), 1951.</ref>
  
−
'''[[Apollo Virotutis]]''' ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at [[Fins d'Annecy]] ([[Haute-Savoire]]) and at [[Jublains]] ([[Maine-et-Loire]]) <ref>La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris</ref><ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII</ref>
+
*'''Apollo Cunomaglus''' ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine in Wiltshire. Apollo Cunomaglus may have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.<ref>W. Wedlake, ''The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Wiltshire 1956-1971'', (London: Society of Antiquaries of London, 1982).</ref>
  
−
==In popular culture==
+
*'''Apollo Grannus'''. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo <ref>M. Szabo, ''The Celtic Heritage in Hungary'', (Budapest: Corvina, 1971).</ref><ref>E. Thevonat, ''Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule'', (Paris: P. Fayard, 1968).</ref><ref>J. de Vries, ''La religion des Celtes'', (Paris: Payot Histoire, (1963) 2006).</ref>
−
*In the 1960s, [[NASA]] named its [[Apollo program|Apollo Lunar program]] after Apollo, because he was considered the god of all wisdom. Many people mistakenly believe that the rockets that carried astronauts to the Moon were called Apollo rockets; they were actually [[Saturn V]] rockets, on top of which sat the Apollo spacecraft.
 
  
−
*Apollo is the subject of [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]'s poem of 1820 the "Hymn of Apollo"
+
*'''Apollo Maponus'''. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus.
  
−
*[[William Rimmer]]'s artistic depiction of Apollo was used as the symbol of the band [[Led Zeppelin]]'s [[record label]] [[Swan Song Records]].
+
*'''Apollo Moritasgus''' ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.<ref>J. Le Gall, ''Alesia, archeologie et histoire'', (Paris: P. Fayard, 1963).</ref>
  
−
*A being who could have possibly been Apollo encountered the ''[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)|Enterprise]]'' crew in the classic ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|STAR TREK]]'' episode ''[[Who Mourns for Adonais? (TOS episode)|Who Mourns For Adonais]]?''.
+
*'''Apollo Vindonnus''' ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Chatillon-sur-Seine in Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. <ref>E. Thevonat, ''Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule'', (Paris: P. Fayard, 1968).</ref>
  
−
*Apollo is the name of a [[Daedalus class battlecruiser]] in the science-fiction television series [[Stargate Atlantis]].
+
*'''Apollo Virotutis''' ('benefactor of mankind'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoire) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire) <ref>J. de Vries, ''La religion des Celtes'', (Paris: Payot Histoire, (1963) 2006).</ref><ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII''.</ref>
−
 
 
−
* [[Apollo (comics)|Apollo]] is the name of a superhuman (inspired by [[Superman]]) with connections to the sun, in the superhero comic ''[[Authority (comic book)|The Authority]]''.
 
−
 
 
−
*In both series of [[Battlestar Galatica]] one of the central protagonists, [[Lee Adama|Captain Lee Adama]], is often referred to by his original call sign Apollo.
 
−
 
 
−
*In a few episodes of the anime show [[Cyborg 009]] there are cyborg characters who (after being brain-washed) think that they are the Greek gods. One of them thinks that he is Apollo.
 
−
 
 
−
*The [[Apollo Theater]] in [[Harlem, New York|Harlem]] is named after him.
 
−
 
 
−
*[[Cult of Apollo]]™ is a modern Psychedelic Rock band closely related to the god Apollo, being the god of music.
 
−
 
 
−
*[[Apollo's Chariot]] is a rollercoaster at [[Busch Gardens Europe]] based on a myth about his chariot in the hands of a mortal.
 
−
 
 
−
*In the [[Rush (band)|Rush]] song "Cygnus X-1 Book II: Hemispheres", the logical element of humanity is portrayed and led by Apollo.
 
−
 
 
−
== Literature ==
 
−
===Primary sources===
 
−
*[[Homer]], ''Iliad'' ii.595 - 600 (c. 700 B.C.E.);
 
−
*[[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 B.C.E.);
 
−
*[[Apollodorus]], ''Library'' 1.3.3 (140 B.C.E.);
 
−
*[[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162-219 (AD 1 - 8);
 
−
*[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (AD 160 - 176); *[[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245);
 
−
*[[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245);
 
−
*[[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (AD 170);
 
−
*[[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae
 
−
 
 
−
===Secondary sources===
 
−
* [[D. Bassi]], ''Saggio di Bibliografia mitologica'', i. ''Apollo'' (1896)
 
−
* M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art'' (Chicago)
 
−
* {{1911}}
 
−
*[[Walter Burkert]], 1985. ''Greek Religion''  (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 ''passim''
 
−
* [[Gaston Colin]], ''Le Culte d'Apollon pythien à Athènes'' (1905)
 
−
* [[Daremberg]] and [[Saglio]]  ''Dictionnaire des antiquités''
 
−
* [[Louis Dyer]], ''Studies of the Gods in Greece'' (1891)
 
−
* [[L. Farnell]], ''Cults of the Greek States'', iv. (1907)
 
−
*[[Robert Graves]], 1960. ''The Greek Myths'', revised edition (Penguin)
 
−
*Miranda J. Green, ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997
 
−
* [[O. Gruppe]], ''Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte'', ii. (1906)
 
−
* [[R. Hecker]], ''De Apollinis apud Romanos Cultu'' (Leipzig, 1879)
 
−
*[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität'' rev. ed. 1953.
 
−
*Kerenyi, Karl, 1953. ''Apollon: Studien über Antike Religion und Humanität'', second edtion
 
−
*Karl Kerenyi , 1951 ''The Gods of the Greeks''
 
−
* [[J. Marquardt]], ''Römische Staalsverwaltung'', iii.
 
−
* [[Arthur Milchhoefer]], ''Über den attischen Apollon'' (Munich, 1873)
 
−
* [[Pauly-Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft'': II, "Apollon". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert).
 
−
*Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. ''Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst''. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo.
 
−
* [[L. Preller]], ''Griechische und romische Mythologie'' (4th ed. by [[C. Robert]])
 
−
* [[W. H. Roscher]], ''Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie der Griechen und Romer'', i. (Leipzig, 1873)
 
−
* W. H. Roscher,  ''Lexikon der Mythologie''
 
−
* [[F. L. W. Schwartz]], ''De antiquissima Apollinis Natura'' (Berlin, 1843)
 
−
* [[J. A. Schönborn]], ''Über das Wesen Apollons'' (Berlin, 1854)
 
−
* [[Theodor Schreiber]], ''Apollon Pythoktonos'' (Leipzig, 1879)
 
−
* [[William Smith (lexicographer)]], ''[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]'', 1870, article on Apollo,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0239.html |title=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0239.html |accessdate= |format= |work= }}</ref>
 
−
* [[G. Wissowa]], ''Religion und Kultus der Romer'' (1902)
 
−
* N. Yalouris, 1980. ''The Search for Alexander'' (Boston) Exhibition.
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
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==See also==
+
==References==
−
{{commons|Apollo}}
+
* Ando, Clifford (ed.) ''Roman Religion,'' Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2003. ISBN 07438615660
−
*[[Media:Apollo and Hyacinth - wiki.ogg|1. ''Apollo and Hyacinthus,'' read by Timothy Carter]]
+
* Apollodorus. ''Gods & Heroes of the Greeks,'' Translated and with an Introduction and Notes by Michael Simpson. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977. ISBN 0870232053
 +
* Burkert, Walter. ''Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical,'' Translated by John Raffan. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985. ISBN 0631112413
 +
* Cook, Arthur Bernard. "Who Was the Wife of Zeus? (Continued)." ''The Classical Review,'' 20/8 (November 1906): 416-419.  
 +
* Dillon, Matthew. ''Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in Ancient Greece,'' London; New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0415127750
 +
* Farnell, Lewis Richard. ''The Cults of the Greek States,'' (in Five Volumes) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907.
 +
* Gantz, Timothy. ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources,'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. ISBN 080184410X
 +
*Green, Miranda J. ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend,'' Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997. ISBN 0500279756
 +
* Kerenyi, Karl. ''The Heroes of the Greeks,'' New Ed., Thames & Hudson, 1997. ISBN 050027049X
 +
* Mikalson, Jon D. ''Ancient Greek Religion,'' Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005. ISBN 0631232222
 +
* Nilsson, Martin P. ''Greek Popular Religion,'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1940. Also accessible online at [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/gpr/sacred-texts.com].
 +
* Parke, H. W. ''Festivals of the Athenians,'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977. ISBN 0801410541
 +
* Powell, Barry B. ''Classical Myth,'' (Second Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998. ISBN 0137167148
 +
* Price, Simon. ''Religions of the Ancient Greeks,'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0521388678
 +
* Rose, H. J. ''A Handbook of Greek Mythology,'' New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1959. ISBN 0525470417
 +
*Ruck, Carl A.P. and Daniel Staples. ''The World of Classical Myth,'' Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1994. ISBN 0890895759
 +
* Rutkowski, Bogdan. ''The Cult Places of the Aegean,'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. ISBN 0300029624
 +
* Yalouris, N. ''The Search for Alexander': An Exhibition,'' Little Brown & Company, 1981. ISBN 9780316779104
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
* [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/ Greek Mythology resource]
+
All links retrieved August 11, 2023.  
−
* [http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/FCO2003/apollo.htm The Temple of Apollo, Rome]
+
 
−
* [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The stories of Apollo and Hyacinthus; and Apollo and Cyparissus; and Apollo and Orpheus]
+
* [http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/Apollon.html Apollon]
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* [http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Apollo/MultifacetedGod.html Apollo and the Romans]
+
* [http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/apollo.html Encyclopedia Mythica]
  
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]

Latest revision as of 06:03, 11 August 2023

Lycian Apollo, early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth century Greek original (Louvre Museum)

In Greek and Roman mythology, Apollo (Ancient Greek Ἀπόλλων, Apóllōn; or Ἀπέλλων, Apellōn) was the god of light, truth, archery, music, medicine and healing but also the bringer of deathly plague. The mythological son of Zeus and Leto, he was the twin brother of Artemis (goddess of the moon).

As one of the most popular of the Olympian deities and the patron of the ancient Oracle at Delphi, Apollo was considered to have dominion over medicine (through his son Asclepius), over colonists, was the defender of herds and flocks and the patron of music and poetry. More importantly, he was eventually identified with the Sun god Helios usurping the latter god's place in the Greek pantheon. However, Apollo and Helios remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts.[1]

In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason —characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of these two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus.[2] This contrast is visually represented in the Bourghese Vase.[3]

Etymology

The etymology of the theonym is uncertain, to the extent that Farnell's majesterial study states that "none of the various etymological theories and guesses are worth mentioning."[4] This rather dire conclusion is echoed by Rose, who argues that "since his name apparently is not Greek, or at least, no reasonably certain Greek etymology has yet been found for it, we may suppose that the invaders, on their way into Greece, found and adopted him, no one can say where or when, but certainly before they reached Greece proper; and we may also not improbably suppose that, once in Greece, they identified the god they had made their own with local deities of somewhat similar character."[5]

However, several instances of popular etymology are attested in the works of ancient authors. For example, Plato in Cratylus connects the name with ἀπόλυσις "redeem," with ἀπόλουσις "purification," and with ἁπλοῦν "simple," in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, Ἄπλουν, and finally with Ἀει-βάλλων "ever-shooting." [6] The ἁπλοῦν suggestion is repeated by Plutarch in Moralia in the sense of "unity".[7] Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric απελλα, which means "assembly," so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκος ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.[8]

Mythology

Birth

After one of Zeus's frequent sexual exploits, Leto (the soon-to-be mother of Apollo and Artemis) found herself pregnant. When the jealous Hera became aware of the titaness's state, she vengefully banned Leto from giving birth on "terra firma," or the mainland, or any island. Condemned by the Queen of the Gods to wander the earth, Leto fortuitously found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island, which allowed her to circumvent Hera's fiat and give birth there. Afterwards, Zeus, who may have been involved in the orchestration of such a geological improbability, secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.[9]

Rejoice, blessed Leto, for you bare glorious children, the lord Apollo and Artemis who delights in arrows; her in Ortygia, and him in rocky Delos, as you rested against the great mass of the Cynthian hill hard by a palm-tree by the streams of Inopus.[10]

In a parallel account, it is suggested that Hera kidnapped Ilithyia (the goddess of childbirth) in order to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods, sympathetic to her plight, tricked Hera into releasing the birthing-god by offering her an enormous amber necklace.[11] Mythographers posit that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo on the island of Ortygia, and that she assisted her mother in crossing the sea to Delos the next day to birth her twin. Apollo was born on the seventh day (ἡβδομαγενης) of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition— or of the month Bysios— according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.[12]

Youth

Though Apollo came to be associated with music, magic and medicine, his youth was filled with violence and bloodshed. For instance, Apollo, while still a youth, killed the chthonic dragon Python that lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. The young god was motivated by his prey's attempt to rape Leto (his mother) while she was pregnant. Though successful in combat, Apollo had to be punished for his victory, since Python was a child of Gaia.[13]

More blatantly, the young Apollo was occasionally famed for his wanton cruelty. In one case, he ordered the flesh flayed from Marsyas, a satyr, who dared challenge him to a music contest.[14] He also afflicted men with his arrows of plague, infecting the Greeks (who had dishonored his priest Chryses) and, in particular, Niobe, who had disparaged Apollo's mother, Leto, for having only two children (Apollo and Artemis) compared to her own brood of (12 or) 14. In the latter case, Apollo and his sister also cold-bloodedly slay all of her children as well.[15]

Apollo and Admetus

After a feud with Zeus (culminating in Zeus' murder of Asclepius and Apollo's retaliatory killing of the Cyclops), Apollo was threatened with permanent banishment to the darkness of Tartarus. Fortunately for the god of light, his mother intervened on his behalf, and convinced the King of the Gods to accept one year of hard labor as an alternate punishment. During this time, Apollo served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae (in Thessaly). Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on him. Specifically, Apollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time if another took his place.[16]

Apollo during the Trojan War

Though Apollo was not a central player in the events surrounding the Trojan war, his intervention was decisive in turning the tide of battle on more than one occasion. In one case, the invading Greeks captured Chryseis (the daughter of Chryses, a priest of Apollo) and refused to release her. The grief-stricken priest prayed to his patron, who responded by launching volley upon volley of plague arrows into the Greek encampment, decimating many of the invaders. Responding to this, Agamemnon agreed to return the girl to her father, but then confiscated Briseis (the prize of Achilles) to be his own. This singular act spawned the storied wrath of the slighted warrior, who then refused to fight for the Greek army, thus yielding one of the central events of the Iliad.[17]

In a later Roman version of the conflict, Apollo is also credited with guiding Menelaüs' aim when the king fires the shot that ultimately kills Achilles.[18]

Apollo's consorts and children

Despite the god's physical beauty, he was often depicted as tremendously unlucky in love. This theme was particularly well-developed in materials from the later classical period.

Female lovers

In a typical account, Apollo's advances on the the nymph Daphne, daughter of Peneus, were unilaterally rebuffed. Though the god did not know it, his infatuation had been caused by an arrow from Eros, who was piqued with Apollo for mocking his archery skills. To further savor his revenge, had also shot a lead (hate) arrow into Daphne, which caused her feelings of intense repulsion. Following a spirited chase, Daphne prayed to Mother Earth (or alternatively to her father, a river god) to help her, and she was transformed into a laurel tree, which thereafter became sacred to Apollo.[19]

The catalogue of failed romances continues with Marpessa, who chose Idas (a mortal) over Apollo; Castilia, a nymph fled into a mountain spring rather than accept his advances; Cassandra, who he offered the gift of prophecy, rejected him anyway (and was resultantly cursed); Coronis, the human princess who bore the god's son Asclepius, cuckolded him with a human prince. However, and in spite of his numerous romantic disasters, the god did succeed in fathering several children, including Troilius, Asclepius, Aristaeus (the patron god of cattle), and Ion.[20]

Male lovers

Apollo had the most conspicuous male relationships of all the Greek Gods. He was the god of the palaestra, the athletic gathering place for youth (who, not incidentally, competed in the nude), and his male lovers were all younger than him. Hyacinthus, a Spartan prince, was one of these male lovers—beautiful and athletic. It is said the pair were practicing throwing the discus when Hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus blown off course by Zephyrus, who was jealous of Apollo and loved Hyacinthus as well. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality, wishing to join his lover in mortal death. Further, he transformed Zephyrus into the wind so that he could never truly touch or speak to anyone again. Out of the blood of his slain lover, it is said Apollo created the hyacinth flower as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with άί άί, meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus, which commemorated these event, was an important celebration in Spartan religious life.[21]

Another male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion, but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo turned the despondent boy into a cypress tree, which is associated with grief because the droplets of sap that form upon the trunk have the appearance of amber tears.[22]

Apollo and the birth of Hermes

Apollo was also the first victim of Hermes, the god of thieves and tricksters. When the latter deity was born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, he was hidden in cave by his mother, Maia, who feared the wrath of Hera if she discovered the paternity of the new-born god. Thus, she wrapped the infant in blankets and stowed him away, but the clever Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Thereafter, Hermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the entrails. He used the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell to make the first lyre. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe the elder god's accusation. Zeus intervened and—claiming to have seen the events—sided with Apollo. Before the god of music could demand restitution, Hermes began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo immediately fell in love with the instrument and offered to simply exchange: the cattle for the lyre, and proceeded to forgive the young god for his transgression. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre and Hermes invented a kind of pipes-instrument called a syrinx.[23]

Musical contests

Pan

Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, thus challenging Apollo—the god of the lyre—to a trial of skill. Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. The ill-fated monarch dissented, questioning the justice of the award. Affronted, Apollo decided that he would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to transform into the ears of a donkey.[24]

Attributes and symbols

Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow, the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Other well-established emblems were the sacrificial tripod representing his prophetic powers, and the Golden Mean. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, grasshoppers (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (in reference to Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins (mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin).[25]

The Pythian Games that were held every four years at Delphi, were conducted in the god's honor. It was at these games that the laurel bay plant, generally used in expiatory sacrifices, was used to construct the crown of victory.[26]

Graeco-Roman epithets and cult titles

Apollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of epithets applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to him. However, while Apollo had a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occurred in Latin literature, chief among them Phoebus ("shining one"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans to denote Apollo's role as the god of light.[27]

In Apollo's role as healer, his appellations included Akesios and Iatros, meaning "healer." He was also called Alexikakos ("restrainer of evil") and Apotropaeus ("he who averts evil"), and was referred to by the Romans as Averruncus ("averter of evils"). As a plague god and defender against rats and locusts, Apollo was known as Smintheus ("mouse-catcher") and Parnopius ("grasshopper"). The Romans also called Apollo Culicarius ("driving away midges"). In his healing aspect, the Romans referred to Apollo as Medicus ("the Physician"), and a temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.

As a god of archery, Apollo was known as Aphetoros ("god of the bow") and Argurotoxos ("with the silver bow"). The Romans referred to Apollo as Articenens ("carrying the bow") as well. As a pastoral shepherd-god, Apollo was known as Nomios ("wandering").

Apollo was also known as Archegetes ("director of the foundation"), who oversaw colonies. He was known as Klarios, from the Doric klaros ("allotment of land"), for his supervision over cities and colonies.

He was known as Delphinios ("Delphinian"), meaning "of the womb," for his association with the temple at Delphoi (Delphi). At Delphi itself, he was also known as Pythios ("Pythian"). Kynthios, another common epithet, stemmed from his birth on Mt. Cynthus. He was also known as Lyceios or Lykegenes, which either meant "wolfish" or "of Lycia," Lycia being the place where some postulate that his cult originated.

In his role as god of a prophecy, Apollo was known as Loxias ("the obscure"). He was also known as Coelispex ("he who watches the heavens") to the Romans. Apollo was attributed the epithet Musagetes as the leader of the muses, and Nymphegetes as "nymph-leader."

Acesius was a surname of Apollo, under which he was worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora. This surname, which has the same meaning as akestor and alezikakos, characterized the god as the averter of evil.[28]

Cult sites

Unusual among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they both had shrines in some localities.[29] The expansiveness of the god's cult is demonstrated by the incidence of theophoric names (such as Apollodorus or Apollonios) and toponyms (such as Apollonia), which were common in the Greek world. Apollo's cult was already fully established at the beginning of the historical period of Greek civilization (about 650 B.C.E.). Further, as Farnell summarizes, Apollo was "a Panhellenic god [who] survived almost down to the close of paganism as a brilliant and clearly-outlined figure of the genuinely national religion: and in reviewing his cults one is surveying the career of a people in its transition from the lower barbarism into the highest social and intellectual life."[30]

One of his most important temples dedicated to the Pythian Apollo is described in a Homeric Hymn:

And thence you went speeding swiftly to the mountain
ridge, and came to Crisa beneath snowy Parnassus, a foothill
turned towards the west: a cliff hangs over if from above, and a
hollow, rugged glade runs under. There the lord Phoebus Apollo
resolved to make his lovely temple, and thus he said:
 
"In this place I am minded to build a glorious
temple to be an oracle for men, and here they will always bring
perfect hecatombs, both they who dwell in rich Peloponnesus and
the men of Europe and from all the wave-washed isles, coming to
question me. And I will deliver to them all counsel that cannot
fail, answering them in my rich temple."
 
When he had said this, Phoebus Apollo laid out all
the foundations throughout, wide and very long; and upon these
the sons of Erginus, Trophonius and Agamedes, dear to the
deathless gods, laid a footing of stone. And the countless
tribes of men built the whole temple of wrought stones, to be
sung of for ever.[31]

Oracular shrines

The most famous oracular shrine in the Greek world, located at Delphi, was dedicated to Apollo. Other notable temples could be found in Clarus and Branchidae. In addition, his oracular shrine in Abea (Phocis), was considered to be important enough that is was consulted by Croesus.[32]

The following is an annotated list of the various oracular shrines dedicated to Apollo throughout the Hellenic world:[33]

  • Didyma, on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, where priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple.
  • Hieropolis, Asia Minor, where priests breathed in vapors that for small animals were highly poisonous. Small animals and birds were cast into the Plutonium, a sacrificial pit named after Pluto—the god of death and the underworld—as a demonstration of their power. Prophecy was by movements of an archaic aniconic wooden xoanon of Apollo.
  • Delos, where there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Heiron (Sanctuary) of Apollo was located adjacent to the Sacred Lake, which was revered as the deity's birthplace
  • Corinth, at the town of Tenea
  • Bassae, in the Peloponnese
  • Abae, near Delphi
  • Delphi, where the Pythia became filled with the pneuma (breath or fumes) of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton. In the mythic past, Apollo is thought to have taken this temple from Gaia.
  • Patara, in Lycia, where there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi, the Patarian oracle was a woman.
  • Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor, where, as at Delphi, there was a holy spring that gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank.
  • Segesta, in Sicily

Roman Apollo

The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. Regardless, the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the Roman Kingdom, during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus. In 430 B.C.E., a Roman temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus on the occasion of a pestilence. This structure was located outside the heart of Rome, past "the porta Carmentalis between the Forum Holitorium and the Circus Flaminius."[34] During the Second Punic War in 212 B.C.E., the Ludi Apollinares ("Apollonian Games") were also instituted in the god's honor.

In the time of Augustus, who considered himself to be under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, the worship of Apollo developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the battle of Actium, Augustus enlarged the Temple of Apollo Sosianus (the selfsame temple of Apollo Medicus described above), dedicated a portion of the spoils to the god, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected the Temple of Apollo in Palatine Hill, Rome, and rededicated the secular games, for which Horace composed his Carmen Saeculare, to Apollo and Diana.[35][36]

Celtic epithets and cult titles

  • Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands, he was most often seen as a healing and sun god and was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character.[37]
  • Apollo Atepomarus ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvrieres (Indre) under this name. Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. [38][39][40]
  • Apollo Belenus ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, North Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. [41][42][43][44]
  • Apollo Cunomaglus ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine in Wiltshire. Apollo Cunomaglus may have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.[45]
  • Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo [46][47][48]
  • Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus.
  • Apollo Moritasgus ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.[49]
  • Apollo Vindonnus ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Chatillon-sur-Seine in Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. [50]
  • Apollo Virotutis ('benefactor of mankind'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoire) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire) [51][52]

Notes

  1. ↑ H. Hoffman, "Helios" in Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 2, (1963):117-123; cf. Yalouris, no. 42.
  2. ↑ Powell, 164.
  3. ↑ Borghese Vase. Retrieved August 15, 2007.
  4. ↑ Farnell (Vol. 4), 98.
  5. ↑ Rose, 136.
  6. ↑ Plato. Retrieved August 15, 2007.Cratylus. Translated in English and Introduced by B. Jowett (1892). Accessed online at The Online Library of Liberty. 73-74. Discussed in an academic context in Christine J. Thomas, "The Case of the Etymologies in Plato's Cratylus," Philosophy Compass 2:2 (2007), 218–226.
  7. ↑ Plutarch, Moralia, available online at The Online Library of Liberty.
  8. ↑ Discussed in Farnell, 99.
  9. ↑ Gantz, 86.
  10. ↑ Homeric Hymn to Apollo (III 11.1-18), available online at the Online Medieval and Classics Library. Accessed April 23, 2007.
  11. ↑ Powell, 167; See also the Homeric Hymn to Apollo: "But Leto was racked nine days and nine nights with pangs beyond wont. And there were with her all the chiefest of the goddesses, Dione and Rhea and Ichnaea and Themis and loud-moaning Amphitrite and the other deathless goddesses save white-armed Hera, who sat in the halls of cloud-gathering Zeus. Only Eilithyia, goddess of sore travail, had not heard of Leto's trouble, for she sat on the top of Olympus beneath golden clouds by white-armed Hera's contriving, who kept her close through envy, because Leto with the lovely tresses was soon to bear a son faultless and strong" (ll. 89-101).
  12. ↑ Parke, 146-149.
  13. ↑ Apollodorus, 1.4.1.
  14. ↑ Apollodorus, 1.4.2.
  15. ↑ Apollodoros, 3.5.6; Rose, 144.
  16. ↑ Powell, 410; Apollodorus, 1.9.15.
  17. ↑ Powell, 519-520.
  18. ↑ Powell, 512 ff. 9.
  19. ↑ Gantz, 90-91.
  20. ↑ Powell, 173-176.
  21. ↑ Gantz, 94.
  22. ↑ Micha F. Lindemans, "Cyparissus" in [Encyclopedia Mythica]. Accessed online April 24, 2007.
  23. ↑ See the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, Homeric Hymns, accessed April 22, 2007.
  24. ↑ Rose, 145; Gantz, 95.
  25. ↑ Rose, 134-144; Gantz, 87-96; Powell, 164-177.
  26. ↑ Dillon, 99-101.
  27. ↑ These various roles and functions are discussed throughout Farnell's fourth volume.
  28. ↑ "Acesius." Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. London, 1880.
  29. ↑ Burkert, 43.
  30. ↑ Farnell, 98.
  31. ↑ Homeric Hymn to the Pythian Apollo. Available online at Online Medieval and Classics Library. Accessed April 24, 2007.
  32. ↑ The History of Herodotus, translated by George Campbell Macaulay, 1:46. Accessed online at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved August 15, 2007.
  33. ↑ Described in Farnell, 98-355.
  34. ↑ Asconius., on Cicero's 'oratum in toga candida' 90‑91. Supporting this, Livy places the structure in the prata Flaminia ("Flaminian meadows"), as this area was then known. Livy 3.63.(in Latin) See also: novaroma.org; wikipedia.org. Retrieved August 15, 2007.
  35. ↑ For a general overview of Apollo in Roman religion, see Wissowa (in German) or Ando's Roman Religion (in English). For specifics on the temple of Apollo and the Apollonian Games, see Sander M. Goldberg's "Plautus on the Palatine," The Journal of Roman Studies. Vol. 88 (1998), pp. 1-20. 10.
  36. ↑ For more information, Horace's Carmen Saeculare (in English) can be accessed online at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved August 15, 2007.
  37. ↑ Miranda J. Green, Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997).
  38. ↑ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII, 1863-1986.
  39. ↑ A. Ross, Pagan Celtic Britain, (Hutchinson Radius, 1967).
  40. ↑ M.J. Green, The Gods of the Celts, (London: Sutton Publishing, 1986).
  41. ↑ J. Zwicker, Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae, (Berlin: 1934-36).
  42. ↑ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum V, XI, XII, XIII
  43. ↑ J. Gourcest, "Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule," Ogam (vol 6), 1954.
  44. ↑ E. Thevonot, "Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l'Est," Revue Archeologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est (Vol. 2), 1951.
  45. ↑ W. Wedlake, The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Wiltshire 1956-1971, (London: Society of Antiquaries of London, 1982).
  46. ↑ M. Szabo, The Celtic Heritage in Hungary, (Budapest: Corvina, 1971).
  47. ↑ E. Thevonat, Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, (Paris: P. Fayard, 1968).
  48. ↑ J. de Vries, La religion des Celtes, (Paris: Payot Histoire, (1963) 2006).
  49. ↑ J. Le Gall, Alesia, archeologie et histoire, (Paris: P. Fayard, 1963).
  50. ↑ E. Thevonat, Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, (Paris: P. Fayard, 1968).
  51. ↑ J. de Vries, La religion des Celtes, (Paris: Payot Histoire, (1963) 2006).
  52. ↑ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Ando, Clifford (ed.) Roman Religion, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2003. ISBN 07438615660
  • Apollodorus. Gods & Heroes of the Greeks, Translated and with an Introduction and Notes by Michael Simpson. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977. ISBN 0870232053
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External links

All links retrieved August 11, 2023.

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