Difference between revisions of "Psychotherapy" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Psychotherapy''' (also called '''psychological therapy''', '''talk therapy''', or just '''therapy''') is the use of [[Psychology|psychological]] methods, particularly when based on regular [[Conversation|personal interaction]], to help a person change behavior, increase happiness, and overcome problems. Psychotherapy aims to improve an individual's [[well-being]] and [[mental health]], to resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviors, beliefs, compulsions, thoughts, or emotions, and to improve relationships and [[social skills]]. Numerous types of psychotherapy have been designed either for individual adults, families, or children and adolescents. Certain types of psychotherapy are considered [[evidence-based]] for treating some diagnosed [[mental disorder]]s; other types have been criticized as [[pseudoscience]].
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'''Psychotherapy''' (also called '''psychological therapy''', '''talk therapy''', or just '''therapy''') is the use of [[Psychology|psychological]] methods, particularly when based on regular [[Conversation|personal interaction]], to help a person change their behavior, increase [[happiness]], and overcome problems. Psychotherapy aims to improve an individual's [[well-being]] and [[mental health]], to resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviors, [[belief]]s, compulsions, [[thought]]s, or [[emotion]]s, and to improve relationships and [[social skills]]. Numerous types of psychotherapy have been designed either for individual adults, families, or children and adolescents. Certain types of psychotherapy are considered [[evidence-based]] for treating some diagnosed [[mental disorder]]s; other types have been criticized as [[pseudoscience]].
 
   
 
   
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There are hundreds of psychotherapy techniques, some being minor variations; others are based on very different conceptions of psychology. Most involve one-to-one sessions, between the client and therapist, but some are conducted with [[Group psychotherapy|groups]], including [[Family therapy|families]].
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There are hundreds of psychotherapy techniques, some minor variations; others are based on very different conceptions of psychology. Most involve one-to-one sessions, between the client and therapist, but some are conducted with [[Group psychotherapy|groups]], including [[Family therapy|families]].
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Psychotherapists may be [[mental health professionals]] such as psychiatrists, psychologists, mental health nurses, clinical social workers, marriage and family therapists, or professional counselors. Psychotherapists may also come from a variety of other backgrounds, and depending on the [[jurisdiction]] may be legally regulated, voluntarily regulated or unregulated (and the term itself may be protected or not).
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Psychotherapists may be [[mental health professionals]] such as [[psychiatrist]]s, [[psychologist]]s, mental health nurses, clinical [[social worker]]s, marriage and family therapists, or professional counselors. Regardless of their background, they have received training in techniques designed to help people overcome dysfunction due to their psychological problems and lead happy and meaningful lives.
  
 
== Definitions ==
 
== Definitions ==
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Psychotherapy is often dubbed as a "talking therapy" or "talk therapy," referring to the way therapy sessions are often conducted by talking "with a trained therapist in a safe and confidential environment to explore and understand feelings and behaviors and gain coping skills."<ref>[https://www.nami.org/About-Mental-Illness/Treatments/Psychotherapy Psychotherapy] ''National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI)''. Retrieved February 16, 2024.</ref> However, not all forms of psychotherapy rely on [[verbal communication]].<ref>[https://www.yourdictionary.com/talk-therapy "Talk Therapy"] ''The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language'' (2018). Retrieved February 16, 2024.</ref> Children or adults who do not engage in verbal communication (or not in the usual way) are not excluded from psychotherapy; indeed some types are designed for such cases.
 
Psychotherapy is often dubbed as a "talking therapy" or "talk therapy," referring to the way therapy sessions are often conducted by talking "with a trained therapist in a safe and confidential environment to explore and understand feelings and behaviors and gain coping skills."<ref>[https://www.nami.org/About-Mental-Illness/Treatments/Psychotherapy Psychotherapy] ''National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI)''. Retrieved February 16, 2024.</ref> However, not all forms of psychotherapy rely on [[verbal communication]].<ref>[https://www.yourdictionary.com/talk-therapy "Talk Therapy"] ''The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language'' (2018). Retrieved February 16, 2024.</ref> Children or adults who do not engage in verbal communication (or not in the usual way) are not excluded from psychotherapy; indeed some types are designed for such cases.
 
   
 
   
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The [[American Psychological Association]] adopted a resolution on the effectiveness of psychotherapy in 2012 based on a definition developed in 1990 by American psychologist [[John C. Norcross]]<ref>John C. Norcross, An eclectic definition of psychotherapy. In Jeffrey K. Zeig and W. Michael Munion (eds.), ''What is psychotherapy? Contemporary perspectives'' (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1990, ISBN 978-1555422837), 218-220. </ref>: <blockquote>Psychotherapy is the informed and intentional application of clinical methods and interpersonal stances derived from established psychological principles for the purpose of assisting people to modify their behaviors, cognitions, emotions, and/or other personal characteristics in directions that the participants deem desirable.<ref>American Psychological Association [https://www.apa.org/about/policy/resolution-psychotherapy Recognition of Psychotherapy Effectiveness] {{webarchive|(Approved 2021). Retrieved February 20, 2024.</ref></blockquote>
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The [[American Psychological Association]] adopted a resolution on the effectiveness of psychotherapy in 2012 based on a definition developed in 1990 by American psychologist [[John C. Norcross]]<ref>John C. Norcross, An eclectic definition of psychotherapy. In Jeffrey K. Zeig and W. Michael Munion (eds.), ''What is psychotherapy? Contemporary perspectives'' (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1990, ISBN 978-1555422837), 218-220. </ref>: <blockquote>Psychotherapy is the informed and intentional application of clinical methods and interpersonal stances derived from established psychological principles for the purpose of assisting people to modify their behaviors, cognitions, emotions, and/or other personal characteristics in directions that the participants deem desirable.<ref name=resolution>American Psychological Association [https://www.apa.org/about/policy/resolution-psychotherapy Recognition of Psychotherapy Effectiveness] Retrieved February 20, 2024.</ref></blockquote>
  
 
Psychiatrist [[Jerome Frank (psychiatrist)|Jerome Frank]] defined psychotherapy as a healing relationship using socially authorized methods in a series of contacts primarily involving words, acts and rituals—which Frank regarded as forms of [[persuasion]] and [[rhetoric]].<ref>Jerome D. Frank, and Julia B. Frank, ''Persuasion and Healing: A comparative study of psychotherapy'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0801846366).</ref>  
 
Psychiatrist [[Jerome Frank (psychiatrist)|Jerome Frank]] defined psychotherapy as a healing relationship using socially authorized methods in a series of contacts primarily involving words, acts and rituals—which Frank regarded as forms of [[persuasion]] and [[rhetoric]].<ref>Jerome D. Frank, and Julia B. Frank, ''Persuasion and Healing: A comparative study of psychotherapy'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0801846366).</ref>  
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{{Main|Humanistic psychology}}
 
{{Main|Humanistic psychology}}
  
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Humanistic psychotherapies, also known as "[[Experiential knowledge|experiential]]," are based on [[humanistic psychology]] and emerged in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, being dubbed the "third force." They are primarily concerned with the human development and needs of the individual, with an emphasis on [[subjectivity|subjective]] meaning, a rejection of [[determinism]], and a concern for positive growth rather than [[pathology]].<ref> Abraham H. Maslow, ''Toward A Psychology of Being'' (Martino Publishing, 2011 (original 1962), ISBN 978-1614271192). </ref> Some posit an inherent human capacity to maximize potential, "the [[Self-actualization|self-actualizing]] tendency"; the task of therapy is to create a relational environment where this tendency might flourish.<ref>Stefaroi, P. (2012) "The Humanistic Approach in Psychology & Psychotherapy, Sociology & Social Work, Pedagogy & Education, Management and Art: Personal Development and Community Development", Charleston SC, US: CreateSpace, {{ISBN|978-1535271646}}.</ref>
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Humanistic psychotherapies, also known as "[[Experiential knowledge|experiential]]," are based on [[humanistic psychology]] and emerged in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, being dubbed the "third force." They are primarily concerned with the human development and needs of the individual, with an emphasis on [[subjectivity|subjective]] meaning, a rejection of [[determinism]], and a concern for positive growth rather than [[pathology]].<ref> Abraham H. Maslow, ''Toward A Psychology of Being'' (Martino Publishing, 2011 (original 1962), ISBN 978-1614271192). </ref>  
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Humanistic psychology includes several approaches to [[counseling]] and [[psychotherapy|therapy]]. These include the existential psychology of [[Rollo May]], [[nondirective psychotherapy|person-centered]] or client-centered therapy developed by [[Carl Rogers]], [[Gestalt therapy]] developed by [[Fritz Perls]], transactional analysis developed by Eric Berne, [[marital counseling]], and [[family therapy]].
 
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The general aim of humanistic therapy is to give a holistic description of the person. By using phenomenological, intersubjective and first person categories, the humanistic psychologist attempts to glimpse the whole person and not just fragmented parts of the [[personality]].
 
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Such therapy also seeks an integration of the whole person, referred to as self-actualization by Maslow. According to humanistic thinking, each person already has inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and self-concept. The mission of the humanistic psychologist is to point the individual in the direction of these resources. The therapist is, in some circumstances, closer to a guide than to a clinician. However, in order to actualize hidden potentials the person might have to give up the safety of a particular stage of the personality in order to embrace a new and more integrated stage. This is not a simple or easy process, as it might include confronting new life-choices or redefining one's view of life. Humanistic psychology views psychological instability and [[anxiety]] as normal features of human life and development that can be worked through in therapy.
 
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[[Person-centered therapy]], also known as client-centered, focuses on the therapist showing openness, empathy and "unconditional positive regard", to help clients express and develop their own [[self]].<ref>Rogers, C. R. (1951) "Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications, and Theory", Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>
 
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Humanistic [[Psychodrama]] (HPD) is based on the human image of humanistic psychology.<ref>H.-W. Gessmann: Humanistische Psychologie und Humanistisches Psychodrama. In: Humanistisches Psychodrama. Band IV, Verlag des Psychotherapeutischen Instituts Bergerhausen, Duisburg 1996, S. 27–76.</ref> So all rules and methods follow the axioms of humanistic psychology. The HPD sees itself as development-oriented psychotherapy and has completely moved away from the psychoanalytic catharsis theory.<ref>H.-W. Gessmann: Erste Überlegungen zur Überwindung des Katharsisbegriffs im Humanistischen Psychodrama. In: Internationale Zeitschrift für Humanistisches Psychodrama. 5. Jahrgang, Heft 2, Dez 1999, Verlag des Psychotherapeutischen Instituts Bergerhausen, Duisburg, S. 5–26, ISSN 0949-3018</ref>
 
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Self-awareness and self-realization are essential aspects in the therapeutic process. Subjective experiences, feelings and thoughts and one's own experiences are the starting point for a change or reorientation in experience and behavior in the direction of more self-acceptance and satisfaction. Dealing with the biography of the individual is closely related to the sociometry of the group.<ref>H.-W. Gessmann: Die Humanistische Psychologie und das Humanistische Psychodrama. In: Humanistisches Psychodrama. Band IV, Verlag des Psychotherapeutischen Instituts Bergerhausen, Duisburg 1996, {{ISBN|3-928524-31-3}}.</ref>
 
  
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[[Gestalt therapy]], originally called "concentration therapy", is an existential/experiential form that facilitates awareness in the various contexts of life, by moving from talking about relatively remote situations to action and direct current experience. Derived from various influences, including an overhaul of psychoanalysis, it stands on top of essentially four load-bearing theoretical walls: [[phenomenology (psychology)|phenomenological method]], dialogical relationship, field-theoretical strategies, and experimental freedom.<ref>Wheeler, G. (1991) "Gestalt reconsidered", New York: Gardner Press.</ref>
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Such therapy also seeks an integration of the whole person, referred to as self-actualization by [[Abraham Maslow]]. Each person is understood as already having inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and [[self-concept]]; the mission of the therapist is to point the individual in the direction of these resources. However, in order to actualize hidden potentials the person might have to give up the safety of a particular stage of the personality in order to embrace a new and more integrated stage. This is not a simple or easy process, as it might include confronting new life-choices or redefining one's view of life. Thus, psychological instability and [[anxiety]] are viewed as as normal features of human life and development that can be worked through in therapy.
  
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A briefer form of humanistic therapy is the [[human givens]] approach, introduced in 1998{{ndash}}99.<ref>{{cite book |last2=Tyrrell |first2=Ivan |last1=Griffin |first1=Joe |title=Psychotherapy, Counselling and the Human Givens (Organising Idea)|date=1998|publisher=European Therapy Studies Institute |isbn=978-1899398959}}</ref> It is a solution-focused intervention based on identifying emotional needs—such as for security, autonomy and social connection—and using various educational and psychological methods to help people meet those needs more fully or appropriately.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Maslow|first1=A. H.|title=A theory of human motivation|journal=Psychological Review|volume=50|issue=4|pages=370–396|doi=10.1037/h0054346|url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm|year=1943|hdl=10983/23610|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914183817/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm|archive-date=14 September 2017|citeseerx=10.1.1.334.7586|s2cid=53326433 }}</ref><ref name="refDeciRyan1978">{{cite book |last1=Deci |first1=Edward L. |last2=Ryan |first2=Richard M. |title=Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior |year=1985 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7 |isbn=9781489922731}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Griffin|first1=Joe|last2=Tyrrell|first2=Ivan|title=Human givens: The new approach to emotional health and clear thinking|date=2013|publisher=HG Publishing|location=Chalvington, East Sussex|isbn=978-1899398317|pages=97–153|edition=New|url=http://www.humangivens.com/publications/human-givens-book.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008073609/http://www.humangivens.com/publications/human-givens-book.html|archive-date=8 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| title = Human givens therapy: The evidence base |year= 2008 |journal= Mental Health Review Journal |pages= 44–52 |volume= 13 |issue= 4 |last1= Corp |first1= Nadia |last2= Tsaroucha |first2= Anna |last3= Kingston |first3= Paul |doi= 10.1108/13619322200800027}}</ref>
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Humanistic psychology has led to several approaches to [[counseling]] and therapy. These include the existential psychology of [[Rollo May]], [[nondirective psychotherapy|person-centered]] or client-centered therapy developed by [[Carl Rogers]], [[Gestalt therapy]] developed by [[Fritz Perls]], transactional analysis developed by Eric Berne, [[marital counseling]], and [[family therapy]].
  
 
===Integrative===
 
===Integrative===
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In practice therapy is often not of one pure type but draws from a number of perspectives and schools—known as an [[Integrative psychotherapy|integrative]] or [[Eclectic psychotherapy|eclectic]] approach.<ref>{{cite book |first1= Hans |last1= Strupp |author1-link= Hans Herrman Strupp |first2= Jeffrey |last2= Binder |title= Psychotherapy in a New Key |location= New York |publisher= Basic Books |year= 1984 |isbn= 9780465067473 |url= https://archive.org/details/psychotherapyinn00stru }}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1= Anthony |last1= Roth |first2= Peter |last2= Fonagy |author2-link= Peter Fonagy |title= What Works for Whom? A Critical Review of Psychotherapy Research |publisher= Guilford Press |year= 2005 |orig-year= 1996 |edition= revised |isbn= 9781572306509}}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>  
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In practice therapy is often not of one pure type but draws from a number of perspectives and schools—known as an [[Integrative psychotherapy|integrative]] or [[Eclectic psychotherapy|eclectic]] approach.<ref> John C. Norcross and Marvin R. Goldfried (eds.), ''Handbook of Psychotherapy Integration'' (Oxford University Press, 2019, ISBN 978-0190690465).</ref> These approaches include mixing core beliefs and combining proven techniques. Forms of integrative psychotherapy include [[multimodal therapy]], the [[transtheoretical model]], cyclical psychodynamics, systematic treatment selection, [[cognitive analytic therapy]], [[Internal Family Systems Model|internal family systems model]], [[multitheoretical psychotherapy]], and conceptual interaction. In practice, most experienced psychotherapists develop their own integrative approach over time, based on the needs of their individual clients seeking treatement.
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Integrative psychotherapies involve the integration of elements from different schools of psychotherapy in the treatment of a client. Integrative psychotherapy may also refer to the psychotherapeutic process of integrating the [[personality]]: uniting the "affective, cognitive, behavioral, and physiological systems within a person".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Association: Definition of 'Integrative' |publisher=International Integrative Psychotherapy Association |url=http://integrativeassociation.com/english/association/ |access-date=2009-06-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011012738/http://integrativeassociation.com/english/association/ |archive-date=2016-10-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 
  
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[[Integrative psychotherapy]] is an attempt to combine ideas and strategies from more than one theoretical approach.<ref>{{cite book |title= Handbook of Psychotherapy Integration |last1= Norcross |first1= John C. |author-link1=John C. Norcross |last2= Goldfried |first2= Marvin R. |year= 2005 |edition= 2nd |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 9780195165791}}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref> These approaches include mixing core beliefs and combining proven techniques. Forms of integrative psychotherapy include [[multimodal therapy]], the [[transtheoretical model]], cyclical psychodynamics, systematic treatment selection, [[cognitive analytic therapy]], [[Internal Family Systems Model|internal family systems model]], [[multitheoretical psychotherapy]] and conceptual interaction. In practice, most experienced psychotherapists develop their own integrative approach over time.
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Integrative psychotherapy is sometimes referred to as "holistic therapy" because it considers the client's mental, physical, and emotional health in a unified way.<ref>[https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/therapy-types/integrative-therapy Integrative Therapy] ''Psychology Today''. Retrieved February 22, 2024.</ref>
  
 
=== Other===
 
=== Other===
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Beyond those four major categories there are many other forms of therapy. Some of the more popular types are included here.
 
;Systemic
 
;Systemic
 
[[File:Gruppovaya-psihoterapiya.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A group therapy session]]
 
[[File:Gruppovaya-psihoterapiya.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A group therapy session]]
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[[Systemic therapy]] seeks to address people not just individually, as is often the focus of other forms of therapy, but in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups, their patterns and dynamics (includes [[family therapy]] and [[marriage counseling]]). [[Community psychology]] is a type of systemic psychology.
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[[Systemic therapy]] seeks to address people not just individually, as is often the focus of other forms of therapy, but in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups, their patterns and dynamics. This includes [[family therapy]] and [[marriage counseling]].
  
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The term [[group therapy]] was first used around 1920 by [[Jacob L. Moreno]], whose main contribution was the development of [[psychodrama]], in which groups were used as both cast and audience for the exploration of individual problems by reenactment under the direction of the leader. The more analytic and exploratory use of groups in both hospital and out-patient settings was pioneered by a few European psychoanalysts who emigrated to the US, such as [[Paul Schilder]], who treated severely neurotic and mildly psychotic out-patients in small groups at Bellevue Hospital, New York. The power of groups was most influentially demonstrated in Britain during the Second World War, when several psychoanalysts and psychiatrists proved the value of group methods for officer selection in the War Office Selection Boards. A chance to run an Army psychiatric unit on group lines was then given to several of these pioneers, notably [[Wilfred Bion]] and Rickman, followed by [[S. H. Foulkes]], Main, and Bridger. The [[Northfield Hospital]] in Birmingham gave its name to what came to be called the two "Northfield Experiments", which provided the impetus for the development since the war of both social therapy, that is, the [[therapeutic community]] movement, and the use of small groups for the treatment of neurotic and personality disorders. Today group therapy is used in clinical settings and in private practice settings.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Gessmann |first= Hans-Werner |author-link= Hans-Werner Gessmann |year= 2011 |title= Empirischer Beitrag zur Prüfung der Wirksamkeit psychodramatischer Gruppenpsychotherapie bei NeurosepatientInnen (ICD-10: F3, F4) |trans-title= The effects of psychodramatic group psychotherapy with neurosis patients — An empirical contribution (ICD-10: F3, F4) |journal= Zeitschrift für Psychodrama und Soziometrie |volume= 10 |issue= 1 suppl |pages= 69–87 |doi= 10.1007/s11620-011-0128-3 |s2cid= 141232001 |language= de}}</ref>
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The term [[group therapy]] was first used around 1920 by [[Jacob L. Moreno]], whose main contribution was the development of [[psychodrama]], in which groups were used as both cast and audience for the exploration of individual problems by reenactment under the direction of the leader. The more analytic and exploratory use of groups in both hospital and out-patient settings was pioneered by a few European psychoanalysts who emigrated to the US, such as [[Paul Schilder]], who treated severely neurotic and mildly psychotic out-patients in small groups at Bellevue Hospital, New York. Today group therapy is used both in clinical settings and in private practice.
  
 
;Expressive
 
;Expressive
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{{Main|Expressive therapy}}
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Expressive psychotherapy is a form of therapy that utilizes artistic expression  (via improvisational, compositional, re-creative, and receptive experiences) as its core means of treating clients. Expressive psychotherapists use the different disciplines of the creative arts as therapeutic interventions. This includes the modalities [[dance therapy]], [[drama therapy]], [[art therapy]], [[music therapy]], [[writing therapy]], among others.<ref> Cathy A. Malchiodi, ''Expressive Therapies'' (The Guilford Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1593853792).</ref> Expressive psychotherapists believe that often the most effective way of treating a client is through the expression of imagination in creative work and integrating and processing what issues are raised in the act.
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Expressive psychotherapy is a form of therapy that utilizes artistic expression  (via improvisational, compositional, re-creative, and receptive experiences) as its core means of treating clients. Expressive psychotherapists use the different disciplines of the creative arts as therapeutic interventions. This includes the modalities [[dance therapy]], [[drama therapy]], [[art therapy]], [[music therapy]], [[writing therapy]], among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malchiodi |first=Cathy A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g_k2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PR1 |title=Expressive Therapies |date=27 November 2013 |publisher=Guilford Publications |isbn=978-1-4625-1490-8 }}</ref> This may include techniques such as [[affect labeling]]. Expressive psychotherapists believe that often the most effective way of treating a client is through the expression of imagination in creative work and integrating and processing what issues are raised in the act.
 
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;Postmodernist
 
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Also known as [[post-structuralist]] or [[Constructivism (psychological school)|constructivist]]. [[Narrative therapy]] gives attention to each person's "dominant story" through therapeutic conversations, which also may involve exploring unhelpful ideas and how they came to prominence. Possible social and cultural influences may be explored if the client deems it helpful. [[Coherence therapy]] posits multiple levels of mental constructs that create symptoms as a way to strive for self-protection or self-realization. [[Feminist therapy]] does not accept that there is one single or correct way of looking at reality and therefore is considered a postmodernist approach.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_rsAdzE9KfkC Introduction to Feminist Therapy: Strategies for Social and Individual Change] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723045949/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_rsAdzE9KfkC |date=23 July 2015 }} 2010. Introduction pg180</ref>
 
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;Transpersonal
 
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[[Transpersonal psychology]] addresses the client in the context of a spiritual understanding of consciousness.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-11-03 |title=Transpersonal Psychology: Principles and Applications |url=https://psychcentral.com/health/transpersonal-psychology-spiritual-therapy |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=Psych Central |language=en}}</ref> [[Positive psychotherapy]] (PPT) (since 1968) is a method in the field of humanistic and psychodynamic psychotherapy and is based on a positive image of humans, with a health-promoting, resource-oriented and conflict-centered approach.
 
  
 
;Hypnotherapy
 
;Hypnotherapy
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[[Hypnotherapy]] is undertaken while a subject is in a state of [[hypnosis]]. Hypnotherapy is often applied in order to modify a subject's behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including: dysfunctional habits,<ref name="Karkut">{{cite journal |last1= Johnson |first1= David L. |last2=Karkut |first2= Richard T. | title = Performance by gender in a stop-smoking program combining hypnosis and aversion | journal = [[Psychological Reports]] | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 851–7 | date = October 1994 | pmid = 7862796 | doi = 10.2466/pr0.1994.75.2.851 |s2cid= 39850409 }}</ref><ref name="Barber">{{cite journal | last = Barber | first = Joseph | title = Freedom from smoking: integrating hypnotic methods and rapid smoking to facilitate smoking cessation | journal = The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis | volume = 49 | issue = 3 | pages = 257–66 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11430159 | doi = 10.1080/00207140108410075 | s2cid = 29607578 | url = http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4584046/Barber-Freedom_from_smoking.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120706021042/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4584046/Barber-Freedom_from_smoking.pdf | archive-date = 6 July 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Wynd">{{cite journal |last= Wynd |first= Christine A. | title = Guided health imagery for smoking cessation and long-term abstinence | journal = Journal of Nursing Scholarship | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 245–50 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16235865 | doi = 10.1111/j.1547-5069.2005.00042.x }}</ref><ref name="Yerardi">{{cite journal |last1= Ahijevych |first1= Karen |last2= Yerardi |first2= Ruth |last3= Nedilsky |first3= Nancy | title = Descriptive outcomes of the American Lung Association of Ohio hypnotherapy smoking cessation program | journal = The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis | volume = 48 | issue = 4 | pages = 374–87 | date = October 2000 | pmid = 11011498 | doi = 10.1080/00207140008410367 |s2cid= 1116717 }}</ref><ref name="Pekala">{{cite journal |last1= Pekala |first1= Ronald J. |last2= Maurer |first2= Ronald |last3= Kumar |first3= V.K. |last4= Elliott |first4= Nancy C. |last5= Masten |first5= Ellsworth |last6= Moon |first6= Edward |last7= Salinger |first7= Margaret | title = Self-hypnosis relapse prevention training with chronic drug/alcohol users: effects on self-esteem, affect, and relapse | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–97 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15190730 | doi = 10.1080/00029157.2004.10403613 |s2cid= 38903485 | display-authors = 4 }}</ref> anxiety,<ref name="O'Neill">{{cite journal |title= Treating anxiety with self-hypnosis and relaxation |last1= O'Neill |first1= Lucy M. |last2= Barnier |first2= Amanda J. |last3= McConkey |first3= Kevin |year= 1999 |journal= Contemporary Hypnosis |volume= 16 |issue= 2 |pages= 68–80 |doi= 10.1002/ch.154}}</ref> stress-related illness,<ref name="Bryant">{{cite journal | last1 = Bryant | first1 = Richard A. | last2 = Moulds | first2 = Michelle L. | last3 = Guthrie | first3 = Rachel M. | last4 = Nixon | first4 = Reginald D.V. | title = The additive benefit of hypnosis and cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating acute stress disorder | journal = Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 334–340 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15796641 | doi = 10.1037/0022-006X.73.2.334 | url = http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4448284/Bryant-Additive_benefit_hypnosis_acute_stress_disorder.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130502042825/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4448284/Bryant-Additive_benefit_hypnosis_acute_stress_disorder.pdf | archive-date = 2 May 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Ellner">{{cite journal |url= http://pain-topics.org/pdf/Hypnosis-in-Disability-Pain.pdf |title= Hypnosis in disability settings |last1= Ellner |first1= Michael |last2= Aurbach |first2= Robert |year= 2009 |journal= IAIABC Journal |volume= 46 |issue= 2 |pages= 57–75 |access-date= 29 April 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120713210443/http://pain-topics.org/pdf/Hypnosis-in-Disability-Pain.pdf |archive-date= 13 July 2012 |df= dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Whitehouse">{{cite journal |last1= Whitehouse |first1= Wayne G. |last2= Dinges |first2= David F. |last3= Orne |first3= Emily C. |last4= Keller |first4= Steven E. |last5= Bates |first5= Brad L. |last6= Bauer |first6= Nancy K. |last7= Morahan |first7= Page |last8= Haupt |first8= Barbara A. |last9= Carlin |first9= Michele M. |last10= Bloom |first10= Peter B. |last11= Zuagg |first11= Line |last12= Orne |first12= Martin T. |title= Psychosocial and immune effects of self-hypnosis training for stress management throughout the first semester of medical school |journal= Psychosomatic Medicine |volume= 58 |issue= 3 |pages= 249–63 |year= 1996 |pmid= 8771625 |url= http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4464881/Whitehouse-Psychosocial_immune_effects_self_hypnosis_stress.pdf |display-authors= 4 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402155054/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4464881/Whitehouse-Psychosocial_immune_effects_self_hypnosis_stress.pdf |archive-date= 2 April 2015 |df= dmy-all |doi= 10.1097/00006842-199605000-00009 |s2cid= 43116854 }}</ref> pain management,<ref name="Ngai">{{Cite web |url= http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/1999F/Hypnotism.pdf |title= Hypnosis in Pain Management |last= Ngai |first= Hoi N. |year= 2000 |access-date= 29 April 2013 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131020222016/http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/1999F/Hypnotism.pdf |archive-date= 20 October 2013 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2014}}<ref name="Hammond">{{cite journal | last = Hammond | first = D. Corydon | title = Review of the efficacy of clinical hypnosis with headaches and migraines | journal = The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis | volume = 55 | issue = 2 | pages = 207–19 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17365074 | doi = 10.1080/00207140601177921 | s2cid = 19705476 | url = http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4531149/Hammond-Review_efficacy_clinical_hypnosis_headaches_migraines.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130502042315/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4531149/Hammond-Review_efficacy_clinical_hypnosis_headaches_migraines.pdf | archive-date = 2 May 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> and personal development.<ref name="Cannon">{{cite web |url= http://www.hypnotherapyarticles.com/ArtG/articleg00050.htm |title= How to learn better study habits through hypnosis |last= Cannon |first= Georgina |year= 2008 |work= Hypnotherapy Articles: Promoting Knowledge |access-date= 29 April 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130126100646/http://www.hypnotherapyarticles.com/ArtG/articleg00050.htm |archive-date= 26 January 2013 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2014}}<ref name="Callen">{{cite journal |last= Callen |first= Kenneth E. | title = Auto-hypnosis in long distance runners | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 30–6 | date = July 1983 | pmid = 6678109 | doi = 10.1080/00029157.1983.10404135 }}</ref>
+
[[Hypnotherapy]] is undertaken while a subject is in a state of [[hypnosis]]. Proponoents view hypnotherapy as a helpful adjunct therapy, having additive effects when treating psychological disorders, such as [[Clinical depression|depression]], [[anxiety]], [[eating disorder]]s, [[sleep disorder]]s, compulsive [[gambling]], [[phobia]]s and [[post-traumatic stress disorder|post-traumatic stress]], along with cognitive therapies.<ref> Assen Alladin, ''Cognitive Hypnotherapy: An Integrated Approach to the Treatment of Emotional Disorders'' (Wiley, 2008, ISBN 978-0470032473).</ref>
  
 
== Computer-supported ==
 
== Computer-supported ==
 
{{See also|Online counseling|Use of technology in treatment of mental disorders}}
 
{{See also|Online counseling|Use of technology in treatment of mental disorders}}
  
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Research on computer-supported and computer-based interventions has increased significantly over the course of the last two decades.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andersson|first=Gerhard|date=28 March 2016|title=Internet-delivered psychological treatments|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=157–179|doi=10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093006|pmid=26652054|issn=1548-5943}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hedman|first=Erik|date=2014|title=Cognitive behavior therapy via the Internet: a systematic review of applications, clinical efficacy and cost–effectiveness|journal=[[Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research]]|volume=12|issue=6|pages=745–764|doi=10.1586/erp.12.67|pmid=23252357|s2cid=12867169}}</ref> The following applications frequently have been investigated:
+
Research on computer-supported and computer-based interventions increased significantly in the early twenty-first century.<ref>[https://www.psychiatry.org/news-room/apa-blogs/computer-assisted-treatment-and-mobile-apps Computer-Assisted Treatment and Mobile Apps for Depression] ''American Psychiatric Association''. Retrieved February 23, 2024.</ref> Common applications include<ref>[https://www.ai-therapy.com/articles/computers-and-therapy Computers and Therapy] ''AI Therapy''. Retrieved February 23, 2024.</ref>:
  
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* Virtual reality: [[Virtual reality|VR]] is a computer-generated scenario that simulates experience. The immersive environment, used for simulated [[Exposure therapy|exposure]], can be similar to the real world or it can be fantastical, creating a new experience.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Miloff|first1=Alexander|last2=Lindner|first2=Philip|last3=Hamilton|first3=William|last4=Reuterskiöld|first4=Lena|last5=Andersson|first5=Gerhard|last6=Carlbring|first6=Per|date=2 February 2016|title=Single-session gamified virtual reality exposure therapy for spider phobia vs. traditional exposure therapy: study protocol for a randomized controlled non-inferiority trial|journal=Trials|volume=17|pages=60|doi=10.1186/s13063-016-1171-1|issn=1745-6215|pmc=4736108|pmid=26833396 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Riva|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Baños|first2=Rosa M.|last3=Botella|first3=Cristina|last4=Mantovani|first4=Fabrizia|last5=Gaggioli|first5=Andrea|date=2016|title=Transforming experience: The potential of augmented reality and virtual reality for enhancing personal and clinical change|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|volume=7|pages=164|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00164|issn=1664-0640|pmc=5043228|pmid=27746747|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+
* Virtual reality: [[Virtual reality|VR]] is a computer-generated scenario that simulates experience. The immersive environment, used for simulated [[Exposure therapy|exposure]], can be similar to the real world or it can be fantastical, creating a new experience.
−
* Computer-based interventions (or ''online interventions'' or ''internet interventions''): These interventions can be described as interactive self-help. They usually entail a combination of text, audio or video elements.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Richards|first1=Derek|last2=Richardson|first2=Thomas|date=June 2012|title=Computer-based psychological treatments for depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=32|issue=4|pages=329–342 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2012.02.004|pmid=22466510|issn=0272-7358|hdl=2262/63861|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Berger|first=Thomas|date=2017|title=The therapeutic alliance in internet interventions: A narrative review and suggestions for future research.|pmid=26732852|journal=Psychotherapy Research|volume=27 |issue=5|pages=511–524|via=Taylor & Francis Online|doi=10.1080/10503307.2015.1119908|s2cid=4769067}}</ref>
+
* Computer-based interventions (or ''online interventions'' or ''internet interventions''): These interventions can be described as interactive self-help. They usually entail a combination of text, audio, or video elements.
−
* Computer-supported therapy (or ''blended therapy''): Classical psychotherapy is supported by means of online or [[software application]] elements. The feasibility of such interventions has been investigated for individual<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Erbe|first1=Doris|last2=Eichert|first2=Hans-Christoph|last3=Riper|first3=Heleen|last4=Ebert|first4=David Daniel|date=15 September 2017|title=Blending face-to-face and internet-based interventions for the treatment of mental disorders in adults: Systematic review|journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research|volume=19|issue=9|pages=e306|doi=10.2196/jmir.6588|issn=1438-8871|pmc=5622288|pmid=28916506 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and group therapy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schuster|first1=Raphael|last2=Fichtenbauer|first2=Isabelle|last3=Sparr|first3=Verena Maria|last4=Berger|first4=Thomas|last5=Laireiter|first5=Anton-Rupert|date=1 March 2018|title=Feasibility of a blended group treatment (bGT) for major depression: uncontrolled interventional study in a university setting|url= http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/8/3/e018412|journal=BMJ Open|volume=8|issue=3|pages=e018412|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2017-018412|issn=2044-6055|pmc=5857649|pmid=29530905|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425032024/http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/8/3/e018412|archive-date=25 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schuster|first1=Raphael|last2=Sigl|first2=Sophia|last3=Berger|first3=Thomas|last4=Laireiter|first4=Anton-Rupert|date=11 July 2018|title=Patients' Experiences of Web- and Mobile-Assisted Group Therapy for Depression and Implications of the Group Setting: Qualitative Follow-Up Study|journal=JMIR Mental Health|volume=5|issue=3|pages=e49|doi=10.2196/mental.9613|pmid=29997106|pmc=6060305|issn=2368-7959 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+
* Computer-supported therapy (or ''blended therapy''): Classical psychotherapy is supported by means of online or [[software application]] elements. Such interventions have been implemented for individual and group therapy.
  
 
=== Telepsychotherapy ===
 
=== Telepsychotherapy ===
−
'''Telepsychiatry''' or '''telemental health''' refers to the use of [[telecommunications]] technology (mostly [[Videotelephony|videoconferencing]] and phone calls) to deliver [[Psychiatry|psychiatric care]] remotely for people with [[Mental disorder|mental health conditions]]. It is a branch of [[Telehealth|telemedicine]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=What is Telepsychiatry? |url=https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/telepsychiatry |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=American Psychiatric Association |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=What is Telemental Health? |url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-is-telemental-health |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) |language=en}}</ref>
+
'''Telepsychiatry''' or '''telemental health''' refers to the use of [[telecommunications]] technology (mostly [[Videotelephony|videoconferencing]] and phone calls) to deliver [[Psychiatry|psychiatric care]] remotely for people with [[Mental disorder|mental health conditions]]. It is a branch of [[Telehealth|telemedicine]].<ref>[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/telepsychiatry What is Telepsychiatry?] ''American Psychiatric Association''. Retrieved February 23, 2024.</ref> During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] mental health services were adapted to telemental health.
  
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Telepsychiatry can be effective in treating people with mental health conditions. In the short-term it can be as acceptable and effective as face-to-face care.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Schlief |first1=Merle |last2=Saunders |first2=Katherine R K |last3=Appleton |first3=Rebecca |last4=Barnett |first4=Phoebe |last5=Vera San Juan |first5=Norha |last6=Foye |first6=Una |last7=Olive |first7=Rachel Rowan |last8=Machin |first8=Karen |last9=Shah |first9=Prisha |last10=Chipp |first10=Beverley |last11=Lyons |first11=Natasha |last12=Tamworth |first12=Camilla |last13=Persaud |first13=Karen |last14=Badhan |first14=Monika |last15=Black |first15=Carrie-Ann |date=2022-09-29 |title=Synthesis of the Evidence on What Works for Whom in Telemental Health: Rapid Realist Review |journal=Interactive Journal of Medical Research |language=en |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=e38239 |doi=10.2196/38239 |issn=1929-073X |pmc=9524537 |pmid=35767691 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
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While telepsychiatry can improve access to mental health services for some it might also represent a barrier for those lacking access to a suitable device, the internet or the necessary [[Computer literacy|digital skills]]. Factors such as [[poverty]] that are associated with lack of internet access are also associated with greater risk of mental health problems, making [[Digital divide|digital exclusion]] an important problem of telemental health services.
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It can improve access to mental health services for some but might also represent a barrier for those lacking access to a suitable device, the internet or the necessary [[Computer literacy|digital skills]]. Factors such as [[poverty]] that are associated with lack of internet access are also associated with greater risk of mental health problems, making [[Digital divide|digital exclusion]] an important problem of telemental health services.<ref name=":4" />
 
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During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] mental health services were adapted to telemental health in [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income countries]]. It proved effective and acceptable for use in an emergency situation but there were concerns regarding its long-term implementation.<ref name=":52">{{Cite journal |last1=Appleton |first1=Rebecca |last2=Williams |first2=Julie |last3=Vera San Juan |first3=Norha |last4=Needle |first4=Justin J |last5=Schlief |first5=Merle |last6=Jordan |first6=Harriet |last7=Sheridan Rains |first7=Luke |last8=Goulding |first8=Lucy |last9=Badhan |first9=Monika |last10=Roxburgh |first10=Emily |last11=Barnett |first11=Phoebe |last12=Spyridonidis |first12=Spyros |last13=Tomaskova |first13=Magdalena |last14=Mo |first14=Jiping |last15=Harju-Seppänen |first15=Jasmine |date=2021-12-09 |title=Implementation, Adoption, and Perceptions of Telemental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Systematic Review |journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research |language=en |volume=23 |issue=12 |pages=e31746 |doi=10.2196/31746 |issn=1438-8871 |pmc=8664153 |pmid=34709179 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 
  
 
== Evaluation ==
 
== Evaluation ==
 +
Large-scale international reviews of scientific studies have concluded that psychotherapy is effective for numerous conditions, leading the American Psychological Association to adopt their 2012 resolution recognizing its effectiveness.<ref name=resolution/>
  
−
There is considerable controversy about whether, or when, psychotherapy efficacy is best evaluated by [[randomized controlled trials]] or more individualized [[idiographic]] methods.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/10/science/for-psychotherapy-s-claims-skeptics-demand-proof.html |title= For psychotherapy's claims, skeptics demand proof |first= Benedict |last= Carey |newspaper= [[The New York Times]] |date= 10 August 2004 |access-date= 25 December 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160419175005/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/10/science/for-psychotherapy-s-claims-skeptics-demand-proof.html |archive-date= 19 April 2016 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>
+
Research consistently finds that supposedly different forms of psychotherapy show similar effectiveness:
−
 
+
<blockquote>Meta-analyses of psychotherapy studies have consistently demonstrated that there are no substantial differences in outcomes among treatments. ... little evidence to suggest that any one psychological therapy consistently outperforms any other for any specific psychological disorders.<ref> Steven D. Brown and Robert W. Lent (eds.), ''Handbook of Counseling Psychology'' (Wiley, 2008, ISBN 978-0470096222).</ref></blockquote>
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One issue with trials is what to use as a [[placebo]] treatment group or non-treatment [[control group]]. Often, this group includes patients on a waiting list, or those receiving some kind of regular non-specific contact or support. Researchers must consider how best to match the use of inert tablets or sham treatments in [[Placebo-controlled study|placebo-controlled studies]] in pharmaceutical trials. Several interpretations and differing assumptions and language remain.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=SPPr7HN7yugC Talking Cures and Placebo Effects] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723051735/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SPPr7HN7yugC |date=23 July 2015 }} David A. Jopling OUP Oxford, 29 May 2008</ref> Another issue is the attempt to standardize and manualize therapies and link them to specific symptoms of diagnostic categories, making them more amenable to research. Some report that this may reduce efficacy or gloss over individual needs. Fonagy and Roth's opinion is that the benefits of the evidence-based approach outweighs the difficulties.<ref>Roth A., and Fonagy P. (2005) What Works for Whom: A critical review of psychotherapy research. Second Edition. The Guildford Press</ref>
 
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There are several formal frameworks for evaluating whether a psychotherapist is a good fit for a patient. One example is the Scarsdale Psychotherapy Self-Evaluation (SPSE).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://howtherapyworks.com/the-scarsdale-psychotherapy-self-evaluation-spse/|title=The Scarsdale Psychotherapy Self-Evaluation (SPSE)|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414233901/http://howtherapyworks.com/the-scarsdale-psychotherapy-self-evaluation-spse/|archive-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> However, some scales, such as the SPS, elicit information specific to certain schools of psychotherapy alone (e.g. the superego).
 
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Many psychotherapists believe that the nuances of psychotherapy cannot be captured by questionnaire-style observation, and prefer to rely on their own clinical experiences and conceptual arguments to support the type of treatment they practice. Psychodynamic therapists increasingly believe that evidence-based approaches are appropriate to their methods and assumptions, and have increasingly accepted the challenge to implement evidence-based approaches in their methods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last= Silverman |first= Doris K. |title= What Works in Psychotherapy and How Do We Know?: What Evidence-Based Practice Has to Offer |journal= [[Psychoanalytic Psychology (journal)|Psychoanalytic Psychology]] |volume= 22 |issue= 2 |year= 2005 |pages= 306–12 |doi= 10.1037/0736-9735.22.2.306}}</ref>
 
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A pioneer in investigating the results of different psychological therapies was psychologist [[Hans Eysenck]], who argued that psychotherapy does not produce any improvement in patients. He held that [[behavior therapy]] is the only effective one. However, it was revealed that Eysenck (who died in 1997) falsified data in his studies about this subject, fabricating data that would indicate that behavioral therapy enables achievements that are impossible to believe. Fourteen of his papers were retracted by journals in 2020, and journals issued 64 statements of concern about publications by him. Rod Buchanan, a biographer of Eysenck, has argued that 87 publications by Eysenck should be retracted.<ref>Eysenck, H. J. & Grossarth-Maticek, R. (1991). Creative novation behaviour therapy as a prophylactic treatment for cancer and coronary heart disease: II. Effects of treatment. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29'', 1, 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(09)80003-X</ref><ref>King's College London (May 2019). King's College London enquiry into publications authored by Professor Hans Eysenck with Professor Ronald Grossarth-Maticek. https://retractionwatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/HE-Enquiry.pdf</ref><ref>Marks, D. F. (2019). The Hans Eysenck affair: Time to correct the scientific record. ''Journal of Health Psychology'', 1–12.</ref><ref>Marks, D. F. & Buchanan, R. D. (2020). King's College London's enquiry into Hans J. Eysenck's 'unsafe' publications must be properly completed. ''Journal of Health Psychology, 25'', 1, 3–6.</ref><ref>O'Grady, C. (15 July 2020). Misconduct allegations push psychology hero off his pedestal. Science Mag. https://www.science.org/content/article/misconduct-allegations-push-psychology-hero-his-pedestal</ref><ref>Pelosi, A. J. (2019). Personality and fatal diseases: Revisiting a scientific scandal. ''Journal of Health Psychology, 24'', 4, 421–439.</ref><ref>Rolls, G. (2015). ''Classic case studies in psychology''. Routledge Taylor & Francis.</ref>
 
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=== Outcomes ===
 
−
Large-scale international reviews of scientific studies have concluded that psychotherapy is effective for numerous conditions.<ref name=resolution/><ref name=Woelbert/>
 
−
 
 
−
One line of research consistently finds that supposedly different forms of psychotherapy show similar effectiveness. According to The Handbook of Counseling Psychology: "Meta-analyses of psychotherapy studies have consistently demonstrated that there are no substantial differences in outcomes among treatments". The handbook states that there is "little evidence to suggest that any one psychological therapy consistently outperforms any other for any specific psychological disorders. This is sometimes called the [[Dodo bird verdict]] after a scene/section in Alice in Wonderland where every competitor in a race was called a winner and is given prizes".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oF_CwsBO8kQC&pg=PA249|title=Handbook of Counseling Psychology|first1=Steven D.|last1=Brown|first2=Robert W.|last2=Lent|date=2 June 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|via=Google Books|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414010510/https://books.google.com.au/books?id=oF_CwsBO8kQC&pg=PA249&redir_esc=y|archive-date=14 April 2018|isbn=9780470228289}}</ref>
 
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Further analyses seek to identify the factors that the psychotherapies have in common that seem to account for this, known as [[common factors theory]]; for example the quality of the therapeutic relationship, interpretation of problem, and the confrontation of painful emotions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nolen-Hoeksema|first1=Susan|title=Abnormal Psychology|date=2014|publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education|location=University in New Haven, Connecticut|isbn=978-0077349165|pages=53–54|edition=Sixth}}</ref><ref name=GreatDebate>{{cite book |title=The Great Psychotherapy Debate: The Evidence for What Makes Psychotherapy Work |first1=Bruce E. |last1=Wampold |author-link1=Bruce Wampold |last2=Imel |first2=Zac E. |year=2015 |orig-year=2001 |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780805857085 |oclc=227918397 |doi=10.4324/9780203582015|s2cid=202248258 }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Benish |first1=Steven G. |last2=Imel |first2=Zac E. |last3=Wampold |first3=Bruce E. |author-link3=Bruce Wampold |year=2008 |title=The relative efficacy of bona fide psychotherapies for treating posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis of direct comparisons |journal=[[Clinical Psychology Review]] |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=746–58 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.005 |pmid=18055080}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Miller |first1= Scott D. |last2= Wampold |first2= Bruce E. |author-link2= Bruce Wampold |last3= Varhely |first3= Katelyn |year= 2008 |title= Direct comparisons of treatment modalities for youth disorders: A meta-analysis |url= http://scottdmiller.com/wp-content/uploads/Direct%20Comparisons%20%28Journal%20Copy%29.pdf |journal= [[Psychotherapy Research]] |volume= 18 |issue= 1 |pages= 5–14 |pmid= 18815962 |doi= 10.1080/10503300701472131 |s2cid= 13004118 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140109200806/http://scottdmiller.com/wp-content/uploads/Direct%20Comparisons%20%28Journal%20Copy%29.pdf |archive-date= 9 January 2014 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>
 
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Outcome studies have been critiqued for being too removed from real-world practice in that they use carefully selected therapists who have been extensively trained and monitored, and patients who may be non-representative of typical patients by virtue of strict inclusionary/exclusionary criteria. Such concerns impact the [[Replication crisis|replication]] of research results and the ability to generalize from them to practicing therapists.<ref name=GreatDebate/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leichsenring F, Abbass A, Hilsenroth MJ, Leweke F, Luyten P, Keefe JR, Midgley N, Rabung S, Salzer S, Steinert C | title = Biases in research: risk factors for non-replicability in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy research | journal = Psychological Medicine | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 1000–1011 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27955715 | doi = 10.1017/s003329171600324x | s2cid = 1872762 | df = dmy-all | url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1532689/1/Replicability%2033%20Psychological%20Medicine.pdf }}</ref>
 
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However, specific therapies have been tested for use with specific disorders,<ref>Norcross, J.C. (Ed.). (2002). Psychotherapy relationships that work. OUP.</ref> and regulatory organizations in both the UK and US make recommendations for different conditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/guidancemenu/conditions-and-diseases/mental-health-and-behavioural-conditions|title=Mental health and behavioural conditions – Guidance and guideline topic – NICE|website=www.nice.org.uk|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150730130920/http://www.nice.org.uk/guidancemenu/conditions-and-diseases/mental-health-and-behavioural-conditions|archive-date=30 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/about/offices/directorates/guidelines/clinical-practice.aspx|title=APA Clinical Practice Guideline Development|website=apa.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003204648/http://www.apa.org/about/offices/directorates/guidelines/clinical-practice.aspx|archive-date=3 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://psychiatryonline.org/guidelines|title=American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines|website=psychiatryonline.org}}</ref>
 
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The Helsinki Psychotherapy Study was one of several large long-term clinical trials of psychotherapies that have taken place. Anxious and depressed patients in two short-term therapies (solution-focused and brief psychodynamic) improved faster, but five years long-term psychotherapy and psychoanalysis gave greater benefits. Several patient and therapist factors appear to predict suitability for different psychotherapies.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Knekt P, Lindfors O, Sares-Jäske L, Virtala E, Härkänen T | title = Randomized trial on the effectiveness of long- and short-term psychotherapy on psychiatric symptoms and working ability during a 5-year follow-up | journal = Nordic Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–68 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 22563790 | doi = 10.3109/08039488.2012.680910 | s2cid = 30877764 | url = https://www.thl.fi/en/web/thlfi-en/research-and-expertwork/projects-and-programmes/helsinki-psychotherapy-study/results }}</ref>
 
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Meta-analyses have established that [[cognitive behavioural therapy]] (CBT) and [[psychodynamic psychotherapy]] are equally effective in treating depression.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alert.psychnews.org/2017/05/psychodynamic-psychotherapy-is.html|title=Psychodynamic Therapy Is Equivalent to CBT, Meta-Analysis Finds|website=alert.psychnews.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413185813/http://alert.psychnews.org/2017/05/psychodynamic-psychotherapy-is.html|archive-date=13 April 2018}}</ref>
 
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A 2014 meta analysis over 11,000 patients reveals that Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) is of comparable effectiveness to CBT for depression but is inferior to the latter for eating disorders.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis|first1=Pim|last1=Cuijpers|first2=Tara|last2=Donker|first3=Myrna M.|last3=Weissman|first4=Paula|last4=Ravitz|first5=Ioana A.|last5=Cristea|date=1 July 2016|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=173|issue=7|pages=680–687|doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141|pmid=27032627|doi-access=free|hdl=1871.1/e5f03ebe-ef61-42c8-af16-0a6e951d6d92|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For children and adolescents, interpersonal psychotherapy and CBT are the best methods according to a 2014 meta analysis of almost 4000 patients.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhou X, Hetrick SE, Cuijpers P, Qin B, Barth J, Whittington CJ, Cohen D, Del Giovane C, Liu Y, Michael KD, Zhang Y, Weisz JR, Xie P | title = Comparative efficacy and acceptability of psychotherapies for depression in children and adolescents: A systematic review and network meta-analysis | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 207–22 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26043339 | pmc = 4471978 | doi = 10.1002/wps.20217 }}</ref>
 
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=== Mechanisms of change ===
 
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It is not yet understood how psychotherapies can succeed in treating mental illnesses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cuijpers|first1=Pim|last2=Reijnders|first2=Mirjam|last3=Huibers|first3=Marcus J.H.|date=7 May 2019|title=The Role of Common Factors in Psychotherapy Outcomes|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology|volume=15|issue=1|pages=207–231|doi=10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095424|pmid=30550721|issn=1548-5943|doi-access=free|hdl=1871.1/fc5d7d73-48fb-40f3-9c56-05a7995d9888|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Different therapeutic approaches may be associated with particular theories about what needs to change in a person for a successful therapeutic outcome.
 
  
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In general, processes of [[Arousal|emotional arousal]] and [[memory]] have long been held to play an important role. One theory combining these aspects proposes that permanent change occurs to the extent that the neuropsychological mechanism of [[Memory consolidation#Reconsolidation|memory reconsolidation]] is triggered and is able to incorporate new emotional experiences.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Centonze |first1=Diego |last2=Siracusano |first2=Alberto |last3=Calabresi |first3=Paolo |last4=Bernardi |first4=Giorgio |date=October 2005 |title=Removing pathogenic memories: a neurobiology of psychotherapy |journal=[[Molecular Neurobiology]] |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=123–132 |doi=10.1385/MN:32:2:123 |pmid=16215277|s2cid=20176022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ecker |first1=Bruce |last2=Ticic |first2=Robin |last3=Hulley |first3=Laurel |date=2012 |title=Unlocking the Emotional Brain: Eliminating Symptoms at Their Roots Using Memory Reconsolidation |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415897167 |oclc=772112300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQpd13K0gHUC}} But for a more hesitant view of the role of memory reconsolidation in psychotherapy that criticizes some of the claims of Ecker et al., see: {{cite journal |last=Alberini |first=Cristina M. |author-link1=Cristina Alberini |date=April 2015 |title=Commentary on Tuch |journal=[[Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association]] |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=317–330 |doi=10.1177/0003065115579720 |pmid=25922379|s2cid=207597244 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Welling |first=Hans |date=June 2012 |title=Transformative emotional sequence: towards a common principle of change |journal=[[Journal of Psychotherapy Integration]] |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=109–136 |doi=10.1037/a0027786 |url=http://www.integra.pt/textos/tes.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035355/http://www.integra.pt/textos/tes.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |citeseerx=10.1.1.1004.236 }}</ref><ref>For a more hesitant view of the role of memory reconsolidation in psychotherapy, see the objections in some of the invited comments in: {{cite journal |last1=Lane |first1=Richard D. |last2=Ryan |first2=Lee |last3=Nadel |first3=Lynn |author-link3=Lynn Nadel |last4=Greenberg |first4=Leslie S. |author-link4=Les Greenberg |date=2015 |title=Memory reconsolidation, emotional arousal and the process of change in psychotherapy: new insights from brain science |journal=[[Behavioral and Brain Sciences]] |volume=38 |pages=e1 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000041 |url=http://www.coherencetherapy.org/files/Ecker-etal_2015_Minding-the-Findings.pdf |pmid=24827452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022253/http://www.coherencetherapy.org/files/Ecker-etal_2015_Minding-the-Findings.pdf |archive-date=17 November 2015 }}</ref>
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It is not clearly understood how psychotherapies succeed in treating mental illnesses. Studies show that psychotherapies have a number of factors in common that may account for their similar levels of success. This [[common factors theory]] suggest that the effectiveness of any therapy depends on such factors as the quality of the therapeutic relationship, interpretation of problems, and the confrontation of painful emotions.<ref> Bruce E. Wampold and Zac E. Imel, ''The Great Psychotherapy Debate'' (Routledge, 2015, ISBN 978-0805857092).</ref>
  
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=== Adherence ===
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However, specific therapies have been found most effective with specific disorders, especially when adapted to best fit the patient's characteristics.<ref>Bruce E. Wampold, John C. Norcross, and Michael J. Lambert (eds.). ''Psychotherapy Relationships that Work'' (Oxford University Press, 2019, ISBN 978-0190069292).</ref> Thus, regulatory organizations make different treatment recommendations for different conditions.<ref>[https://psychiatryonline.org/guidelines American Psychiatric Association's Practice Guidelines] ''American Psychiatric Association''. Retrieved February 23, 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.apa.org/about/offices/directorates/guidelines/clinical-practice APA clinical practice guideline development] ''American Psychological Association''. Retrieved February 23, 2024.</ref>
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Patient [[Compliance (medicine)|adherence]] to a course of psychotherapy—continuing to attend sessions or complete tasks—is a major issue.
 
  
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The dropout level—early termination—ranges from around 30% to 60%, depending partly on how it is defined. The range is lower for research settings for various reasons, such as the selection of clients and how they are inducted. Early termination is associated on average with various demographic and clinical characteristics of clients, therapists and treatment interactions.<ref name=adherence>Jennifer L. Strauss, Vito S. Guerra, Christine E. Marx, A. Meade Eggleston Ph.D, Patrick S. Calhoun Ph.D [https://books.google.com/books?id=uiuXxI6wBSQC&pg=PA215 Chapter 9: Improving Patient Treatment Adherence: A Clinician's Guide] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416081953/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uiuXxI6wBSQC&pg=PA215 |date=16 April 2016 }} In: Improving Patient Treatment Adherence: A Clinician's Guide. Edited by Hayden Bosworth. Springer Science & Business Media, 3 July 2010</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Wierzbicki |first1= Michael |last2= Pekarik |first2= Gene |title= A meta-analysis of psychotherapy dropout |journal= [[Professional Psychology: Research and Practice]] |volume= 24 |issue= 2 |pages= 190–5 |year= 1993 |doi= 10.1037/0735-7028.24.2.190}}</ref> The high level of dropout has raised some criticism about the relevance and efficacy of psychotherapy.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Egan |first= Jonathan |title= Dropout and related factors in therapy |url= http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/121474/1/DropoutRelatedfactorsPSI.pdf |journal= The Irish Psychologist |year= 2005 |volume= 32 |issue= 2 |pages= 27–30 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721125420/http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/121474/1/DropoutRelatedfactorsPSI.pdf |archive-date= 21 July 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>
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=== Criticisms===
 +
Certain types of psychotherapy are considered [[evidence-based]] for treating some diagnosed [[mental disorder]]s; other types have been criticized as [[pseudoscience]].<ref>Stephen Hupp and Cara L. Santa Maria (eds.), ''Pseudoscience in Therapy: A Skeptical Field Guide'' (Cambridge University Press, 2023, ISBN 978-1009005104).</ref>  
  
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Most psychologists use between-session tasks in their general therapy work, and cognitive behavioral therapies in particular use and see them as an "active ingredient". It is not clear how often clients do not complete them, but it is thought to be a pervasive phenomenon.<ref name=adherence/>
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Critics are skeptical of the healing power of professional psychotherapeutic relationships. They point out that many resources available to a person experiencing emotional distress—the friendly support of friends, peers, family members, clergy contacts, personal reading, healthy exercise, research, and independent coping—all present considerable value. Human beings have been dealing with crises, navigating severe social problems, and finding solutions to life problems long before the advent of psychotherapy.<ref>Frank Furedi, ''Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age'' (Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0415321594).</ref>
  
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From the other side, the adherence of therapists to therapy protocols and techniques—known as "treatment integrity" or "fidelity"—has also been studied, with complex mixed results.<ref>{{cite book |author1= Dinger Ulrike |author2= Zilcha-Mano Sigal |author3= Dillon Justina |author4= Barber Jacques P |year= 2015 |title = Therapist Adherence and Competence in Psychotherapy Research |journal= The Encyclopedia of Clinical Psychology |pages= 1–5|doi= 10.1002/9781118625392.wbecp340 |isbn= 9781118625392 }}</ref> In general,  however, it is a hallmark of evidence-based psychotherapy to use fidelity monitoring as part of therapy outcome trials and ongoing quality assurance in clinical implementation.
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A further criticism is the issue of power. In this regard there is a concern that clients are persuaded—both inside and outside the consulting room—to understand themselves and their difficulties in ways that are consistent with therapeutic ideas. This means that alternative ideas (such as, feminist, economic, or spiritual) are sometimes implicitly undermined. Critics suggest that we idealize the situation when we think of therapy only as a helping relationship—arguing instead that it is fundamentally a political practice, in that some cultural ideas and practices are supported while others are undermined or disqualified.<ref> Elizabeth A. Throop, ''Psychotherapy, American Culture, and Social Policy: Immoral Individualism'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, ISBN 978-0230609457).</ref>
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=== Adverse effects ===
 
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Research on [[adverse effect]]s of psychotherapy has been limited, yet worsening of symptoms may be expected to occur in 3% to 15% of patients, with variability across patient and therapist characteristics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hardy |first1=Gillian E. |last2=Bishop-Edwards |first2=Lindsey |last3=Chambers |first3=Eleni |last4=Connell |first4=Janice |last5=Dent-Brown |first5=Kim |last6=Kothari |first6=Gemma |last7=O'hara |first7=Rachel |last8=Parry |first8=Glenys D. |date=April 2019 |title=Risk factors for negative experiences during psychotherapy |journal=[[Psychotherapy Research]] |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=403–414 |pmid=29078740 |doi=10.1080/10503307.2017.1393575 |s2cid=22336500 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/123234/3/NegTherapyExperiences%20Accepted%20version%20.pdf |quote=Estimates of 'unwanted effects,' including long-lasting effects, of psychotherapy have ranged from 3% to 15%. Few empirical studies have been conducted in this area.}}</ref><ref name=Farquharson>{{cite book |last=Farquharson |first=Lorna |date=2020 |chapter=Adverse effects of psychological therapies |editor1-last=Tribe |editor1-first=Rachel |editor2-last=Morrissey |editor2-first=Jean |title=The handbook of professional, ethical and research practice for psychologists, counsellors, psychotherapists and psychiatrists |edition=3rd |location=Abingdon; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=129–140 |isbn=9781138352070 |oclc=1130376524 |doi=10.4324/9780429428838-11 |s2cid=216525848 |chapter-url=https://repository.uel.ac.uk/item/8897x |quote=5–10% of all clients experience adverse effects of therapy (Crawford et al., 2016; Lambert, 2013; Hatfield et al, 2010; Hannan et al., 2005). However, there can be considerable variability across therapists (Saxon et al., 2017; Mohr, 1995) and according to client characteristics (Saxon et al., 2017; Crawford et al., 2016; Mohr, 1995).}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Jarrett |first=Christian |date=10 March 2016 |title=How often does psychotherapy make people feel worse? |url=https://digest.bps.org.uk/2016/03/10/how-often-does-psychotherapy-make-people-feel-worse/ |newspaper=Research Digest |publisher=[[British Psychological Society]] |access-date=30 October 2021 |quote=Data is thin on the ground, but best estimates suggest that between 5 to 10 per cent of therapy clients experience a worsening of their symptoms.}}</ref> Potential problems include deterioration of symptoms or developing new symptoms, strains in other relationships, social stigma, and therapy dependence.<ref name=Linden/> Some techniques or therapists may carry more risks than others, and some client characteristics may make them more vulnerable.<ref name=Farquharson/> Side-effects from properly conducted therapy should be distinguished from harms caused by malpractice.<ref name=Linden>{{cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = Michael | last2 = Schermuly-Haupt | first2 = Marie-Luise | title = Definition, assessment and rate of psychotherapy side effects | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 306–9 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25273304 | pmc = 4219072 | doi = 10.1002/wps.20153 }}</ref>
 
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=== General critique===
 
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Certain types of psychotherapy are considered [[evidence-based]] for treating some diagnosed [[mental disorder]]s; other types have been criticized as [[pseudoscience]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Hupp |editor1-frist=Stephen |editor2-last=Santa Maria |editor2-first=Cara L. |title=Pseudoscience in Therapy: A Skeptical Field Guide |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK; New York |isbn=9781009005104 |oclc=1346351849 |doi=10.1017/9781009000611}} For example, [[Thought Field Therapy]] has been called a pseudoscience: {{cite journal |last=Lilienfeld |first=Scott O. |author-link=Scott Lilienfeld |date=December 2015 |title=Introduction to special section on pseudoscience in psychiatry |journal=[[The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry]] |volume=60 |issue=12 |pages=531–533 |pmid=26720820 |pmc=4679160 |doi=10.1177/070674371506001202 |quote=Although the boundaries separating pseudoscience from science are fuzzy, pseudosciences are characterized by several warning signs—fallible but useful indicators that distinguish them from most scientific disciplines.&nbsp;... In contrast to most accepted medical interventions, which are prescribed for a circumscribed number of conditions, many pseudoscientific techniques lack boundary conditions of application. For example, some proponents of [[Thought Field Therapy]], an intervention that purports to correct imbalances in unobservable energy fields, using specified bodily tapping algorithms, maintain that it can be used to treat virtually any psychological condition, and that it is helpful not only for adults but also for children, dogs, and horses.}} See also: {{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Catherine M. |last2=Hunsley |first2=John |date=December 2015 |title=Evidence-based practice: separating science from pseudoscience |journal=[[The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry]] |volume=60 |issue=12 |pages=534–540 |pmid=26720821 |pmc=4679161 |doi=10.1177/070674371506001203 |quote=TFT, a treatment applied to mood, anxiety, and trauma-related disorders, is a prime example of practice founded on pseudoscience.}}</ref>
 
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Some critics are skeptical of the healing power of psychotherapeutic relationships.<ref>{{cite book |last=Masson |first=Jeffrey M. |author-link=Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson |year=1988 |title=Against therapy: emotional tyranny and the myth of psychological healing |location=New York |publisher=Atheneum |isbn=978-0689119293 |oclc=17618782|title-link=Against Therapy }}</ref><ref name="Epstein1995">{{cite book |last=Epstein |first=William M. |date=1995 |title=The illusion of psychotherapy |location=New Brunswick, NJ |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |isbn=978-1560002154 |oclc=32086626}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Feltham |editor-first=Colin |date=1999 |title=Controversies in psychotherapy and counselling |location=London; Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-0761956402 |oclc=45002563}}</ref> Some dismiss psychotherapy altogether in the sense of a scientific discipline requiring professional practitioners,<ref name="Dawes">{{cite book |last=Dawes |first=Robyn M. |author-link=Robyn Dawes |date=1994 |title=House of cards: psychology and psychotherapy built on myth |location=New York |publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]] |isbn=978-0029072059 |oclc=28675086 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/houseofcardspsyc00dawerich }}</ref> instead favoring either nonprofessional help<ref name="Dawes"/> or biomedical treatments.<ref name="WattersOfshe1999">{{cite book |last1=Watters |first1=Ethan |last2=Ofshe |first2=Richard |date=1999 |title=Therapy's delusions, the myth of the unconscious and the exploitation of today's walking worried |location=New York |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] |isbn=9780684835846 |oclc=40467398 |url=https://archive.org/details/therapysdelusion00etha_0 }}</ref> Others have pointed out ways in which the values and techniques of therapists can be harmful as well as helpful to clients (or indirectly to other people in a client's life).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Special section on negative effects from psychological treatments |date=January 2010 |journal=[[American Psychologist]] |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=13–49 |doi=10.1037/a0015643 |pmid=20063906 |last1=Barlow |first1=D. H. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dorpat |first=Theodore L. |date=1996 |title=Gaslighting, the double whammy, interrogation, and other methods of covert control in psychotherapy and psychoanalysis |location=Northvale, NJ |publisher=[[Jason Aronson]] |isbn=978-1568218281 |oclc=34548677}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Basseches |first=Michael |date=April 1997 |title=A developmental perspective on psychotherapy process, psychotherapists' expertise, and 'meaning-making conflict' within therapeutic relationships: part II |journal=Journal of Adult Development |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=85–106 |doi=10.1007/BF02510083|s2cid=143991100 }} Basseches coined the term "theoretical abuse" as a parallel to "sexual abuse" in psychotherapy.</ref>
 
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Many resources available to a person experiencing emotional distress—the friendly support of friends, peers, family members, clergy contacts, personal reading, healthy exercise, research, and independent coping—all present considerable value. Critics note that humans have been dealing with crises, navigating severe social problems and finding solutions to life problems long before the advent of psychotherapy.<ref>{{cite book |first=Frank |last=Furedi |author-link=Frank Furedi |year=2004 |edition=Reprint |title=Therapy culture: cultivating vulnerability in an uncertain age |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=9780415321600 |oclc=52166272}}</ref>
 
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On the other hand, some argue psychotherapy is under-utilized and under-researched by contemporary psychiatry despite offering more promise than stagnant medication development. In 2015, the US [[National Institute of Mental Health]] allocated only 5.4% of its budget to new clinical trials of psychotherapies (medication trials are largely funded by [[pharmaceutical companies]]), despite plentiful evidence they can work and that patients are more likely to prefer them.<ref>{{cite news |last=Friedman |first=Richard A. |date=19 July 2015 |title=Psychiatry's identity crisis |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |page=SR5 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/19/opinion/psychiatrys-identity-crisis.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231043810/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/19/opinion/psychiatrys-identity-crisis.html |archive-date=31 December 2016 }}</ref>
 
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Further critiques have emerged from [[feminist]], [[Social constructionism|constructionist]] and [[Discourse analysis|discourse-analytical]] sources.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cushman |first=Philip |date=1995 |title=Constructing the self, constructing America: a cultural history of psychotherapy |location=Boston |publisher=[[Addison-Wesley]] |isbn=978-0201626438 |oclc=30976460 |url=https://archive.org/details/constructingself00cush }}</ref><ref name="Rose">{{cite book |last=Rose |first=Nikolas S. |author-link=Nikolas Rose |date=1996 |title=Inventing our selves: psychology, power, and personhood |series=Cambridge studies in the history of psychology |location=Cambridge, UK; New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0521434140 |oclc=33440952 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511752179}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Loewenthal |editor-first=Del |date=2015 |title=Critical psychotherapy, psychoanalysis and counselling: implications for practice |location=Houndmills, Hampshire; New York |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=9781137460578 |oclc=898925104 |doi=10.1057/9781137460585}}</ref> Key to these is the issue of [[Power (social and political)|power]].<ref name="Rose"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=House |first=Richard |date=June 2012 |title=Psychotherapy, politics and the 'common factor' of power |journal=Psychotherapy and Politics International |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=157–160 |doi=10.1002/ppi.1260}}</ref> In this regard there is a concern that clients are persuaded—both inside and outside the consulting room—to understand themselves and their difficulties in ways that are consistent with therapeutic ideas.<ref name="Epstein1995"/><ref name="Rose"/> This means that alternative ideas (e.g., feminist,<ref>{{cite journal |last=McLellan |first=Betty |date=August 1999 |title=The prostitution of psychotherapy: a feminist critique |journal=British Journal of Guidance & Counselling |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=325–337 |doi=10.1080/03069889908256274}}</ref> economic,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pavón-Cuéllar |first=David |date=October 2014 |title=The Freudo-Marxist tradition and the critique of psychotherapeutic ideology |journal=Psychotherapy and Politics International |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=208–219 |doi=10.1002/ppi.1336}}</ref> spiritual<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moodley |first1=Roy |last2=West |first2=William |date=2005 |title=Integrating traditional healing practices into counseling and psychotherapy |series=Multicultural aspects of counseling and psychotherapy |volume=22 |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-0761930464 |oclc=57283684}}</ref>) are sometimes implicitly undermined.<ref>{{cite journal |last=House |first=Richard |date=August 1999 |title='Limits to therapy and counselling': deconstructing a professional ideology |journal=British Journal of Guidance & Counselling |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=377–392 |doi=10.1080/03069889908256278}}</ref> Critics suggest that we idealize the situation when we think of therapy only as a helping relationship—arguing instead that it is fundamentally a political practice, in that some cultural ideas and practices are supported while others are undermined or disqualified, and that while it is seldom intended, the therapist–client relationship always participates in society's power relations and political dynamics.<ref name="Epstein1995"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Epstein |first=William M. |date=2006 |title=Psychotherapy as religion: the civil divine in America |location=Reno, NV |publisher=[[University of Nevada Press]] |isbn=978-0874176780 |oclc=62889079}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Throop |first=Elizabeth A. |date=2009 |title=Psychotherapy, American culture, and social policy: immoral individualism |series=Culture, mind, and society |location=New York |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0230609457 |oclc=226357146 |doi=10.1057/9780230618350}}</ref> A noted academic who espoused this criticism was [[Michel Foucault]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marks |first=Sarah |date=April 2017 |title=Psychotherapy in historical perspective |journal=[[History of the Human Sciences]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=3–16 |doi=10.1177/0952695117703243 |pmid=28690369 |pmc=5484460 |quote=Michel Foucault, in what has perhaps become the most well-known critique of psychiatric and therapeutic interventions, identified a shift in the way western society conceptualized madness with the establishment of 'moral treatment' at the end of the 18th century... }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Guilfoyle |first=Michael |date=February 2005 |title=From therapeutic power to resistance? Therapy and cultural hegemony |journal=[[Theory & Psychology]] |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=101–124 |doi=10.1177/0959354305049748 |s2cid=145491324 |quote=Foucault's views have been used to highlight problems of power in a variety of 'mental health' fields: in nursing (e.g. Clinton & Hazelton, 2002), social work (e.g. Foote & Frank, 1999), psychiatry (e.g. Ali, 2002), and in the cross-disciplinary practices of psychotherapy (most notably in narrative therapy—e.g. Flaskas & Humphreys, 1993; Swann, 1999; White & Epston, 1990). However, there is no single 'Foucauldian' approach to power, or indeed to therapy, and his ideas are used, as he intended, more in the manner of a 'tool kit' of ideas than as a coherent theoretical account.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Isack |first1=Sharonne |last2=Hook |first2=Derek |chapter=The psychological imperialism of psychotherapy |date=20 October 1995 |title=1st Annual South African Qualitative Methods Conference: "A spanner in the works of the factory of truth" |url=http://www.criticalmethods.org/spanner.htm |publisher=Critical Methods Society |chapter-url=http://www.criticalmethods.org/hook.htm |location=Johannesburg, South Africa |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419043338/http://www.criticalmethods.org/spanner.htm |archive-date=19 April 2014 }}</ref>
 
  
 
== Notes ==
 
== Notes ==
Line 217: Line 150:
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
−
 
+
* Alladin, Assen. ''Cognitive Hypnotherapy: An Integrated Approach to the Treatment of Emotional Disorders''. Wiley, 2008. ISBN 978-0470032473
 +
* Brown, Steven D., and Robert W. Lent (eds.). ''Handbook of Counseling Psychology''. Wiley, 2008. ISBN 978-0470096222
 
* Crago, Hugh. ''Couple, Family and Group Work: First Steps in Interpersonal Intervention''. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press, 2005., ISBN 978-0335216888
 
* Crago, Hugh. ''Couple, Family and Group Work: First Steps in Interpersonal Intervention''. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press, 2005., ISBN 978-0335216888
 
* Ellenberger, Henri F. ''The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry''. New York: Basic Books, 1981. ISBN 978-0465016730
 
* Ellenberger, Henri F. ''The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry''. New York: Basic Books, 1981. ISBN 978-0465016730
 
* Frank, Jerome D., and Julia B. Frank. ''Persuasion and Healing: A comparative study of psychotherapy''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0801846366
 
* Frank, Jerome D., and Julia B. Frank. ''Persuasion and Healing: A comparative study of psychotherapy''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0801846366
 +
* Furedi, Frank. ''Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age''. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0415321594
 
* Gelo, Omar C.G., Alfred Pritz, and Bernd Rieken (eds.). ''Psychotherapy Research: Foundations, Process, and Outcome''. Springer, 2015. ISBN 978-3709113813
 
* Gelo, Omar C.G., Alfred Pritz, and Bernd Rieken (eds.). ''Psychotherapy Research: Foundations, Process, and Outcome''. Springer, 2015. ISBN 978-3709113813
 
* Gregory, Richard L. (ed.). ''Oxford Companion to the Mind''. Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0198662242
 
* Gregory, Richard L. (ed.). ''Oxford Companion to the Mind''. Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0198662242
 +
* Hupp, Stephen, and Cara L. Santa Maria (eds.). ''Pseudoscience in Therapy: A Skeptical Field Guide''. Cambridge University Press, 2023. ISBN 978-1009005104
 
* Jackson, Stanley W. ''Care of the Psyche: A History of Psychological Healing''. Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0300076714
 
* Jackson, Stanley W. ''Care of the Psyche: A History of Psychological Healing''. Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0300076714
 +
* Malchiodi, Cathy A. ''Expressive Therapies''. The Guilford Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1593853792
 +
* Maslow, Abraham H. ''Toward A Psychology of Being''. Martino Publishing, 2011 (original 1962). ISBN 978-1614271192
 
* Mijares, Sharon G. (ed.). ''Modern Psychology and Ancient Wisdom: Psychological Healing Practices from the World's Religious Traditions''. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0789017512
 
* Mijares, Sharon G. (ed.). ''Modern Psychology and Ancient Wisdom: Psychological Healing Practices from the World's Religious Traditions''. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0789017512
 
* Mitchell, Stephen A. ''Relational Concepts in Psychoanalysis''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0674754119
 
* Mitchell, Stephen A. ''Relational Concepts in Psychoanalysis''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0674754119
 
* Neria, Yuval, Raz Gross, Randall D. Marshall, and Ezra S. Susser (eds.). ''9/11: Mental Health in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks''. Cambridge University Press, 2012. ISBN 1107406420
 
* Neria, Yuval, Raz Gross, Randall D. Marshall, and Ezra S. Susser (eds.). ''9/11: Mental Health in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks''. Cambridge University Press, 2012. ISBN 1107406420
 +
* Norcross, John C., and Marvin R. Goldfried (eds.). ''Handbook of Psychotherapy Integration''. Oxford University Press, 2019. ISBN 978-0190690465
 
* Rich, Grant J., and Uwe Gielen (eds.). ''Pathfinders in International Psychology''. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2015. ISBN 978-1681231433
 
* Rich, Grant J., and Uwe Gielen (eds.). ''Pathfinders in International Psychology''. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2015. ISBN 978-1681231433
 
* Robertson, Daniel. ''The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy''. Routledge, 2019. ISBN 978-0367219147
 
* Robertson, Daniel. ''The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy''. Routledge, 2019. ISBN 978-0367219147
 
* Sullivan, Harry Stack. ''The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1968. ISBN 978-0393001389
 
* Sullivan, Harry Stack. ''The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1968. ISBN 978-0393001389
 
* Sundberg, Norman, Allen Winebarger, and Julian Taplin. ''Clinical Psychology: Evolving Theory, Practice, and Research''. Pearson, 2020. ISBN 978-0130871190
 
* Sundberg, Norman, Allen Winebarger, and Julian Taplin. ''Clinical Psychology: Evolving Theory, Practice, and Research''. Pearson, 2020. ISBN 978-0130871190
 +
* Throop, Elizabeth A. ''Psychotherapy, American Culture, and Social Policy: Immoral Individualism''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. ISBN 978-0230609457
 
* Tuckey, C. Lloyd. ''Psycho-Therapeutics Or Treatment By Sleep And Suggestion''. Kessinger Publishing, 2010 (original 1889). ISBN 978-1162929156
 
* Tuckey, C. Lloyd. ''Psycho-Therapeutics Or Treatment By Sleep And Suggestion''. Kessinger Publishing, 2010 (original 1889). ISBN 978-1162929156
 
* Tuke, Daniel Hack. ''Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind upon the Body in Health and Disease: Designed to elucidate the action of the imagination''. Kessinger Publishing, 2007 (original 1972). ISBN 978-0548104163
 
* Tuke, Daniel Hack. ''Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind upon the Body in Health and Disease: Designed to elucidate the action of the imagination''. Kessinger Publishing, 2007 (original 1972). ISBN 978-0548104163
 
* Varma, Vijoy K., and Nitin Gupta. ''Psychotherapy in a Traditional Society: Context, Concept and Practice''. Jaypee Brothers Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-8184482362
 
* Varma, Vijoy K., and Nitin Gupta. ''Psychotherapy in a Traditional Society: Context, Concept and Practice''. Jaypee Brothers Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-8184482362
 +
* Wampold, Bruce E., and Zac E. Imel. ''The Great Psychotherapy Debate''. Routledge, 2015. ISBN 978-0805857092
 +
* Wampold, Bruce E., John C. Norcross, and Michael J. Lambert (eds.). ''Psychotherapy Relationships that Work''. Oxford University Press, 2019. ISBN 978-0190069292
 
* Zeig, Jeffrey K., and W. Michael Munion (eds.). ''What is psychotherapy? Contemporary perspectives''. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1990. ISBN 978-1555422837
 
* Zeig, Jeffrey K., and W. Michael Munion (eds.). ''What is psychotherapy? Contemporary perspectives''. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1990. ISBN 978-1555422837
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
All links retrieved
+
All links retrieved February 23, 2024.
 
* [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/psychotherapies Psychotherapies] ''National Institute of Mental Health (NAMI)''
 
* [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/psychotherapies Psychotherapies] ''National Institute of Mental Health (NAMI)''
 
* [https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/psychotherapy/about/pac-20384616 Psychotherapy] ''Mayo Clinic''
 
* [https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/psychotherapy/about/pac-20384616 Psychotherapy] ''Mayo Clinic''

Latest revision as of 17:25, 24 February 2024

Psychology
Senses brain.png
History
Psychologists
Divisions
Abnormal
Applied
Biological
Clinical
Cognitive
Comparative
Developmental
Differential
Industrial
Parapsychology
Personality
Positive
Religion
Social
Approaches
Behaviorism
Depth
Experimental
Gestalt
Humanistic
Information processing

Psychotherapy (also called psychological therapy, talk therapy, or just therapy) is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help a person change their behavior, increase happiness, and overcome problems. Psychotherapy aims to improve an individual's well-being and mental health, to resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviors, beliefs, compulsions, thoughts, or emotions, and to improve relationships and social skills. Numerous types of psychotherapy have been designed either for individual adults, families, or children and adolescents. Certain types of psychotherapy are considered evidence-based for treating some diagnosed mental disorders; other types have been criticized as pseudoscience.

There are hundreds of psychotherapy techniques, some minor variations; others are based on very different conceptions of psychology. Most involve one-to-one sessions, between the client and therapist, but some are conducted with groups, including families.

Psychotherapists may be mental health professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, mental health nurses, clinical social workers, marriage and family therapists, or professional counselors. Regardless of their background, they have received training in techniques designed to help people overcome dysfunction due to their psychological problems and lead happy and meaningful lives.

Definitions

"Psychotherapy" is described as the "art of curing mental diseases,"[1] 1892, or "the treatment of mental or emotional disorder or of related bodily ills by psychological means.[2] The word is derived from Ancient Greek psyche (ψυχή meaning "breath; spirit; soul") and therapeia (θεραπεία "healing; medical treatment").

Psychotherapy is often dubbed as a "talking therapy" or "talk therapy," referring to the way therapy sessions are often conducted by talking "with a trained therapist in a safe and confidential environment to explore and understand feelings and behaviors and gain coping skills."[3] However, not all forms of psychotherapy rely on verbal communication.[4] Children or adults who do not engage in verbal communication (or not in the usual way) are not excluded from psychotherapy; indeed some types are designed for such cases.

The American Psychological Association adopted a resolution on the effectiveness of psychotherapy in 2012 based on a definition developed in 1990 by American psychologist John C. Norcross[5]:

Psychotherapy is the informed and intentional application of clinical methods and interpersonal stances derived from established psychological principles for the purpose of assisting people to modify their behaviors, cognitions, emotions, and/or other personal characteristics in directions that the participants deem desirable.[6]

Psychiatrist Jerome Frank defined psychotherapy as a healing relationship using socially authorized methods in a series of contacts primarily involving words, acts and rituals—which Frank regarded as forms of persuasion and rhetoric.[7]

Historically, psychotherapy has sometimes meant "interpretative" (i.e. Freudian) methods, namely psychoanalysis, in contrast with other methods to treat psychiatric disorders such as behavior modification.[8]

Some definitions of counseling overlap with psychotherapy, particularly in non-directive client-centered approaches.[9]

Psychotherapy may address spirituality as a significant part of someone's mental / psychological life, and some forms are derived from spiritual philosophies, but practices based on treating the spiritual as a separate dimension are not necessarily considered as traditional or 'legitimate' forms of psychotherapy.[10]

History

Baquet scene with many people sitting and standing around a large table for "animal magnetism" treatment

Psychotherapy in some form can be said to have been practiced through the ages, as medics, philosophers, spiritual practitioners, and people in general used psychological methods to heal others.[11]

In the Western tradition, an influential movement was started by Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) and his student Armand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis of Puységur (1751–1825). Called Mesmerism or animal magnetism, it had a strong influence on the rise of dynamic psychology and psychiatry as well as theories about hypnosis.[12][13]

In 1853, Walter Cooper Dendy introduced the term "psycho-therapeia" regarding how physicians might influence the mental states of patients and thus their bodily ailments, for example by creating opposing emotions to promote mental balance.[14] Daniel Hack Tuke wrote about "psycho-therapeutics" in 1872, in which he also proposed making a science of animal magnetism.[15]

Hippolyte Bernheim and colleagues in the "Nancy School" further developed the concept of "psychotherapy" in the sense of using the mind to heal the body through hypnotism.[16] Charles Lloyd Tuckey's 1889 work popularized the work of the Nancy School in English.[17] Also in 1889 a clinic used the word in its title for the first time, when Frederik van Eeden and Albert Willem van Renterghem in Amsterdam renamed theirs "Clinique de Psycho-thérapeutique Suggestive" after visiting Nancy.[16]

Thus psychotherapy initially referred to "treatment of diseases by "psychic" methods (mainly hypnotism)."[1]

Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University. Front row: Sigmund Freud, Granville Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row: Abraham Brill, Ernest Jones, Sandor Ferenczi

Sigmund Freud visited the Nancy School and his early neurological practice involved the use of hypnotism. However following the work of his mentor Josef Breuer—in particular a case where symptoms appeared partially resolved by what the patient, Bertha Pappenheim, dubbed a "talking cure"—Freud began focusing on conditions that appeared to have psychological causes originating in childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. He went on to develop techniques such as free association, dream interpretation, transference, and analysis of the ego, superego, and id. His popular reputation as the father of psychotherapy was established by his use of the distinct term "psychoanalysis," tied to an overarching system of theories and methods.[16]

Many others, including Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Anna Freud, Otto Rank, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, and Heinz Kohut, built upon Freud's fundamental ideas, often developing their own systems of psychotherapy. These were all later categorized as psychodynamic, meaning anything that involved the psyche's conscious/unconscious influence on external relationships and the self.

Behaviorism developed in the 1920s, and behavior modification as a therapy became popular in the 1950s and 1960s. Notable contributors were Joseph Wolpe in South Africa, M.B. Shapiro and Hans Eysenck in Britain, and John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner in the United States. Behavioral therapy approaches relied on principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social learning theory to bring about therapeutic change in observable symptoms. The approach became commonly used for phobiass, as well as other disorders.

Some therapeutic approaches developed out of the European school of existential philosophy. Concerned mainly with the individual's ability to develop and preserve a sense of meaning and purpose throughout life, major contributors to the field, including Rollo May), Viktor Frankl, and R.D.Laing, attempted to create therapies sensitive to common "life crises" springing from the essential bleakness of human self-awareness, previously accessible only through the complex writings of existential philosophers such as Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, Gabriel Marcel, Martin Heidegger, and Friedrich Nietzsche.

A related body of thought in psychotherapy started in the 1950s with Carl Rogers. Based on the works of Abraham Maslow and his hierarchy of human needs, Rogers brought person-centered psychotherapy into the mainstream. The primary requirement was that the client receive three core "conditions" from his counselor or therapist: unconditional positive regard, sometimes described as "prizing" the client's humanity; congruence [authenticity/genuineness/transparency]; and empathic understanding. This type of interaction was thought to enable clients to fully experience and express themselves, and thus develop according to their innate potential.[18] Others developed this approach: Fritz and Laura Perls created Gestalt therapy and Eric Berne founded transactional analysis. Later these fields of psychotherapy would become what is known as humanistic psychotherapy.

During the 1950s, Albert Ellis originated rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Independently a few years later, psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck developed a form of psychotherapy known as cognitive therapy. Both of these included relatively short, structured, and present-focused techniques aimed at identifying and changing a person's beliefs, appraisals, and reaction-patterns, in contrast to the more long-lasting insight-based approach of psychodynamic or humanistic therapies. Beck's approach used primarily the socratic method, and both Beck and Ellis cited aspects of the ancient philosophical system of Stoicism as a forerunner of their ideas.[19]

Cognitive and behavioral therapy approaches were increasingly combined and grouped under the umbrella term cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in the 1970s. Many approaches within CBT are oriented towards active/directive yet collaborative empiricism (a form of reality-testing), and assessing and modifying core beliefs and dysfunctional schemas. These approaches gained widespread acceptance as a primary treatment for numerous disorders.

Delivery

Psychotherapy may be delivered in person (one on one, or with couples, or in groups) or via telephone counseling or online counseling.

Most forms of psychotherapy use spoken conversation. Some also use various other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story, or music. Psychotherapy with children and their parents often involves play, dramatization (role-playing), and drawing, with a co-constructed narrative from these non-verbal and displaced modes of interacting.[20]

Developments in computer-assisted therapy include as virtual reality therapy for behavioral exposure, multimedia programs to teach cognitive techniques, and handheld devices for improved monitoring or putting ideas into practice.[21]

Regulation

Psychotherapists include mental health professionals like psychologists and psychiatrists; professionals from other backgrounds (family therapists, social workers, nurses, etc.) who have trained in a specific psychotherapy; or (in some cases) academic or scientifically trained professionals.

Psychiatrists are trained first as physicians, and as such they may prescribe prescription medication. Specialist psychiatric training begins after medical school in psychiatric residencies: however, their specialty is in mental disorders or forms of mental illness. Clinical psychologists have specialist doctoral degrees in psychology with some clinical and research components. Other clinical practitioners, social workers, mental health counselors, pastoral counselors, and nurses with a specialization in mental health, also conduct psychotherapy. Many of the wide variety of psychotherapy training programs and institutional settings are multi-professional. In most countries, psychotherapy training is completed at a postgraduate level, often at a master's degree (or doctoral) level, over four years, with significant supervised practice and clinical placements. Mental health professionals that choose to specialize in psychotherapeutic work also require a program of continuing professional education after basic professional training, such as psychoanalytic training.[22]

As sensitive and deeply personal topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality. The critical importance of client confidentiality—and the limited circumstances in which it may need to be broken for the protection of clients or others—is enshrined in the regulatory psychotherapeutic organizations' codes of ethical practice.[23] Examples of when it is typically accepted to break confidentiality include when the therapist has knowledge that a child or elder is being physically abused; when there is a direct, clear and imminent threat of serious physical harm to self or to a specific individual.

Types

Numerous types of psychotherapy have been designed for individual adults, families, or children and adolescents. There are hundreds of psychotherapy techniques, some being minor variations; others are based on very different conceptions of psychology.[24]

There are many types of psychotherapy, but generally they fall into four major categories: psychodynamic psychotherapy, cognitive therapy or behavior therapy, humanistic therapy, and integrative psychotherapy.[25]

Psychotherapies can also be categorized by whether they involve individual one-to-one therapy sessions, or group psychotherapy, including couples therapy and family therapy.[26]

Therapies may also classified according to their duration; a small number of sessions over a few weeks or months may be classified as brief therapy (or short-term therapy), others, where regular sessions take place for years, may be classified as long-term.

Psychodynamic

Psychodynamic therapy, or Insight-oriented psychotherapy, focuses on revealing or interpreting unconscious processes. These applications of depth psychology, of which Psychoanalysis is the oldest and most intensive form, encourage the verbalization of all the patient's thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the nature of the past and present unconscious conflicts which are causing the patient's symptoms and character problems.

There are six main schools of psychoanalysis, which all influenced psychodynamic theory: Freudian, ego psychology, object relations theory, self psychology, interpersonal psychoanalysis,[27] and relational psychoanalysis.[28]

Cognitive-behavioral

Main article: Cognitive behavioral therapy

Behavior therapies use behavioral techniques, including applied behavior analysis (also known as behavior modification), to change maladaptive patterns of behavior to improve emotional responses, cognitions, and interactions with others. By nature, behavioral therapies are empirical (data-driven), contextual (focused on the environment and context), functional (interested in the effect or consequence a behavior ultimately has), probabilistic (viewing behavior as statistically predictable), monistic (rejecting mind-body dualism and treating the person as a unit), and relational (analyzing bidirectional interactions).[29]

Cognitive therapy focuses directly on changing the person's thoughts, in order to improve their emotions and behaviors.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) attempts to combine the above two approaches, focused on the construction and reconstruction of people's cognitions, emotions, and behaviors. Generally in CBT, the therapist, through a wide array of modalities, helps clients assess, recognize and deal with problematic and dysfunctional ways of thinking, emoting, and behaving.

Humanistic

Main article: Humanistic psychology

Humanistic psychotherapies, also known as "experiential," are based on humanistic psychology and emerged in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, being dubbed the "third force." They are primarily concerned with the human development and needs of the individual, with an emphasis on subjective meaning, a rejection of determinism, and a concern for positive growth rather than pathology.[30]

Such therapy also seeks an integration of the whole person, referred to as self-actualization by Abraham Maslow. Each person is understood as already having inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and self-concept; the mission of the therapist is to point the individual in the direction of these resources. However, in order to actualize hidden potentials the person might have to give up the safety of a particular stage of the personality in order to embrace a new and more integrated stage. This is not a simple or easy process, as it might include confronting new life-choices or redefining one's view of life. Thus, psychological instability and anxiety are viewed as as normal features of human life and development that can be worked through in therapy.

Humanistic psychology has led to several approaches to counseling and therapy. These include the existential psychology of Rollo May, person-centered or client-centered therapy developed by Carl Rogers, Gestalt therapy developed by Fritz Perls, transactional analysis developed by Eric Berne, marital counseling, and family therapy.

Integrative

In practice therapy is often not of one pure type but draws from a number of perspectives and schools—known as an integrative or eclectic approach.[31] These approaches include mixing core beliefs and combining proven techniques. Forms of integrative psychotherapy include multimodal therapy, the transtheoretical model, cyclical psychodynamics, systematic treatment selection, cognitive analytic therapy, internal family systems model, multitheoretical psychotherapy, and conceptual interaction. In practice, most experienced psychotherapists develop their own integrative approach over time, based on the needs of their individual clients seeking treatement.

Integrative psychotherapy is sometimes referred to as "holistic therapy" because it considers the client's mental, physical, and emotional health in a unified way.[32]

Other

Beyond those four major categories there are many other forms of therapy. Some of the more popular types are included here.

Systemic
A group therapy session

Systemic therapy seeks to address people not just individually, as is often the focus of other forms of therapy, but in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups, their patterns and dynamics. This includes family therapy and marriage counseling.

The term group therapy was first used around 1920 by Jacob L. Moreno, whose main contribution was the development of psychodrama, in which groups were used as both cast and audience for the exploration of individual problems by reenactment under the direction of the leader. The more analytic and exploratory use of groups in both hospital and out-patient settings was pioneered by a few European psychoanalysts who emigrated to the US, such as Paul Schilder, who treated severely neurotic and mildly psychotic out-patients in small groups at Bellevue Hospital, New York. Today group therapy is used both in clinical settings and in private practice.

Expressive

Expressive psychotherapy is a form of therapy that utilizes artistic expression (via improvisational, compositional, re-creative, and receptive experiences) as its core means of treating clients. Expressive psychotherapists use the different disciplines of the creative arts as therapeutic interventions. This includes the modalities dance therapy, drama therapy, art therapy, music therapy, writing therapy, among others.[33] Expressive psychotherapists believe that often the most effective way of treating a client is through the expression of imagination in creative work and integrating and processing what issues are raised in the act.

Hypnotherapy

Hypnotherapy is undertaken while a subject is in a state of hypnosis. Proponoents view hypnotherapy as a helpful adjunct therapy, having additive effects when treating psychological disorders, such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, sleep disorders, compulsive gambling, phobias and post-traumatic stress, along with cognitive therapies.[34]

Computer-supported

Research on computer-supported and computer-based interventions increased significantly in the early twenty-first century.[35] Common applications include[36]:

  • Virtual reality: VR is a computer-generated scenario that simulates experience. The immersive environment, used for simulated exposure, can be similar to the real world or it can be fantastical, creating a new experience.
  • Computer-based interventions (or online interventions or internet interventions): These interventions can be described as interactive self-help. They usually entail a combination of text, audio, or video elements.
  • Computer-supported therapy (or blended therapy): Classical psychotherapy is supported by means of online or software application elements. Such interventions have been implemented for individual and group therapy.

Telepsychotherapy

Telepsychiatry or telemental health refers to the use of telecommunications technology (mostly videoconferencing and phone calls) to deliver psychiatric care remotely for people with mental health conditions. It is a branch of telemedicine.[37] During the COVID-19 pandemic mental health services were adapted to telemental health.

While telepsychiatry can improve access to mental health services for some it might also represent a barrier for those lacking access to a suitable device, the internet or the necessary digital skills. Factors such as poverty that are associated with lack of internet access are also associated with greater risk of mental health problems, making digital exclusion an important problem of telemental health services.

Evaluation

Large-scale international reviews of scientific studies have concluded that psychotherapy is effective for numerous conditions, leading the American Psychological Association to adopt their 2012 resolution recognizing its effectiveness.[6]

Research consistently finds that supposedly different forms of psychotherapy show similar effectiveness:

Meta-analyses of psychotherapy studies have consistently demonstrated that there are no substantial differences in outcomes among treatments. ... little evidence to suggest that any one psychological therapy consistently outperforms any other for any specific psychological disorders.[38]

It is not clearly understood how psychotherapies succeed in treating mental illnesses. Studies show that psychotherapies have a number of factors in common that may account for their similar levels of success. This common factors theory suggest that the effectiveness of any therapy depends on such factors as the quality of the therapeutic relationship, interpretation of problems, and the confrontation of painful emotions.[39]

However, specific therapies have been found most effective with specific disorders, especially when adapted to best fit the patient's characteristics.[40] Thus, regulatory organizations make different treatment recommendations for different conditions.[41][42]

Criticisms

Certain types of psychotherapy are considered evidence-based for treating some diagnosed mental disorders; other types have been criticized as pseudoscience.[43]

Critics are skeptical of the healing power of professional psychotherapeutic relationships. They point out that many resources available to a person experiencing emotional distress—the friendly support of friends, peers, family members, clergy contacts, personal reading, healthy exercise, research, and independent coping—all present considerable value. Human beings have been dealing with crises, navigating severe social problems, and finding solutions to life problems long before the advent of psychotherapy.[44]

A further criticism is the issue of power. In this regard there is a concern that clients are persuaded—both inside and outside the consulting room—to understand themselves and their difficulties in ways that are consistent with therapeutic ideas. This means that alternative ideas (such as, feminist, economic, or spiritual) are sometimes implicitly undermined. Critics suggest that we idealize the situation when we think of therapy only as a helping relationship—arguing instead that it is fundamentally a political practice, in that some cultural ideas and practices are supported while others are undermined or disqualified.[45]

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 psychotherapy (n.) Etymology Online. Retrieved February 16, 2024.
  2. ↑ psychotherapy Merriam Webster. Retrieved February 16, 2024.
  3. ↑ Psychotherapy National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). Retrieved February 16, 2024.
  4. ↑ "Talk Therapy" The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language (2018). Retrieved February 16, 2024.
  5. ↑ John C. Norcross, An eclectic definition of psychotherapy. In Jeffrey K. Zeig and W. Michael Munion (eds.), What is psychotherapy? Contemporary perspectives (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1990, ISBN 978-1555422837), 218-220.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 American Psychological Association Recognition of Psychotherapy Effectiveness Retrieved February 20, 2024.
  7. ↑ Jerome D. Frank, and Julia B. Frank, Persuasion and Healing: A comparative study of psychotherapy (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0801846366).
  8. ↑ Richard L. Gregory (ed.), Oxford Companion to the Mind (Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0198662242).
  9. ↑ Greg Mulhauser, History of Counselling & Psychotherapy Counselling Resource (December 20, 2014). Retrieved February 20, 2024.
  10. ↑ Vijoy K. Varma and Nitin Gupta, Psychotherapy in a Traditional Society: Context, Concept and Practice (Jaypee Brothers Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-8184482362).
  11. ↑ Sharon G. Mijares (ed.), Modern Psychology and Ancient Wisdom: Psychological Healing Practices from the World's Religious Traditions (Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0789017512).
  12. ↑ Henri F. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry (New York: Basic Books, 1981, ISBN 978-0465016730).
  13. ↑ Grant J. Rich and Uwe Gielen (eds.), Pathfinders in International Psychology (Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2015, ISBN 978-1681231433).
  14. ↑ Stanley W. Jackson, Care of the Psyche: A History of Psychological Healing (Yale University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0300076714).
  15. ↑ Daniel Hack Tuke, Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind upon the Body in Health and Disease: Designed to elucidate the action of the imagination (Kessinger Publishing, 2007 (original 1972), ISBN 978-0548104163).
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Sonu Shamdasani, 'Psychotherapy': the invention of a word History of the Human Sciences 18(1) (February 2005):1–22. Retrieved February 20, 2024.
  17. ↑ C. Lloyd Tuckey, Psycho-Therapeutics Or Treatment By Sleep And Suggestion (Kessinger Publishing, 2010 (original 1889), ISBN 978-1162929156).
  18. ↑ Saul Mcleod, Person-Centred Therapy and Core Conditions Simply Psychology, December 20, 2023. Retrieved February 21, 2024.
  19. ↑ Daniel Robertson, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy (Routledge, 2019, ISBN 978-0367219147).
  20. ↑ Yuval Neria, Raz Gross, Randall D. Marshall, and Ezra S. Susser (eds.), 9/11: Mental Health in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks (Cambridge University Press, 2012, ISBN 1107406420).
  21. ↑ Kathleen M. Carroll and Bruce J. Rounsaville, Computer-assisted therapy in psychiatry: be brave-it's a new world Current Psychiatry Reports 12(5) October 2010:426–432. Retrieved February 21, 2024.
  22. ↑ Psychotherapy Training American Psychoanalytic Association. Retrieved February 21, 2024.
  23. ↑ Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct American Psychological Association. Retrieved February 21, 2024.
  24. ↑ Omar C.G. Gelo, Alfred Pritz, and Bernd Rieken (eds.), Psychotherapy Research: Foundations, Process, and Outcome (Springer, 2015, ISBN 978-3709113813).
  25. ↑ Psychotherapy American Psychological Association. Retrieved February 16, 2024.
  26. ↑ Hugh Crago, Couple, Family and Group Work: First Steps in Interpersonal Intervention (Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0335216888).
  27. ↑ Harry Stack Sullivan, The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1968, ISBN 978-0393001389).
  28. ↑ Stephen A. Mitchell, Relational Concepts in Psychoanalysis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988, ISBN 978-0674754119).
  29. ↑ Norman Sundberg, Allen Winebarger, and Julian Taplin, Clinical Psychology: Evolving Theory, Practice, and Research (Pearson, 2020, ISBN 978-0130871190).
  30. ↑ Abraham H. Maslow, Toward A Psychology of Being (Martino Publishing, 2011 (original 1962), ISBN 978-1614271192).
  31. ↑ John C. Norcross and Marvin R. Goldfried (eds.), Handbook of Psychotherapy Integration (Oxford University Press, 2019, ISBN 978-0190690465).
  32. ↑ Integrative Therapy Psychology Today. Retrieved February 22, 2024.
  33. ↑ Cathy A. Malchiodi, Expressive Therapies (The Guilford Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1593853792).
  34. ↑ Assen Alladin, Cognitive Hypnotherapy: An Integrated Approach to the Treatment of Emotional Disorders (Wiley, 2008, ISBN 978-0470032473).
  35. ↑ Computer-Assisted Treatment and Mobile Apps for Depression American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
  36. ↑ Computers and Therapy AI Therapy. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
  37. ↑ What is Telepsychiatry? American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
  38. ↑ Steven D. Brown and Robert W. Lent (eds.), Handbook of Counseling Psychology (Wiley, 2008, ISBN 978-0470096222).
  39. ↑ Bruce E. Wampold and Zac E. Imel, The Great Psychotherapy Debate (Routledge, 2015, ISBN 978-0805857092).
  40. ↑ Bruce E. Wampold, John C. Norcross, and Michael J. Lambert (eds.). Psychotherapy Relationships that Work (Oxford University Press, 2019, ISBN 978-0190069292).
  41. ↑ American Psychiatric Association's Practice Guidelines American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
  42. ↑ APA clinical practice guideline development American Psychological Association. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
  43. ↑ Stephen Hupp and Cara L. Santa Maria (eds.), Pseudoscience in Therapy: A Skeptical Field Guide (Cambridge University Press, 2023, ISBN 978-1009005104).
  44. ↑ Frank Furedi, Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age (Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0415321594).
  45. ↑ Elizabeth A. Throop, Psychotherapy, American Culture, and Social Policy: Immoral Individualism (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, ISBN 978-0230609457).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Alladin, Assen. Cognitive Hypnotherapy: An Integrated Approach to the Treatment of Emotional Disorders. Wiley, 2008. ISBN 978-0470032473
  • Brown, Steven D., and Robert W. Lent (eds.). Handbook of Counseling Psychology. Wiley, 2008. ISBN 978-0470096222
  • Crago, Hugh. Couple, Family and Group Work: First Steps in Interpersonal Intervention. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press, 2005., ISBN 978-0335216888
  • Ellenberger, Henri F. The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books, 1981. ISBN 978-0465016730
  • Frank, Jerome D., and Julia B. Frank. Persuasion and Healing: A comparative study of psychotherapy. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0801846366
  • Furedi, Frank. Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0415321594
  • Gelo, Omar C.G., Alfred Pritz, and Bernd Rieken (eds.). Psychotherapy Research: Foundations, Process, and Outcome. Springer, 2015. ISBN 978-3709113813
  • Gregory, Richard L. (ed.). Oxford Companion to the Mind. Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0198662242
  • Hupp, Stephen, and Cara L. Santa Maria (eds.). Pseudoscience in Therapy: A Skeptical Field Guide. Cambridge University Press, 2023. ISBN 978-1009005104
  • Jackson, Stanley W. Care of the Psyche: A History of Psychological Healing. Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0300076714
  • Malchiodi, Cathy A. Expressive Therapies. The Guilford Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1593853792
  • Maslow, Abraham H. Toward A Psychology of Being. Martino Publishing, 2011 (original 1962). ISBN 978-1614271192
  • Mijares, Sharon G. (ed.). Modern Psychology and Ancient Wisdom: Psychological Healing Practices from the World's Religious Traditions. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0789017512
  • Mitchell, Stephen A. Relational Concepts in Psychoanalysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0674754119
  • Neria, Yuval, Raz Gross, Randall D. Marshall, and Ezra S. Susser (eds.). 9/11: Mental Health in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks. Cambridge University Press, 2012. ISBN 1107406420
  • Norcross, John C., and Marvin R. Goldfried (eds.). Handbook of Psychotherapy Integration. Oxford University Press, 2019. ISBN 978-0190690465
  • Rich, Grant J., and Uwe Gielen (eds.). Pathfinders in International Psychology. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2015. ISBN 978-1681231433
  • Robertson, Daniel. The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. Routledge, 2019. ISBN 978-0367219147
  • Sullivan, Harry Stack. The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1968. ISBN 978-0393001389
  • Sundberg, Norman, Allen Winebarger, and Julian Taplin. Clinical Psychology: Evolving Theory, Practice, and Research. Pearson, 2020. ISBN 978-0130871190
  • Throop, Elizabeth A. Psychotherapy, American Culture, and Social Policy: Immoral Individualism. Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. ISBN 978-0230609457
  • Tuckey, C. Lloyd. Psycho-Therapeutics Or Treatment By Sleep And Suggestion. Kessinger Publishing, 2010 (original 1889). ISBN 978-1162929156
  • Tuke, Daniel Hack. Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind upon the Body in Health and Disease: Designed to elucidate the action of the imagination. Kessinger Publishing, 2007 (original 1972). ISBN 978-0548104163
  • Varma, Vijoy K., and Nitin Gupta. Psychotherapy in a Traditional Society: Context, Concept and Practice. Jaypee Brothers Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-8184482362
  • Wampold, Bruce E., and Zac E. Imel. The Great Psychotherapy Debate. Routledge, 2015. ISBN 978-0805857092
  • Wampold, Bruce E., John C. Norcross, and Michael J. Lambert (eds.). Psychotherapy Relationships that Work. Oxford University Press, 2019. ISBN 978-0190069292
  • Zeig, Jeffrey K., and W. Michael Munion (eds.). What is psychotherapy? Contemporary perspectives. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1990. ISBN 978-1555422837

External links

All links retrieved February 23, 2024.

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