Difference between revisions of "Sahara Desert" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Sahara satellite.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image]]
 
[[Image:Sahara satellite.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image]]
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The '''Sahara''' is the world's largest [[hot desert]], and second largest [[desert]] after [[Antarctica]] at over 9,000,000 km² (3,500,000 mi²), almost as large as the [[United States]].  The Sahara is located in Northern Africa and is 2.5 million years old.
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The '''Sahara''' is the world's largest hot desert and second largest [[desert]] after [[Antarctica]] at over 9,000,000 km² (3,500,000 mi²), almost as large as the [[United States]].  The Sahara is located in Northern Africa and is 2.5 million years old.
  
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The name ''Sahara'' is an English pronunciation of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word for ''desert'', ({{Audio|ar-Sahara.ogg|صحراء}}).  
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The name ''Sahara'' is an English pronunciation of the Arabic word for ''desert''.  
 
==Overview==
 
==Overview==
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[[Image:SafsafOasis SAR comparison.jpg|thumb|300px|The top image shows the [[Safsaf Oasis]] on the surface of the Sahara. The bottom (using [[radar]]) is the rock layer underneath, revealing black channels cut by the meandering of an ancient river that once fed the oasis.]]
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[[Image:SafsafOasis SAR comparison.jpg|thumb|300px|The top image shows the Safsaf Oasis on the surface of the Sahara. The bottom (using radar) is the rock layer underneath, revealing black channels cut by the meandering of an ancient river that once fed the oasis.]]
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The boundaries of the Sahara are the [[Atlantic Ocean]] on the west, the [[Atlas Mountains]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] on the north, the [[Red Sea]] and [[Egypt]] on the east, and the [[Sudan (region)|Sudan]] and the valley of the [[Niger River]] on the south. The Sahara is divided into western Sahara, the central [[Ahaggar Mountains]], the [[Tibesti Mountains]], the [[Aïr Mountains]] (a region of desert mountains and high plateaus), [[Tenere]] desert and the [[Libyan desert]] (the most arid region). The highest peak in the Sahara is [[Emi Koussi]] (3415 m) in the [[Tibesti Mountains]] in northern [[Chad]].
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The boundaries of the Sahara are the [[Atlantic Ocean]] on the west, the Atlas Mountains and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] on the north, the [[Red Sea]] and [[Egypt]] on the east, and [[Sudan]] and the valley of the [[Niger River]] on the south. The Sahara is divided into western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains (a region of desert mountains and high plateaus), Tenere desert and the Libyan desert (the most arid region). The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi (3415 m) in the Tibesti Mountains in northern [[Chad]].
  
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The Sahara divides the [[continent]] of [[Africa]] into [[North Africa|North]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].  The southern border of the Sahara is marked by a band of semiarid [[savanna]] called the [[Sahel]]; south of the Sahel lies the lusher [[Sudan (region)|Sudan]] and the [[Congo River Basin]]. Most of the Sahara consists of rocky [[hamada]]; [[Erg (landform)|ergs]] (large sand [[dune]]s) form only a minor part.
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The Sahara divides the continent of [[Africa]] into North and Sub-Saharan Africa.  The southern border of the Sahara is marked by a band of semiarid [[savanna]]s called the Sahel; south of the Sahel lies the lusher Sudan and the [[Congo River]] Basin. Most of the Sahara consists of rocky hamada; ergs (large sand dunes) form only a minor part.
  
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Humans have lived on the edge of the desert for almost 500,000 years. Immediately after the last [[ice age]], the Sahara was a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 [[petroglyph]]s of river animals such as [[crocodile]]s (which still exist in parts of the desert)<ref name=Crocodiles>http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/06/0617_020618_croc.html</ref>  survive, with half found in the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]] in southeast [[Algeria]]. [[Fossils]] of [[dinosaurs]], including ''[[Afrovenator]]'', ''[[Jobaria]]'' and ''[[Ouranosaurus]]'', have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not as lush in vegetation, except in the [[Nile]] Valley, at a few [[oasis|oases]], and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the [[olive tree]] are found to grow. The region has been this way since about [[3rd millennium B.C.E.|3000 BCE]].
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Humans have lived on the edge of the desert for almost 500,000 years. Immediately after the last [[ice age]], the Sahara was a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 [[petroglyph]]s of river animals such as [[crocodile]]s (which still exist in parts of the desert)<ref name=Crocodiles>http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/06/0617_020618_croc.html</ref>  survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast [[Algeria]]. [[Fossils]] of [[dinosaurs]], including ''Afrovenator'', ''Jobaria'' and ''Ouranosaurus'', have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not as lush in vegetation, except in the [[Nile River]] Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the [[olive tree]] are found to grow. The region has been this way since about 3000 b.c.e..
  
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Some 2.5 million people live in the Sahara, most of these in [[Egypt]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]]. Dominant ethnicities in the Sahara are various [[Berber people|Berber]] groups including [[Tuareg]] tribes, various [[Arab]]ised Berber groups such as the [[Hassaniya]]-speaking Maure/[[Moors]] (also known as [[Sahrawis]]), and various "black [[Africa]]n" ethnicities including [[Tubu]], [[Nubians]], [[Zaghawa]], [[Kanuri]], [[Fula people|Peul]] (Fulani), [[Hausa]] and [[Songhai]]. The largest city in the Sahara is the Egyptian capital [[Cairo]], in the Nile Valley. Other important cities are [[Nouakchott]], the capital of [[Mauritania]]; [[Tamanrasset]], [[Ouargla]], [[Bechar]], [[Hassi Messaoud]], [[Ghardaia]], [[El Oued]], [[Algeria]]; [[Timbuktu]], [[Mali]]; [[Agadez]], [[Niger]]; [[Ghat]], [[Libya]]; and [[Faya]], [[Chad]].
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Some 2.5 million people live in the Sahara, most of these in [[Egypt]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], and [[Algeria]]. Dominant ethnicities in the Sahara are various Berber groups including Tuareg tribes, various [[Arab]]ized Berber groups such as the Hassaniya-speaking Moors (also known as Sahrawis), and various "black African" ethnicities including Tubu, Nubians, Zaghawa, Kanuri, Peul (Fulani), Hausa, and Songhai. The largest city in the Sahara is the Egyptian capital Cairo, in the Nile Valley. Other important cities are Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania; Tamanrasset, Ouargla, Bechar, Hassi Messaoud, Ghardaia, El Oued, Algeria; Timbuktu, [[Mali]]; Agadez, [[Niger]]; Ghat, [[Libya]]; and Faya, [[Chad]].
  
 
==Physical Features==
 
==Physical Features==
  
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The highest part of the desert is at the summit of [[Mount Koussi]] in the [[Tibesti Mountains]], which is 11,204 feet (3,415 m) high. The lowest point of the Sahara is 436 feet (133 m) below sea level in the [[Qattara Depression]] in [[Egypt]].
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The highest part of the desert is at the summit of Mount Koussi in the Tibesti Mountains, which is 11,204 feet (3,415 m) high. The lowest point of the Sahara is 436 feet (133 m) below sea level in the Qattara Depression in [[Egypt]].
  
 
==Climate history==
 
==Climate history==
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The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variation between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years. During the last [[ice age]], the Sahara was bigger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries<ref>Christopher Ehret. ''The Civilizations of Africa.'' University Press of Virginia, 2002.</ref>.  The end of the ice age brought wetter times to the Sahara, from about [[8000 BC|8000 B.C.E.]] to [[6000 B.C.E.|6000 BCE]], perhaps due to [[low pressure area]]s over the collapsing [[ice sheets]] to the north<ref>[http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~e118/Fezzan/fezzan_palaeoclim.html Fezzan Project - Palaeoclimate and environment]</ref>.
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The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variation between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years. During the last [[ice age]], the Sahara was bigger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries<ref>Christopher Ehret. ''The Civilizations of Africa.'' University Press of Virginia, 2002.</ref>.  The end of the ice age brought wetter times to the Sahara, from about 8000 b.c.e. to 6000 b.c.e., perhaps due to low pressure areas over the collapsing ice sheets to the north<ref>[http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~e118/Fezzan/fezzan_palaeoclim.html Fezzan Project - Palaeoclimate and environment]</ref>.
  
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Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern part of the Sahara dried out.  However, not long after the end of the ice sheets, the [[monsoon]] which currently brings [[rain]] to the [[Sahel]] came further north and counteracted the drying trend in the southern Sahara. The [[monsoon]] in Africa (and elsewhere) is due to heating during the summer. Air over land becomes warmer and rises, pulling in cool wet air from the ocean. This causes rain. Paradoxically, the Sahara was wetter when it received more [[insolation]] in the summer. In turn, changes in [[solar]] insolation are caused by changes in the Earth's [[orbital parameters]].{{cn}}
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Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern part of the Sahara dried out.  However, not long after the end of the ice sheets, the monsoon, which currently brings [[rain]] to the Sahel, came farther north and counteracted the drying trend in the southern Sahara. The monsoon in Africa (and elsewhere) is due to heating during the summer. Air over land becomes warmer and rises, pulling in cool wet air from the ocean. This causes rain. Paradoxically, the Sahara was wetter when it received more insolation in the summer. In turn, changes in solar insolation are caused by changes in the Earth's orbital parameters.{{cn}}
  
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By around [[2500 BC|2500 B.C.E.]], the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990712080500.htm Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started By Changes In Earth's Orbit, Accelerated By Atmospheric And Vegetation Feedbacks]</ref>, leading to the [[desertification]] of the Sahara. The Sahara is currently as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago.<ref name=Lakes>White, Kevin and Mattingly, David J. 2006. Ancient Lakes of the Sahara. American Scientist. Volume 94 Number 1 (January-February, 2006). pp. 58-65.</ref> These conditions are responsible for what has been called the [[Sahara Pump Theory]].
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By around 2500 b.c.e., the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990712080500.htm Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started By Changes In Earth's Orbit, Accelerated By Atmospheric And Vegetation Feedbacks]</ref>, leading to the [[desertification]] of the Sahara. The Sahara is currently as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago.<ref name=Lakes>White, Kevin and Mattingly, David J. 2006. Ancient Lakes of the Sahara. American Scientist. Volume 94 Number 1 (January-February, 2006). pp. 58-65.</ref> These conditions are responsible for what has been called the Sahara Pump Theory.
  
 
===Temperatures===
 
===Temperatures===
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[[Image:Sahara desert.jpg|thumb|right|The sun shines over Saharan dunes.]]
 
[[Image:Sahara desert.jpg|thumb|right|The sun shines over Saharan dunes.]]
 
===Cattle Period===
 
===Cattle Period===
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By [[6000 BC|6000 B.C.E.]] [[predynastic Egypt]]ians in the southwestern corner of [[Egypt]] were [[herding]] cattle and [[construction|constructing]] large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent [[town|settlement]]s in [[predynastic Egypt]] by the middle of the [[6th millennium B.C.E.|6th millennium B.C.E.]] centered predominantly on [[cereal]] and animal [[agriculture]]: [[cattle]], [[goat]]s, [[pig]]s and [[sheep]].<ref name=Predynastic>[http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm Predynastic (5,500 - 3,100 B.C.E.)] www.touregypt.net</ref> [[Metal]] objects replaced prior ones of [[Rock (geology)|stone]].<ref name=Predynastic/> [[Tanning]] animal skins, [[pottery]] and [[weaving]] are commonplace in this era also.<ref name=Predynastic/> There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the [[Al Fayyum]] in the [[6th millennium B.C.E.|6th millennium B.C.E.]], with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering.<ref name=Fayum>[http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/fayum/fayumb.html Fayum, Qarunian (Fayum B) (about 6000-5000 B.C.E.?)] www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk</ref> Stone [[arrowhead]]s, [[knive]]s and [[scraper]]s are common.<ref name=Fayum/> [[Burial]] items include pottery, [[jewelry]], [[farming]] and [[hunting]] equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit.<ref name=Predynastic/> The dead are buried facing due west.<ref name=Predynastic/>
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By 6000 b.c.e. predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of [[Egypt]] were herding [[cattle]] and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium B.C.E. centered predominantly on [[cereal]] and animal [[agriculture]]: cattle, [[goat]]s, [[pig]]s, and [[sheep]].<ref name=Predynastic>[http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm Predynastic (5,500 - 3,100 B.C.E.)] www.touregypt.net</ref> [[Metal]] objects replaced prior ones of stone.<ref name=Predynastic/> [[Tanning]] animal skins, [[pottery]], and [[weaving]] are commonplace in this era also.<ref name=Predynastic/> There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium B.C.E., with food activities centering on [[fishing]], [[hunting]], and food-gathering.<ref name=Fayum>[http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/fayum/fayumb.html Fayum, Qarunian (Fayum B) (about 6000-5000 B.C.E.?)] www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk</ref> Stone arrowheads, knives, and scrapers are common.<ref name=Fayum/> [[Burial]] items include pottery, [[jewelry]], [[farming]] and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit.<ref name=Predynastic/> The dead are buried facing due west.<ref name=Predynastic/>
  
 
===Berber Period===
 
===Berber Period===
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The [[Phoenicians]] created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to [[Egypt]], generally settling on the coasts but sometimes in the desert also.
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The [[Phonecia|Phonecians]] created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to [[Egypt]], generally settling on the coasts but sometimes in the desert also.
  
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By [[2500 BC|2500 B.C.E.]] the Sahara was as dry as it is today and it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with only scattered [[town|settlements]] around the oases, but little trade or commerce through the desert. The one major exception was the [[Nile|Nile Valley]]. The Nile, however, was impassable at several [[Cataracts of the Nile|cataract]]s making trade and contact difficult.  
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By 2500 b.c.e. the Sahara was as dry as it is today and it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with only scattered settlements around the oases, but little trade or commerce through the desert. The one major exception was the Nile Valley. The [[Nile River]], however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact difficult.  
  
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Sometime between 633 and 530 B.C.E. [[Hanno the Navigator]] either established or reinforced [[Phoenicia]]n colonies in the [[Western Sahara]], but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace. See [[History of Western Sahara]].
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Sometime between 633 and 530 B.C.E. Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in the Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace.
  
 
===Greeks===
 
===Greeks===
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By [[500 BC|500 B.C.E.]] a new influence arrived in the form of the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Phoenicians]]. Greek [[traders]] spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the [[Red Sea]] coast. The [[Carthaginian]]s explored the Atlantic coast of the desert. The turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets never led to an extensive presence further south than modern [[Morocco]]. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside of the control of these states. Raids from the [[nomadic]] Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert.
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By 500 b.c.e. a new influence arrived in the form of the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and Phonecians. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing colonies along the [[Red Sea]] coast. The [[Carthaginia]]ns explored the Atlantic coast of the desert. The turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets never led to an extensive presence further south than modern [[Morocco]]. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside of the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert.
  
 
===Urban civilization===
 
===Urban civilization===
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An urban civilization, the [[Garamantes]], arose around this time in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the [[Wadi al-Ajal]] in [[Fazzan]],  [[Libya]]. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap [[fossil water]] and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a [[Roman bath]] has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. [[Archaeologist]]s have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Gartamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the [[aquifer]]s, and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels still further into the mountains.<ref name=Lakes/><ref>Keys, David. 2004. Kingdom of the Sands. ''Archaeology''. Volume 57 Number 2, (March/April 2004)[http://www.archaeology.org/0403/abstracts/sands.html Abstract] - retrieved [[March 13]] [[2006]]</ref>
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An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around this time in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al-Ajal in Fazzan,  [[Libya]]. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Gartamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers, and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels still further into the mountains.<ref name=Lakes/><ref>Keys, David. 2004. Kingdom of the Sands. ''Archaeology''. Volume 57 Number 2, (March/April 2004)[http://www.archaeology.org/0403/abstracts/sands.html Abstract] - retrieved [[March 13]] [[2006]]</ref>
  
 
===The Arabs===
 
===The Arabs===
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After the [[Arab]] invasion of the Sahara, trade across the desert intensified. The kingdoms of the [[Sahel]], especially the [[Ghana Empire]] and the later [[Mali Empire]], grew rich and powerful exporting [[gold]] and salt to [[North Africa]]. The emirates along the [[Mediterranean]] sent south manufactured goods and [[horse]]s.  From the Sahara itself [[Edible salt|salt]] was exported. This process turned the scattered oasis communities into trading centres, and brought them under the control of the empires on the edge of the desert.
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After the [[Arab]] invasion of the Sahara, trade across the desert intensified. The kingdoms of the Sahel, especially the Ghana Empire and the later Mali Empire, grew rich and powerful exporting [[gold]] and [[salt]] to [[North Africa]]. The emirates along the [[Mediterranean]] sent south manufactured goods and [[horse]]s.  From the Sahara itself salt was exported. This process turned the scattered oasis communities into trading centers and brought them under the control of the empires on the edge of the desert.
  
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This trade persisted for several centuries until the development in Europe of the [[caravel]] allowed ships, first from [[Portugal]] but soon from all Western Europe, to sail around the desert and gather the resources from the source in [[Guinea (region)|Guinea]]. The Sahara was rapidly remarginalized.
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This trade persisted for several centuries until the development in Europe of the caravel allowed ships, first from [[Portugal]] but soon from all Western Europe, to sail around the desert and gather the resources from the source in [[Guinea]]. The Sahara was rapidly remarginalized.
  
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The colonial powers also largely ignored the region, but the modern era has seen a number of [[Mining|mines]] and communities develop to exploit the desert's natural resources. These include large deposits of [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]] in [[Algeria]] and [[Libya]] and large deposits of [[phosphate]]s in [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]].
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The colonial powers also largely ignored the region, but the modern era has seen a number of [[mine]]s and communities develop to exploit the desert's natural resources. These include large deposits of [[oil]] and [[natural gas]] in [[Algeria]] and [[Libya]] and large deposits of [[phosphate]]s in [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]].
  
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===Contemporary people of the region===
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===Contemporary peoples===
 
Throughout the Sahara, Berbers, Arabs, and sub-Saharan Africans are significantly represented genetically.
 
Throughout the Sahara, Berbers, Arabs, and sub-Saharan Africans are significantly represented genetically.
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==See also==
 
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* [[Arabian-Nubian Shield]]
 
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* [[Desertification]]
 
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* [[Nile]]
 
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* [[Red Sea]]
 
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* [[Richat Structure]]
 
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* [[Sahara Desert (ecoregion)]]
 
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* [[Trans-Saharan trade]]
 
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* [[Western Sahara]]
 
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* [[Zaara]]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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*Abdallah Laroui. ''The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay''. Princeton, 1977.
 
*Abdallah Laroui. ''The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay''. Princeton, 1977.
 
*Hugh Kennedy. ''Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus''. Longman, 1996.
 
*Hugh Kennedy. ''Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus''. Longman, 1996.
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*[http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~e118/Fezzan/fezzan_palaeoclim.html Fezzan Project - Palaeoclimate and environment] - retrieved [[March 15]] [[2006]]
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*[http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~e118/Fezzan/fezzan_palaeoclim.html Fezzan Project - Palaeoclimate and environment] - retrieved March 15, 2006
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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{{Commonscat|Sahara}}
 
 
*[http://www.sahara-overland.com/routes/index.htm Trans-Sahara routes]
 
*[http://www.sahara-overland.com/routes/index.htm Trans-Sahara routes]
 
*[http://www.algeria-un.org/default.asp?doc=-sahara Sahara pictures from Algerian UN Permanent Mission website]
 
*[http://www.algeria-un.org/default.asp?doc=-sahara Sahara pictures from Algerian UN Permanent Mission website]
 
*[http://www.sahara-nature.com/index.php Flora and Fauna of the Sahara]
 
*[http://www.sahara-nature.com/index.php Flora and Fauna of the Sahara]
  
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{{Deserts}}
 
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[[Category:Deserts of Africa]]
 
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[[Category:Ecoregions]]
 
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[[Category:Sahara|*]]
 
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[[Category:Arabic words]]
 
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[[af:Sahara]]
 
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[[ar:صحراء كبرى]]
 
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[[an:Disierto d'o Sajara]]
 
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[[be:Сахара]]
 
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[[bs:Sahara]]
 
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[[bg:Сахара]]
 
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[[ca:Sàhara]]
 
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[[cs:Sahara]]
 
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[[cy:Sahara]]
 
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[[da:Sahara]]
 
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[[de:Sahara]]
 
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[[et:Sahara]]
 
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[[el:Σαχάρα]]
 
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[[es:Desierto del Sahara]]
 
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[[eo:Saharo]]
 
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[[fa:صحرا]]
 
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[[fr:Sahara]]
 
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[[ga:An Sahára]]
 
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[[gd:Fàsach Sahara]]
 
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[[gl:Deserto do Sáhara]]
 
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[[ko:사하라 사막]]
 
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[[hr:Sahara]]
 
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[[io:Sahara]]
 
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[[id:Sahara]]
 
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[[is:Sahara]]
 
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[[it:Deserto del Sahara]]
 
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[[he:סהרה]]
 
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[[ka:საჰარა]]
 
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[[sw:Sahara]]
 
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[[lv:Sahāras tuksnesis]]
 
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[[lt:Sachara]]
 
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[[jbo:saxaras]]
 
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[[hu:Szahara]]
 
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[[mt:Saħara]]
 
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[[nl:Sahara]]
 
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[[new:सहारा]]
 
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[[ja:サハラ砂漠]]
 
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[[pih:Sahara]]
 
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[[no:Sahara]]
 
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[[nn:Sahara]]
 
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[[oc:Sahara]]
 
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[[pl:Sahara]]
 
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[[pt:Deserto do Saara]]
 
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[[ro:Deşertul Sahara]]
 
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[[ru:Пустыня Сахара]]
 
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[[scn:Sahara]]
 
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[[simple:Sahara Desert]]
 
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[[sl:Sahara]]
 
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[[sr:Сахара]]
 
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[[sh:Sahara]]
 
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[[fi:Sahara]]
 
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[[sv:Sahara]]
 
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[[ta:சஹாரா]]
 
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[[th:ทะเลทรายซาฮารา]]
 
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[[vi:Sa mạc Sahara]]
 
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[[tr:Sahra Çölü]]
 
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[[uk:Сахара]]
 
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[[ur:صحرائے اعظم]]
 
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[[wa:Sara]]
 
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[[zh:撒哈拉沙漠]]
 
  
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[[Category:Deserts]]
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[[Category:Nations and places]]
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[[Category:Africa]]
  
 
{{credit|105940226}}
 
{{credit|105940226}}

Revision as of 02:55, 17 March 2007

File:Sahara satellite.jpg
Satellite image

The Sahara is the world's largest hot desert and second largest desert after Antarctica at over 9,000,000 km² (3,500,000 mi²), almost as large as the United States. The Sahara is located in Northern Africa and is 2.5 million years old.

The name Sahara is an English pronunciation of the Arabic word for desert.

Overview

The top image shows the Safsaf Oasis on the surface of the Sahara. The bottom (using radar) is the rock layer underneath, revealing black channels cut by the meandering of an ancient river that once fed the oasis.

The boundaries of the Sahara are the Atlantic Ocean on the west, the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea on the north, the Red Sea and Egypt on the east, and Sudan and the valley of the Niger River on the south. The Sahara is divided into western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains (a region of desert mountains and high plateaus), Tenere desert and the Libyan desert (the most arid region). The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi (3415 m) in the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad.

The Sahara divides the continent of Africa into North and Sub-Saharan Africa. The southern border of the Sahara is marked by a band of semiarid savannas called the Sahel; south of the Sahel lies the lusher Sudan and the Congo River Basin. Most of the Sahara consists of rocky hamada; ergs (large sand dunes) form only a minor part.

Humans have lived on the edge of the desert for almost 500,000 years. Immediately after the last ice age, the Sahara was a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles (which still exist in parts of the desert)[1] survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Fossils of dinosaurs, including Afrovenator, Jobaria and Ouranosaurus, have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not as lush in vegetation, except in the Nile River Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. The region has been this way since about 3000 b.c.e..

Some 2.5 million people live in the Sahara, most of these in Egypt, Mauritania, Morocco, and Algeria. Dominant ethnicities in the Sahara are various Berber groups including Tuareg tribes, various Arabized Berber groups such as the Hassaniya-speaking Moors (also known as Sahrawis), and various "black African" ethnicities including Tubu, Nubians, Zaghawa, Kanuri, Peul (Fulani), Hausa, and Songhai. The largest city in the Sahara is the Egyptian capital Cairo, in the Nile Valley. Other important cities are Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania; Tamanrasset, Ouargla, Bechar, Hassi Messaoud, Ghardaia, El Oued, Algeria; Timbuktu, Mali; Agadez, Niger; Ghat, Libya; and Faya, Chad.

Physical Features

The highest part of the desert is at the summit of Mount Koussi in the Tibesti Mountains, which is 11,204 feet (3,415 m) high. The lowest point of the Sahara is 436 feet (133 m) below sea level in the Qattara Depression in Egypt.

Climate history

The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variation between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years. During the last ice age, the Sahara was bigger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries[2]. The end of the ice age brought wetter times to the Sahara, from about 8000 B.C.E. to 6000 B.C.E., perhaps due to low pressure areas over the collapsing ice sheets to the north[3].

Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern part of the Sahara dried out. However, not long after the end of the ice sheets, the monsoon, which currently brings rain to the Sahel, came farther north and counteracted the drying trend in the southern Sahara. The monsoon in Africa (and elsewhere) is due to heating during the summer. Air over land becomes warmer and rises, pulling in cool wet air from the ocean. This causes rain. Paradoxically, the Sahara was wetter when it received more insolation in the summer. In turn, changes in solar insolation are caused by changes in the Earth's orbital parameters.[citation needed]

By around 2500 B.C.E., the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today[4], leading to the desertification of the Sahara. The Sahara is currently as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago.[5] These conditions are responsible for what has been called the Sahara Pump Theory.

Temperatures

The Sahara desert has one of the harshest climates in the world. It has many strong winds that blow from the north-east. Sometimes on the border zones of the north and south, the desert will receive about 25 cm (10 in.) of rain a year. The rainfall is usually torrential when it occurs after long dry periods, which can last for years. Daytime temperatures can be 58°c (136°F), but freezing temperatures aren’t uncommon at night. Its temperature can become -6°c (22°F).[citation needed]

History

The sun shines over Saharan dunes.

Cattle Period

By 6000 B.C.E. predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium B.C.E. centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep.[6] Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone.[6] Tanning animal skins, pottery, and weaving are commonplace in this era also.[6] There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium B.C.E., with food activities centering on fishing, hunting, and food-gathering.[7] Stone arrowheads, knives, and scrapers are common.[7] Burial items include pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit.[6] The dead are buried facing due west.[6]

Berber Period

The Phonecians created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt, generally settling on the coasts but sometimes in the desert also.

By 2500 B.C.E. the Sahara was as dry as it is today and it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with only scattered settlements around the oases, but little trade or commerce through the desert. The one major exception was the Nile Valley. The Nile River, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact difficult.

Sometime between 633 and 530 B.C.E. Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in the Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace.

Greeks

By 500 B.C.E. a new influence arrived in the form of the Greeks and Phonecians. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing colonies along the Red Sea coast. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert. The turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets never led to an extensive presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside of the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert.

Urban civilization

An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around this time in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al-Ajal in Fazzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Gartamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers, and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels still further into the mountains.[5][8]

The Arabs

After the Arab invasion of the Sahara, trade across the desert intensified. The kingdoms of the Sahel, especially the Ghana Empire and the later Mali Empire, grew rich and powerful exporting gold and salt to North Africa. The emirates along the Mediterranean sent south manufactured goods and horses. From the Sahara itself salt was exported. This process turned the scattered oasis communities into trading centers and brought them under the control of the empires on the edge of the desert.

This trade persisted for several centuries until the development in Europe of the caravel allowed ships, first from Portugal but soon from all Western Europe, to sail around the desert and gather the resources from the source in Guinea. The Sahara was rapidly remarginalized.

The colonial powers also largely ignored the region, but the modern era has seen a number of mines and communities develop to exploit the desert's natural resources. These include large deposits of oil and natural gas in Algeria and Libya and large deposits of phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara.

Contemporary peoples

Throughout the Sahara, Berbers, Arabs, and sub-Saharan Africans are significantly represented genetically.

References
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  1. ↑ http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/06/0617_020618_croc.html
  2. ↑ Christopher Ehret. The Civilizations of Africa. University Press of Virginia, 2002.
  3. ↑ Fezzan Project - Palaeoclimate and environment
  4. ↑ Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started By Changes In Earth's Orbit, Accelerated By Atmospheric And Vegetation Feedbacks
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 White, Kevin and Mattingly, David J. 2006. Ancient Lakes of the Sahara. American Scientist. Volume 94 Number 1 (January-February, 2006). pp. 58-65.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Predynastic (5,500 - 3,100 B.C.E.) www.touregypt.net
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Fayum, Qarunian (Fayum B) (about 6000-5000 B.C.E.?) www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk
  8. ↑ Keys, David. 2004. Kingdom of the Sands. Archaeology. Volume 57 Number 2, (March/April 2004)Abstract - retrieved March 13 2006
  • Pigs in Ancient Egypt by Marie Parsons www.touregypt.net
  • Michael Brett and Elizabeth Frentess. The Berbers. Blackwell Publishers. 1996.
  • Charles-Andre Julien. History of North Africa: From the Arab Conquest to 1830. Praeger, 1970.
  • Abdallah Laroui. The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay. Princeton, 1977.
  • Hugh Kennedy. Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. Longman, 1996.
  • Fezzan Project - Palaeoclimate and environment - retrieved March 15, 2006

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