Scripture

The Septuagint: A page from Codex vaticanus.

Scriptures (from the Latin scriptura, meaning "a writing") are sacred texts that serve a variety of purposes in the individual and collective lives of a religious tradition. Scriptures may be used to invoke a deeper connection with the divine, convey spiritual truths, promote mystical experience, foster communal identity, and to guide individual and communal spiritual practice. Many religions claim their scriptures originate from divine inspiration. The Monotheistic faiths view their sacred texts as the "Word of God" and divine revelation. Around the world, scriptures are held in the highest regard and often defended with one's life.

In contemporary English usage, the term "scripture" describes any religious sacred text, such as Hindu scripture, Jewish scripture, etc. However, when capitalized in English, the word "Scripture" often refers to the sacred texts of the Bible, also referred to as Holy Scripture.

Defining Scripture

"Scripture" is not limited to the written sacred word and comes in a variety of forms and styles. At different times, prose, poetry, histories and instructional manuals were all considered to be scripture. Furthermore, oral traditions, such as the Oral Torah, the early Church Gospels, and the folklore of the indigenous North Americans, among many others, were recognized as scripture by these communities. Though oral traditions may have not been written down, they still served the same role as written scripture (see below). Ultimately, it is left to the members of a religion to decide what is considered scripture within their own tradition.

The first use of the Latin term "scripture" proper did not originally denote a writing of religious or spiritual significance, as the oldest sources attest. In medieaval Europe, the word "scripture", implied the Bible but by the 18th century C.E., a growing knowledge of the world led to a wider understanding of the concept of scripture.

Scripture and Authority

The primacy of the written word in the Abrahamic faiths of Judaism, Christianity and Islam can be linked to the idea of scripture and authority. Authority in scriptures is derived from the importance of the source and the unity of themes and authorship. In the Abrahamic religions the ultimate author of scripture is believed to be God, who uses human prophets to record law, teachings, and histories. The authors are also deemed important. Jewish tradition suggests that the Hebrew Torah was recorded by Moses, while Islamic tradition asserts that Muhammad is the transmitter of the Qur'an.

Most religions promulgate policies defining the limits of the sacred texts and controlling or forbidding changes and additions. Scriptures need not necessarily be unified works of literature. At times they are collections of material, such as the Hebrew Bible and the Christian New Testament, which were formed into canons. The word "Canon" from Greek kanon "rule" (perhaps originally from kanna "reed", cognate to cane) is used in in literature to refer to a fixed collection of texts, such as the:

• Biblical canon
• the Hindu canon of Shruti texts
• Tripitaka, the Buddhist canon
• the Taoist canon
• the Confucian canon of Chinese classic texts

Thus the concept of a "Canon" refers to any body of works that are considered to be "genuine" or "official" within a certain religious tradition.

History

The history of scripture is a complex topic for it is tied to issues of interpretation, authority, translation, langauge, literacy and even power. Only in modern times has access to the various scriptures of the world become wideaspred as the printing press and electronic media have made scriptures readily available to the masses for individual reading and interprtation. However, this situation has not always been the case and it is historically rare.

Preliterate Cultures

Scriptures (in oral form) have been an important part of human culture since the beginning of civilization. From the dawn of humanity, humans have attempted to make sense of the cosmos and to explain humanity's place in it. Sacred stories arose to account for the bewildering variety of phenomena and feelings that comprise the human experience. Such stories developed cosmic signifiance and gave rise to the different religions and mythologies of the world's cultures.

Thus, the earliest use of scripture was not in the form of written texts but ancient oral stories handed down from one generation to the next. Many ancient preliterate cultures (and some modern ones) did not place a strong emphasis on recording their "truths" in written documents, preferring instead to honor their sacred stories through oral memorization and transmission. In ancient India, for example, the body of sacred literature known as Smriti was handed down orally among the Hindus before eventualy being written down.

In the time before literacy was widespread, the average lay adherent of any religion would likely come to know the sacred stories of their own tradition through folklore, worship and ritual, or from literate members of the clergy who would read passages from their scriptures. While those able to read and explain the scriptures were held in high esteem - those who could recite them from memory even more so. Religious instruction in the ancient Brahmin caste of India included a set of mnemonic tools that helped students to memorize the ritual formulae found in the Vedas, which were written down relatively late in Hindu history. Similar (but unrelated) systems were used in the recording of the Qur'an. The Hebrew Bible, recorded in the ancient Hebrew language, is in its original rendering written in such a way that it is recited with a pleasing rhythm.

Literate Cultures

The ascendency of written scriptures in the world's religions developed along side the continuation of oral traditions. In Judaism, for example, the earliest example of written scripture is the Torah, which is said to have been given to Moses by Yahweh. The Torah became the foundational scriptural bedrock of the Abrahammic traditions; yet even the Torah continued to be supplemented by aditional oral traditions in Judaism known as the Mishna.

The oldest portions of the Zoroastrian Avesta are also believed to have been transmitted orally for centuries before being put in written form. Though widely differing dates for Gathic Avestan (the language of the oldest texts) have been proposed, scholarly consensus floats at around 1000 B.C.E. (roughly contemporary to the Brahmana period of Vedic Sanskrit). Historical evidence suggests that the Rigveda was composed roughly between 1500–800 B.C.E., making it one of the world's oldest religious texts.

When Prophet Muhammad received parts of the Qur'an from Gabriel, he would later recite the verses so that they could be recorded on palm leaves, though many in attendance would commit the verses to memory as well. However, it is recorded that following the death of the prophet, under the Caliphate of 'Uthman in the mid 600s C.E., debate broke out concerning variant versions of the Qur'an. 'Uthman ordered that the written versions be collected and compared against one another, as well as against the recitations of the those who had memorized them. All this information was later redacted into what is known as the 'Uthmanic Codex, the Qur'an that is used today.

Translations of scriptures may receive official blessing in order to further disseminate doctrine. Buddhism is a prime example of a tradition that encouraged translation - as Buddhism spread texts were translated from Pali and Sanskrit to Tibetan, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, and Vietnamese, among other languages. Many texts exist now only in translation. The need to translate was often a motivating factor in the development of written language - the Tibetan and Thai writing systems were in part developed to record Buddhist works in those languages. However, translation is not always encouraged - an original sacred language often has de facto, absolute or exclusive paramouncy. The Qur'an of Islam is a text that, though translated, is thought to be only truly inspired by God when read in its original Classical Arabic. The Vedas of Hinduism are also strongly connected to their original language (Sanskrit), due to both the importance of sound in Indian spiritual thought, and to the Vedas long preservation only in oral tradition.

At times translations can be believed to be just as important and inspired as the original text, as in the case of the Septuagint, a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Koine Greek, revered by Hellenized Jews around the first century B.C.E. Policy regarding translation has an appreciable impact on the growth of a tradition, especially in early stages. Critical points in Protestant Christian history were the translations of the Bible by John Wycliffe and Martin Luther into their respective vernacular languages.

The grammar, vocabulary and style of scripture often becomes the standard against which later language is judged. This is especially true of the Qur'an, which is considered by the Muslim world as the finest use of Arabic, though modern colloquial Arabic is somewhat removed from the language of the Qur'an (as is expected - any language that endures is likely to evolve). In imperial China the Classics (jing 經) were looked upon by educated Confucians as perfected writings, with style to which they would aspire to emulate. Even the King James Bible, itself a translation, is widely revered by many modern English speaking Christians.

In Christinanity, prior to the Protestant Reformation the interpretation of the Bible was in the hands of the clergy. The Reformation, however, took scripture out of the hands of the priests and bishops and put it into the hands of the individual. This is not to say the change was immediate - rates of illiteracy were still high in Reformation era Europe, and the reading of scripture was not entirely practical for all Christians. As well, this was not solely a Protestant development, as the Catholic and Orthodox churches would both follow, in time. A major step in the accessability of the Bible was the decision by Protestants to translate and release it in the vernacular (local) languages of the time, rather than leave it in the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew used only by the intellectual elites of that era. The prior advent of the Printing Press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1440s also helped to disseminate texts more rapidly.

In modern times, the study of Scripture has become an academic pursuit in universities. Hierographology (Greek ιερος, hieros, "sacred" or "holy", + γραφος, graphos, "writing", + λογος, logos, "word" or "reason") is the study of sacred texts. Increasingly, sacred texts of many cultures are studied within academic contexts, primarily to increase understanding of other cultures, whether ancient or contemporary. Sometimes this involves the extension of the principles of higher criticism to the texts of many faiths. It may also involve a comparative study of religious texts. The hierographology of the Qur'an can be particularly controversial, especially when questioning the accuracy of Islamic traditions about the text. Scholarship is not limited to academia, however; the study of texts is critical for spiritual learning as well. Exegesis (interpretation of a text, especially within its original context) is crucial for adherents of a religion to better understand their scriptures, which they often believe are essential as the word of God.

Roles of Scripture

Scripture serves a variety of roles in the spiritual life of a religious community. There are three major functions of scripture in a religion: personal guidance and inspiration, communal worship and instruction, and bibliomancy (using scripture for magical purposes).

Individual Use

Though limited literacy and primitive copying methods prevented the widespread dissemination of religious texts for many centuries, scripture has always had a personal aspect - at least, for those with access to it. In modern times, with the promotion of literacy and the advent of printing (and telecommunications) many individuals are able to experience the scriptures from their own traditions first hand. Following the greater access allowed by the advent of the printing press, most religious traditions now place a great emphasis on devotional reading of religious texts. For example, an individual relationship with the Qur'an has always been a focal point for practicing Muslims. A hafiz ("memorizer" or "protector") is one who has commited the entire Qur'an to memory. Though this skill is of great use within a communal setting, it cannot be acheived without a great personal commitment. It is also seen by the community as a great act of personal piety.

The Lutheran insistance on "sola scriptura" (by scripture alone) highlighted the individual's perceived need for scriptre in the faith of a Christian.

Community Use

In many religious communities scriture forms the basis for their social, legal and moral codes of conduct, as well as providing instruction on rituals and rites of passage. Scripture also serves as the foundation of law for some religious communities. The Qur'an and the hadith (traditions) are outstanding examples of scripture used as the foundation of law (Sharia) in Islam, as is the Torah of Judaism. In both cases we find rules for the proper conduct of the pious, including (but not limited to) the treatment of spouses, children, the poor and enemies. The Vinaya writing of Buddhism also fulfills a similar role, serving as rules for those who are practicing within a monastic community.

Bibliomancy

The use of scripture for magical ends has been widespread amongst the world's religions, though often times not sanctioned by governing bodies or the clergy. Frequently, scriptures have been pored over for secret information encoded in a myriad of different ways, likely unrelated to the text that appears in plain sight. Those searching for secret messages are confident of the divine nature of the book, even the information that appears for everyone to see; however, they also believe that in the divine creation of scripture, secrets are planted in the text for the devout to discover. This is found in the Jewish Kabbalah tradition, which attempts to reveal mystical messages hidden in the Hebrew Bible.

In recent times there has been a surge of bibliomancy in Christian and Muslim circles, each with their own re-examination of scriptures. Most notable is the "Bible Code" phenomenon, in which passages from the Hebrew Bible are arranged in a pre-determined way (often a specific number of characters per line, without spaces) and checked for key words, found by counting letters at certain intervals. Both the number of characters per line and the intervals at which letters are counted are manipulated, often requiring a computer to handle the multitude of calculations. Sometimes the alleged Bible Code is used for predicting future events. Bibliomancy does not always fall outside of the proscribed use of scripture for the Daoist classic the Yi Jing (易經) is, at least on the surface, expressly used for divination.

Thus, attitudes to sacred texts differ between religious traditions, and can change within a faith group. Some religions make written texts widely available, while others hold that sacred teachings must remain hidden from all but the loyal and the initiate. Some religions make texts available gratis or in subsidised form; others require payment. The Guru Granth Sahib of Sikhism always appears with standardised page numbering while the Abrahamic religions and their offshoots favour chapter and verse pointers.

Scriptures in the World's Religions

Scripture plays the central role in the Abrahamic faiths of Judaism, Christianity and Islam that have been called "religions of the book". In these religions scriptures are attributed to prophets: Moses as the transmitter of the Torah, and Muhammad as the transmitter of the Qur'an. Christian tradition attributes the canonical gospels to disciples of Jesus. In Hinduism, the Vedas are thought to have been recorded by rishis. Though all these traditions accept that their texts were recorded by human hands, they also believe that these works are in some way "heavenly books". This assertion has different meanings in different traditions. The Qur'an is believed to be of complete divine origin, recited by Muhammad after having it revealed to him by the angel Gabriel. The Vedas of Hinduism are not thought to have been composed by the rishis, but rather heard. The Buddhist tradition sees the power of their scripture in its insight into the nature of reality.

Judaism

The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) is comprised of three major sections: the Torah (law), the Nevi'im (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Writings). The Hebrew Bible is thought to have been established at the Council of Jamnia following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., though some dispute that this council ever occured. The Tanakh is an example of a canon of scripture written at different times by different authors in different locations. However, they are thought to be equally inspired by God, and thus have unity in spirit and consistency. Within Judaism there is also a strong oral tradition, preserved in the Talmud. There is disagreement within the Jewish community as to the importance of the Talmud. Orthodox and Conservative Judaism put it on par with the written Torah, though only Orthodox practitioners suggest it was delivered by Moses. More liberal groups, such as Reform Judaism, recognize the work but do not ascribe as high a status to it. The Talmud is made up of the Mishna, the recorded oral law, and the Gemara, commentaries on the Mishna. Another work sometimes recognized as scripture in Judaism is the Zohar, a collection of mystical writings used in Kabbalah.

Christianity

This page from the Book of Kells is the start of the Gospel of John. Several highly artistic and illuminated Biblical manuscripts were produced during the Middle Ages.

The central scripture to Christianity is the Bible, made up of the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) and the New Testament. The Old Testament is the same as the Jewish Tanakh, used and recognized as scripture by early Christians in the formative period of Christianity. The New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, comprised of narratives, letters and apocalyptic writing. Between Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the canon, primarily in the Apochrypha, a list of works that, though not considered fully scriptural in any major Christian denomination, are regarded with varying levels of respect. As well, there exists a group of somewhat unrelated works known as the Pseudopigrapha - texts that are attributed (wrongly, according to scholarship) to important Jewish figures. These works, written before the New Testament, are not canonical. The approach to the Bible in its entirety is also varied amongst Christian groups - while the Catholic, Orthodox, and many Protestant groups stress the harmony and importance of scripture and tradition, some Protestant churches focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone. This concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and though some Protestant groups have loosened their approach to tradition others, especially Evangelical groups, continue to support the use of scripture as the only source of teaching. Within the Eastern Orthodox church there is also a strong emphasis on icons, a standardized set of images which, though not revered as scripture, serve a similar didactic purpose.

Islam

The central text of Islam is the Holy Qur'an, which was recorded in written form in the 7th century C.E. Islamic tradition holds that the Qur'an existed in its same form in heaven before its revelation to humanity by the angel Gabriel through Muhammad. There is a great deal of importance attached to the integrity of the Qur'an, especially the degree to which the original text has been preserved over the centuries. Other important works in Islam are the ahadith (the Arabic pluralization of hadith), which record the words and actions of the prophet Muhammad. Though these works are important in Islam, they are not considered divine in the same manner as the Qur'an. Muslims also recognize works in the Hebrew Bible and about the life of Jesus as somewhat scriptural, but corrupted by humanity over time, and not maintaining the purity of the Qur'an.

Hinduism

Hinduism is a broad and vast religion, both in beliefs and time. Speaking of "Hinduism" is difficult, as the term itself encompasses a vast variety of beliefs and scriptures. Thus there is a great deal of material, both oral and written, that is considered scriptural in the Hindu traditions. In Indian tradition, scripture is called Sūtra (in Sanskrit) and Sutta (in Pāli) (which literally means a rope or thread that holds things together). Not so historiacal, more metaphorical, tantra twlight language (e.g. Sandhya bhasa) The Vedas are certainly works that nearly every Hindu would regard as scriptural. These were recorded in Vedic Sanskrit, filled with stories of creation and the acts of the devas. These works, along with their immediate successors, are shruti, or "heard wisdom". Following the Vedas are the Vedantic ("end of the Vedas") works, which reflect the trends in philosophy and discourse on spiritual matters of their time (recording began around the eighth century C.E.). Of these works, the Upanishads are of great importance and philsophical depth. However, a growing increase in the needs for Hindus to experience spirituality through less esoteric means found expression in smriti ("remembered wisdom"), often works that emphasized devotion to a deity. Of these works the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are best known. Other texts in Hinduism discuss mythology, health, yoga, tantras, philosophy and practices for human interaction.

Buddhism

There is no set of scripture that is universal throughout all of Buddhism. Most traditions have a tripitaka (Pali tipitaka), a Sanskrit word meaning "three baskets". These baskets refer to the three categories of scripture found in most Buddhist organizaitons: the vinaya pitaka (displine and rules for monks and nuns), the sutra pitaka (sermons and teachings by and about the Buddha), and the abhidharma pitaka (a structured presentation of Buddhist teachings). The first tripitaka was the Pali Canon, recorded for the first time in the 1st century B.C.E. from oral tradition. This set of teachings makes up the set of scriptures used by Theravada Buddhists. As new schools of Buddhism formed new texts were written and new canons were prepared. The Mahayana Buddhist tradition produced sets of works thought (by Mahayana Buddhists) to be superior to the Pali Canon, but still a product of the Buddha. These included the Prajnaparamita sutras and the Yogacara sutras. Some of these texts were believed to have been created by the Buddha, but preserved by mystical beings known as nagas and revealed only at the appropriate time. In China and Tibet even further canons were created, incorporating new ideas through the inclusion of new texts. In the Tibetan Nyingmaj tradition special texts called terma are believed to be occulted and revealed in a manner similar to some Mahayana works.

In Buddhism, the term "sutra" refers generally to canonical scirptures that are regarded as records of the oral teachings of Gautama Buddha. These teachings are assembled in the second part of the Tripitaka which is called Sutra Pitaka. There are also some Buddhist texts, such as the Platform Sutra, that are called sutras despite being attributed to much later authors. The Pali form of the word, sutta is used exclusively to refer to Buddhist scriptures, particularly those of the Pali Canon.

Though the sutra tradition is brought to China, Japan, and other parts of Asia through Buddhism, indigenous traditions of these regions (Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto) have their own scripture traditions. There is a great deal of focus on historical classics, such as the Spring and Autumn Annals in Confucianism or the Kojiki in Shinto.

Confucianism

The Confucian tradition does not have scripture in the sense that other religions do - that is, Confucians did not see their books as necessarily heavenly or divine. They did, however, still ascribe great value to them. The works in the Confucian tradition that are analagous to scripture are best described as "classics". There is debate whether they can be described as scripture, just as there is debate as to whether Confucianism itself can be described as a religion. The important books of Confucianism are divided into the Five Classics and the Four Books. The Five Classics are not specifically Confucian, but do relate strongly to Confucian teachings and values. The Five Classics are the Classic of History, the Classic of Poetry, the Classic of Rites, the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Yi Jing, the last also being an important text in Daoism and folk traditions. The Yi Jing, Classic of Poetry and the Classic of History were recorded (in some form) before Confucius' work, though he is thought to have written the Spring and Autumn Annals and edited other volumes. The Classic of Rites was compiled by subsequent Confucians. The Four Books of Confucianism are the Analects (sayings of Confucius), the Mengzi (writings by a disciple of Confucius), the Doctrine of the Mean and the Great Learning - the latter two are part of the Classic of Rites.

Daoism

Philosophical Daoism's primary text is the Dao de Jing. Attributed to Laozi, it is often dated to around 600 B.C.E. and expounds on themes of nature, ruling, and knowledge, among others. Also important is the subsequent work the Zhuangzi, written by an author of the same name. Written approximately 200 years after the Dao de Jing, the Zhuangzi addressed similar themes, which became paramount in the thought of philosophical Daoists. The Classic the Yi Jing would become central in Daoist practice as well, though not specifically a Daoist work. Along with the developments in Daoism new texts were written and popularized. The alchemist Ge Hong wrote the important work the Baopuzi ("Sage Who Embraces Simplicity"), and as alchemy grew in importance in Daoist thought, alchemical works grew in popularity as well. Daoist works, since the fifth century B.C.E., have been arranged and rearranged in a canon known as the daozang, which includes a great variety of Daoist works on a myriad of topics.

Sikhism

File:GuruGranthSahib-HarimandirSahib.jpg

A man reading the Gurū Granth Sāhib at the Harimandir Sahib.

The most important work in the Sikh religion is the Guru Granth Sahib, written in the Gurmukhi script. The first instance of this work was called the Adi Granth (a name by which the Guru Granth Sahib is sometimes known today) and compiled in its final form in 1604 by the fifth Guru Arjan. Subsequently the Adi Granth was expanded by following Sikh gurus, eventually becoming the Guru Granth Sahib as it is known today. The last of the Sikh gurus (Guru Gobind Singh) declared that the Granth would serve as guru for the Sikh tradition - a unique role for scripture in the world's religions. Also unique is the reference system used: while many traditions (especially those of the West) use a chapter and verse system, the Guru Granth Sahib's composition is standardized in such a way that every instance of the book has the same number of pages (1430) and the same text on every page. Thus, when searching for a particular page in the Granth, the universal reference is a page number, rather than a chapter or verse citation. In addition to the Guru Granth Sahib, Sikhs hold the Dasam Granth in high esteem. This work records the teachings of Guru Gobind Singh, who, by tradition, was not able to add to the Guru Granth Sahib itself.

Other Religions

Many new religious movements have their own canons of scripture. For example, the Baha'i Faith, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and the Unification Church, each has its own sacred writings deemed to be invaluable to their community, and the world at large.

• The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints considers the Book of Mormon to be sacred scripture in additon to the Holy bioble. They also hold in deep esteme other texts titled, The Doctrine and Covenants, The Pearl of Great Price, and the Articles of Faith.

• The Baha'i Faith holds the "Book of Certitude" to be scritpure.

• The Unification Church views the "Divine Principle" , which contains teachings of Reverend Sun Myung Moon, to be scripture.

Many new religions have an open canon, meaning that their new revelations may become scriptural.

Interpretation/ Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts. In contemporary usage, hermeneutics often refers to study of the interpretation of Biblical texts. However, it is more broadly used in contemporary philosophy to denote the study of theories and methods of the interpretation of all texts. The concept of "text" is here also extended beyond written documents to any number of objects subject to interpretation. A hermeneutic is defined as a specific system or method for interpretation, or a specific theory of interpretation. However, contemporary philosopher, Hans-Georg Gadamer wrote that hermeneutics itself is an approach as opposed to a method.

The word hermeneutics is a term derived from 'Ερμηνεύς, the Greek word for interpreter. This is related to the name of the Greek god Hermes in his role as the interpreter of the messages of the gods. Hermes was believed to play tricks on those he was supposed to give messages to, often changing the messages and influencing the interpretation thereof. The Greek word thus has the basic meaning of one who makes the meaning clear.

A common use of the word hermeneutics refers to a process of scriptural interpretation. Throughout religious history scholars and students of religious texts have sought to mine the wealth of their meanings by developing a variety of different systems of hermeneutics. Philosophical hermeneutics in particular can be seen as a development of scriptural hermeneutics, providing a theoretical backing for various interpretive projects. Thus, philosophical hermeneutics and scriptural hermeneutics can be seen as mutually reinforcing concepts.

Rabbi Ishmael of the Amoraic era of Judiasm interpreted laws from the Torah through 13 hermeneutic principles. This is the first appearance of hermeneutics in the world, through the exegesis interpretation of Biblical texts.

Criticism of Scripture

The criticism of bibliolatry is frequently leveled against Western religions. Bibliolatry is the elevation of a scripture, in the minds of adherents, to a level of worship. This elevation is most often an unconscious act and not supported by orthodox teachers. The accusation of bibliolatry is not always a fair one; though there are strict codes of conduct in handling Torah scrolls or copies of the Qur'an, it is not accurate to assert that any people following these codes actually worship the text.

The Future of Scripture

Technologies such as the Internet, television, and computers have changed the way and frequency with which information is shared - religions, and ultimately scriptures, are no different. Most of the world's religious texts and classics have been stored electronically on the Internet, and are available to be read and to be searched in many languages. Many scriptures from around the world - such as the Bible and the Ramayana, among many others - have been played out on television. The future of scripture is accessability: virtually anyone anywhere can access any of the world's scriptures in translation or the original language, as well as a wealth of commentaries on the world's religions.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Cook, Michael. The Koran: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-285344-9
• Graham, William A. "Scripture" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, pg. 133-145, edited by Mircea Eliade. MacMillan, 1987. ISBN 0028971353
• McGrath, Alister E. Historical Theology. Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1998. ISBN 0-631-20844-5
• Monier-Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass, 1899
• Smith, Wilfred Cantwell. What is Scripture?: A Comparative Approach. Augsburg Fortress Publishers, 1993. ISBN 0800626087

External Links

• Chinese repository of Buddhist Sutras translated into English. Also has other texts.
• Mahayana Buddhist Sutras in English
• Sacred-texts.com
• Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID "guest")
• A Modern Sutra
• Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon
• Pali Suttas at Access to Insight
• Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Lirary (Pali Suttas)
• The Canon of Scripture – a Catholic perspective
• Table of Old Testament Books - includes Latin, English, Hebrew and abbreviated names (from Tel Aviv University).
• Articles on Various Books from Biblical Resource Database
• Judaica Press Translation - Online Jewish translation of the books of the Bible. The Tanakh and Rashi's entire commentary.
• Books of the Bible King James(KJV) and Revised Standard Version(RSV) searchable Bibles
• Slavonic Bible
• Books of the Apocrypha (from UMC)
• Armenian Bible (an essay, with full official canon at the end)
• Ethiopian Orthodox "narrow canon" (from UMC)
• Eternal Pages Readable, searchable Bible in multiple languages and versions.
• Add Bible to your life! Online Bible search and resources. Includes several versions, translations and languages.
• Internet Sacred Texts Archive Extensive online resource for a wide variety of world religions, folklore, and traditional beliefs.
• Ocean Downloadable and searchable database of world religious texts. Extensive Bahá'í, Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Islamic & Jewish libraries in seven European languages.
• avesta.org: Translations of the Avesta texts

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