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| − | In [[parapsychology]], '''precognition''' (from the [[Latin]] præ-, “prior to,” + cognitio, “a getting to know”) is a form of [[extra-sensory perception]] wherein a person [[perceive]]s information about future places or events before they happen (as distinct from merely [[predict]]ing them based on [[deductive reasoning]] and current knowledge).<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_l_r.html#p Parapsychological Association website, Glossary of Key Words Frequently Used in Parapsychology, Retrieved December 24, 2006</ref>
| + | '''Precognition''' (from the [[Latin]] 'praecognitio', or "to know beforehand") is the ability to see or know the future through [[paranormal]] means, and is a form of [[extra-sensory perception]], or ESP. More specifically, precognition is a type of [[clairvoyance]], or "second sight". This sort of foreknowledge is distinct from any that could be obtained through current knowledge and [[deductive reasoning]]. Precognition is the most frequently reported type of ESP, occurring most often in dreams.<ref>Guiley, Rosemary Ellen. 1991. [http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/p/precognition.html "Precognition"] Harpler Collins, New York. Retrieved April 9, 2007.</ref> A related ability is that of "retrocognition", or being able to see backwards in time. Premonitions are often included under the term "precognition", although they are generally more of an instinctual, emotional feeling than actual knowledge. (For example, having a dream or vision of a train wreck would be categorized as precognition, but a generalized strong feeling not to get on the train would be a premonition.) |
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| − | A related term, '''presentiment''', refers to information about future events which is perceived in the form of emotions or feelings at the [[autonomic]] level. These terms are considered by some to be special cases of the more general term [[clairvoyance]].
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| − | == Introduction == | + | ==History of Symbolic Visions and Precognition== |
| | + | Attempts to foresee the future are nearly ubiquitous throughout history. Most ancient cultures, including the Greeks, Romans, ancient Babylon, and prehistoric China, have used [[scrying]] or other prophetic methods to see into the future. Stories of visions, second sight, and [[prophecy]] are a feature of many cultures, including the [[Celts]] of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Highlands]], the [[Sami people|Sami]] in [[Scandinavia]], the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], the [[Zulu]]s of [[Africa]], and the [[Maori]] of [[New Zealand]]. One of the earliest recorded accounts of precognitive vision can be found in the [[Odyssey]], where [[Theoclymenus]] sees a shroud of darkness about the bodies of a group of doomed suitors, and drops of blood on the walls of the hall of [[Odysseus]], signifying the death and destruction that was to come to them. Similar examples of symbolic visions occur in the literature of most cultures, including the [[Icelandic sagas]] and the [[Old Testament]]. |
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| − | Throughout history people have claimed to have precognitive abilities, and [[prophecy]] is a feature of many religions.
| + | [[Anecdotal]] accounts of precognitions are just as prevalent in modern times as they were in ancient, such as people "knowing" who is on the other end of a ringing telephone before it is answered, or having a dream of unusual clarity with elements of content that later occur. While such accounts provide no [[scientific proof]] of precognition, the prevalence of such accounts has prompted a great deal of research into precognition and other psychical abilities. |
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| − | Just as prevalent are anecdotal accounts of precognitions from the general public, such as someone "knowing" who is on the other end of a ringing telephone before they answer it, or having a dream of unusual clarity with elements of content that later occur. While [[anecdotal]] accounts do not provide [[scientific proof]] of precognition, such common experiences motivate continued research.
| + | ==Scientific Research on Precognition== |
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| − | Skeptic and magician [[James Randi]], in his book ''[[An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural]]'', wrote "Knowledge of a future event or circumstance not obtained through inference or deduction, but by paranormal means."<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.randi.org/encyclopedia/precognition.html | title=An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] | date= 1995 | first=James | last=Randi | accessdate = 2007-03-28}}</ref>
| + | [[J. W. Dunne]], an accomplished British [[aeronautics|aeronautical]] engineer, was the first to undertake a systematic study of precognition in the early [[twentieth century]]. Dunne first became interested in precognition when he was unsettled by the fact that many of his dreams appeared to be precognitive. In 1927, he published the book ''[[An Experiment with Time]]'', which contained his findings on dream precognition and retrocognition, as well as theories on the nature of time itself. Dunne's own precognitive dreams included mainly trivial incidents in his own life, with occasional instances of major news events. One of the findings Dunne found most intriguing was the fact that his dreams seemed to be fairly equally divided between past and future events, and began to formulate theories on the nature of time.</ref>[http://www.martinlos.com/?p=6 "An Experiment With Time"] November 30, 2004. Martin's O&O Blog. Retrieved April 9, 2007.</ref> |
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| − | ==History==
| + | [[Dr. Joseph Banks Rhine]], born in 1895, is widely considered to be the father of modern [[parapsychology]], and coined the term "extrasensory perception". Along with his wife, Dr. Louisa Rhine, he began the next significant systematic research of precognition during the 1930s at the [[Parapsychology]] Laboratory at [[Duke University]]. Rhine tested subjects for precognitive abilities using [[Zener cards]]. Participants were often asked to guess the order of cards before the deck was even shuffled. In one set of experiments, Rhine recorded 489 correct guesses (or 'hits') out of 2400 total guesses. This result is equivalent to odds of 1,000,000 to one against chance, although critics argue that cheating by subjects and sloppiness of experimenters skewed Rhine's results.<ref>[http://www.parapsych.org/members/jb_rhine.html "Who was J.B. Rhine?"] The Parapsychological Association. Retrieved April 9, 2007.</ref> |
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| − | [[J. W. Dunne]], a British [[aeronautics]] engineer, undertook the first systematic study of precognition in the early [[twentieth century]]. In 1927, he published the classic ''[[An Experiment with Time]]'', which contained his findings and theories.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} Dunne's study was based on his own precognitive dreams, which involved both trivial incidents in his own life and major news events appearing in the press the day after the dream. When first realizing that he was seeing the future in his dreams, Dunne worried that he was "a freak." His worries soon eased when he discovered that precognitive dreams are common; he concluded that many people have them without realizing it, perhaps because they do not recall the details or fail to properly interpret the dream symbols.
| + | By 1983, approximately a dozen parapsychological research centers were established throughout the United States and Europe, producing a number of studies of the phenomenon of precognition, with varying results. Most parapsychologists admit that there are several issues with testing for psychic phenomena like precognition. The success of a subject is often found to vary with experimental conditions, the publication of experimental results, or the investigator controlling the test. Little to no consistency can be obtained in this way. There is also what is often referred to as the "file drawer problem"; the indisputable fact that a great deal of studies with negative results are confined to the file drawers of their researchers and are never published.<ref>Teresi, Scott. 2000. [http://www.teresi.us/html/writing/psi.html "The Current State of Parapsychology Research"] Teresi.us. Retrieved April 9, 2007.</ref> Despite numerous problems inherent in the testing of psychic phenomenon, the fact remains that a number of experiments have indeed produced results that cannot be attributed to chance. The significance of such results remains debatable, as do the procedures used to procure such results. |
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| − | [[Joseph Banks Rhine]] and Louisa Rhine began the next significant systematic research of precognition in the 1930s at the [[Parapsychology]] Laboratory at [[Duke University]].{{Fact|date=March 2007}} Rhine used card-guessing experiments in which the participant was asked to record his guess of the order of a [[card deck]] ''before'' the deck was shuffled.
| + | ==Anecdotal Evidence== |
| | + | There is seemingly no end to the amount of anecdotal evidence for precognition, retrocognition, and premonitions. While anecdotes of retrocognition are less common (including less socially embraced concepts of past life regression, for example), most people have at least one story of precognitive abilities or a premonition. |
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| − | London psychiatrist J. A. Barker established the British Premonitions Bureau in 1967, which collected precognitive data in order to provide an early warning system of impending disasters. Barker succeeded in finding a number of "human [[seismograph]]s" who tuned in regularly to disasters, but were unable to accurately pinpoint the times.
| + | Some claim that premonitions, while subtler and more emotional than precognitive visions or knowledge, are potentially able to cause people to subconsciously alter their plans, thus avoiding tragedy. Evidence such as passenger counts on trains is cited; on days where a train wrecked, it sometimes had significantly fewer passengers than non-accident days. The Titanic carried only fifty eight percent of her passenger load on her doomed maiden voyage, and some passengers even canceled their tickets; it is argued that precognition and premonitions, both conscious and unconscious, are responsible for the lower passenger rate on some doomed vessels.<ref>[http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/p/premonition.html "Premonition"] The Mystica. Retrieved April 9, 2007.</ref> |
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| − | The [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab]] began in 1979 with precognitive experiments have since been done in a variety of formats by various parapsychologists, for example by the [[remote viewing]] researchers. This facility is now closed.
| + | After a coal mining accident killed 116 children and 28 adults in Wales, surveys taken after the tragedy showed a great number of people who claimed to have had premonitions, dreams, or visions of the tragedy before it happened. Shortly afterwards, in 1967, British psychiatrist Barker established the British Premonitions Bureau, in the hope that the collection of any and all precognitive experiences might aid in preventing future tragedies. A year later, a similar organization, the Central Premonitions Registry, was formed in New York. The collection of premonitions to avoid disaster proved to be impractical, however, and both institutions were gradually shut down.<ref>[http://mainportals.com/precog.shtml "Central Premonitions Registry"] Retrieved April 9, 2007.</ref> |
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| − | == Precognition in fiction ==
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| − | {{Unreferenced|date=March 2007}}
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| − | *A '''precog''' is a shorthand for a fictional precognitive, who has an ability to foresee future happenings, or it may refer to the precognitive vision itself. It is often featured in the stories by [[Philip K. Dick]], such as ''[[Minority Report]]''.
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| − | *[[Dream Girl]] of the [[Legion of Super-Heroes]] is from Naltor, an entire planet of precogs.
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| − | *[[Jedi Knight]]s, depending on their knowledge of the "force," often have precognition talents which lead to them to demonstrate adroit-reactions and dexterity, as they see physical changes in their environment before they happen and can anticipate them. [[Luke Skywalker]] sees his friends suffering, and [[Yoda]] tells him 'It is the future you see.' Precognition is also used in battle when Jedi use their [[lightsaber]]s to deflect blaster bolts, often back to the person who fired them.
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| − | *[[Spider-Man]]'s "spider-sense" is a limited precognitive sense.
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| − | *[[Destiny (Irene Adler)|Destiny]] of the ''[[X-Men]]'' comics series has a precognitive sense.
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| − | *[[Lilith (DC Comics)|Lilith]] of the ''[[Titans (comics)|Teen Titans]]'' comics series had a precognitive sense.
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| − | *It appears briefly in ''[[White Palace]]'', but is not a major plot element.
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| − | *In the [[anime]] ''[[Weiss Kreuz]] (Knight Hunters)'', [[Weiss Kreuz#Enemies|Brad Crawford]], the leader of opposing group Schwarz, has the gift of precognition. Accordingly, his little-used (or perhaps fan created) codename is "Oracle."
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| − | *[[Rei Hino]] of ''[[Sailor Moon]]'' had precognitve sense due to her miko powers.
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| − | *[[Maia Skouris]], a child featured in ''[[The 4400]].'' was sent back from the future with precognitive abilities, and is commonly referred to as a precog by other characters.
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| − | *Johnny Smith of ''[[The Dead Zone (TV series)|The Dead Zone]]'' has been gifted (or cursed) with precognition.
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| − | *Precognition, and the implications of wielding a power like it, plays a significant role in Frank Herbert's ''[[Dune universe|Dune]]'' series.
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| − | *[[Radar O'Reilly]] of the TV show ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'' could always anticipate his [[commanding officer]]'s requests, often walking in just before called, with the documents required already in hand. He was always aware of when the [[Helicopter|choppers]] were approaching.
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| − | *Milo, a character in Dan Abnett's ''Gaunt's Ghost'' series, had similar abilities to predict incoming [[artillery]] barrages and superior officer's requests
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| − | *Joanna Star, a magically [[transgender]]ed [[cheerleader]] from ''[[The Wotch]]'' and ''[[The Wotch: Cheer!]]'', seems to have psychic/precognitive abilities.
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| − | *[[Stephen King]] uses precognition in some of his novels, most notably ''[[The Shining (novel)|The Shining]]'' and ''[[The Dead Zone]]''.
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| − | *In ''[[The Dark Tower (1977 novel)|The Dark Tower]]'', possibly written by [[C. S. Lewis]], the author explores the concepts of precognition and interdimensional travel.
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| − | *In ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'', the [[DNA Resequencer (Stargate)|DNA Resequencer]] gave [[Jonas Quinn]] precognition.
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| − | *In ''[[The Matrix]]'', the Oracle and later Neo both appear to have precognitive abilities within the [[simulated reality]]. The exact nature of these abilities is questioned multiple times, but never fully explained.
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| − | *In ''[[Supernatural (TV series)|Supernatural]]'', the television series, Sam Winchester has visions in the episode 'Nightmare.' At first he dreams of future events, which are followed by his having visions whilst still awake. Towards the end of the episode he also discovers he has [[telekinesis]], and after seeing a vision of his brother being killed, he instinctively moves a large dresser out the way when trapped in a closet, and promptly goes off to save his brother's life.
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| − | *In ''[[The Power of Five]]'' by [[Anthony Horowitz]], the first of the five, Matt, could see into the future, but all his visions were of disasters.
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| − | *In ''[[Final Destination]]'', the character Alex has the ability to see disastrous events before they happen, particularly dealing with death of himself and people he knows. Firstly through visions, and later through signs, which girlfriend Clear Rivers is eventually able to do. This was the base of the next two films, with Kimberly Corman and Wendy Christenson also having precognitive sense. Additionally, Wendy's pictures from her cameras reflected the subject's forecoming deaths.
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| − | *In [[Clamp (manga artists)|Clamp]]'s short-lived manga series ''[[Legal Drug]]'', Kakei, the owner of Green Drugstore, has the ability to see visions. Whether or not he can control these is unknown. His lover, Saiga, also refers to him as a precog.
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| − | *In ''[[Charmed]]'' , [[Phoebe Halliwell|Phoebe]], one of the witch sisters, has the power to see the future and past through [[premonitions]], usually unintentionally brought on by physical contact with an object or person.
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| − | *In ''[[Heroes]]'', [[Isaac Mendez]] has the ability to see and paint pictures from the future.
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| − | *On [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'', [[Mrs Cake]] is a Medium (verging on small) who has the disconcerting habit of answering questions before they're asked.
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| − | :See also [[:Category:Fictional characters with precognition]]
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| − | * [[Princess Zelda]] from [[The Legend of Zelda series]] has the ability to feel and see things before they happen. An example of this is when in [[Ocarina of Time]] she had a dream about some dark clouds which covered Hyrule and a child glowing in green make them to dissapear. It is obvious that the clouds symbolize [[Ganon|Ganondorf]] while the child is [[Link (Legend of Zelda series)]]
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| − | * [[Raven Baxter]] from [[That's So Raven]] has the ability to see future events, which is a main focus of the show. These occur suddenly and unpredictably to Raven, who then feels compelled to change the future to either avoid or to cause these events to occur.
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| − | * [[Doctor John Vattic]] from [[Second Sight]] eventually finds out his last psychic power is Precognition, which explains why he has been mentally visiting the 'possible future' and changing it through his actions in the present.
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| − | ==Retrocognition==
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| − | In [[parapsychology]], '''retrocognition''' (also called '''postcognition'''), is the ability to observe the past of an object, place, or occurrence through [[paranormal]] means. The term was coined by Frederic Myers.<ref>http://parapsych.org/glossary_a_d.html Glossary of parapsychological terms from the Parapsychological Association website, retrieved December 17 2006</ref> [[Psychometry]] and [[past life regression]] can both be considered types of retrocognition.
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| − | A widely known depiction of Retrocognition drama is in the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[television series]], ''[[Seeing Things]]'', or the [[Stephen King]] novel ''[[The Dead Zone]]'' and its film and TV adaptations. It can also be seen in the popular TV show ''[[Charmed]]'', with the character [[Phoebe Halliwell]]. The [[Marvel Comics]] character [[Snowbird (comics)|Snowbird]] possesses this ability; she can scan the past 6 hours or so of a given place. In ''[[Torchwood]]'' episode "[[Ghost Machine (Torchwood)|Ghost Machine]]" contained [[List of Torchwood items#G|a device]] which allowed its user to see a past event in a specific location, etched by a psychic imprint of strong emotions.
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| − | ==Second sight==
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| − | {{Cleanup|October 2006}}
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| − | '''Second sight''' is a form of [[extra-sensory perception]] whereby a person perceives information, in the form of [[Vision (religion)|vision]], about future events before they happen. [[Foresight]] expresses the meaning of second sight, which perhaps was originally so called because normal vision was regarded as coming first, while [[supernormal]] vision is a secondary thing, confined to certain individuals.
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| − | ===History of symbolical visions===
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| − | Though we hear most of the second sight among the [[Celts]] of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Highlands]] (it is much less familiar to the Celts of [[Ireland]]), this species of involuntary [[prophetic]] vision, whether direct or symbolical, is peculiar to no people. Perhaps our earliest notice of symbolical second sight is found in the [[Odyssey]], where [[Theoclymenus]] sees a shroud of mist about the bodies of the doomed [[Woors]], and drops of blood distilling from the walls of the hall of [[Odysseus]]. The [[Pythia]] at [[Delphi]] saw the blood on the walls during the Persian War; and, in the [[Argonautica]] of [[Apollonius Rhodius]], blood and fire appear to [[Circe]] in her chamber on the night before the arrival of the fratricidal [[Jason]] and [[Medea]]. Similar examples of symbolical visions occur in the [[Icelandic sagas]], especially in [[Njala]], before the burning of [[Njál's saga|Njal]] and his family. In the Highlands, and in [[Wales]], the chief symbols beheld are the [[shroud]], and the [[corpse candle]] or other spectral illumination. The Rev. Dr Stewart, of [[Nether Lochaber]], informed the present writer that one of his parishioners, a woman, called him to his door, and pointed out to him a rock by the sea, which shone in a kind of phosphorescent brilliance. The doctor attributed the phenomenon to decaying sea-weed, but the woman said: "No, a corpse will be laid there to-morrow." This, in fact, occurred; a dead body was brought in a boat for [[burial]], and was laid at the foot of the rock, where, as Dr Stewart found, there was no decaying vegetable matter.
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| − | Second sight flourished among the [[Sami people|Sami]] and the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], the [[Zulu]]s and [[Māori]]s, to the surprise of travellers, who have recorded the puzzling facts. But in these cases the visions were usually induced, not spontaneous, and should be considered as [[clairvoyance]]. Ranulf Higdons [[Polychronicon]] ([[14th century]]) describes Scottish second sight, adding "that strangers setten their feet upon the feet of the men of that londe for to see such syghtes as the men of that londe doon." This method of communicating the vision is still practised, with success, according to the late Dr Stewart. The present writer once had the opportunity to make an experiment, but to him the vision was not imparted. (For the method see "Kirks Secret Commonwealth of [[Elf|Elves]], [[Faun]]s and [[Fairy|Fairies]]," 1691, 1815, 1893.) It is, by some, believed that if a person tells what he has seen before the event occurs he will lose the faculty, and recently a second-sighted man, for this reason, did not warn his brother against taking part in a [[regatta]], though he had foreseen the accident by which his brother was drowned. When this opinion prevails it is, of course, impossible to prove that the vision ever occurred. There are many seers, as Lord Tarbat wrote to Robert Boyle, to whom the faculty is a trouble, and they would be rid of it at any rate, if they could.
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| − | ===Second sight and its association with death===
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| − | Perhaps the visions most frequently reported are those of funerals, which later occur in accordance with the sight, of corpses, and of arrivals of persons, remote at the moment, who later do arrive, with some distinctive mark of dress or equipment which the seer could not normally expect, but observed in the vision. Good examples in their own experience have been given to the present writer by well-educated persons. Some of the anecdotes are too surprising to be published without the names of the seers. A fair example of second sight is the following from [[Balachulish]]. An aged man of the last generation was troubled by visions of armed men in uniform, drilling in a particular field near the sea. The uniform was not Englands cruel red, and he foresaw an invasion. It must be of Americans, he decided, for the soldiers do not look like foreigners. The Volunteer movement later came into being, and the men drilled on the ground where the seer had seen them. Another case was that of a man who happened to be sitting with a boy on the edge of a path in the [[quarry]]. Suddenly he caught the boy and leaped aside with him. He had seen a runaway [[trolly]], with men in it, dash down the path; but there were no traces of them below. The spirits of the living are powerful to-day, said the percipient in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]], and next day the fatal accident occurred at the spot. These are examples of what is, at present, alleged in the matter of second sight.
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| − | ===Second sight and health===
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| − | ''Taisch'' was the Gaelic name given to "second sight," the involuntary ability of seeing the future or distant events. It originated in the Scottish highlands.
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| − | The sight may, or may not, be preceded or accompanied by [[Epilepsy|epileptic]] symptoms, but this appears now to be unusual. A learned minister lately made a few inquiries on this point in his parish, at the request of the present writer. His [[beadle]] had the sight in rich measure: it was always preceded by a sense of discomfort and anxiety, but was not attended by convulsions. Out of seven or eight seers in the parish, only one was not perfectly healthy and temperate. A well-known seer, now dead, whom the writer consulted, was weak of body, the result of an accident, but seemed candid, and ready to confess that his visions were occasionally failures. He said that the sight first came on him in the village street when he was a boy. He saw a dead woman walk down the street and enter the house that had been hers. He gave a few examples of his foresight of events, and one of his failure to discover the corpse of a man drowned in the [[loch]].
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| − | ===Second sight and extra-sensory perception===
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| − | The phenomena, as described, may be classed under [[clairvoyance]], [[premonition]], and [[telepathy]], with a residuum of symbolical visions. In these, corpse candles and spectral lights play a great part, but, in the region best known to the writer, the lights are visible to all, even to English [[tourist]]s, and are not hallucinatory. The conduct of the lights is brilliantly eccentric, but, as they have not been studied by scientific specialists, their natural causes remain unascertained. It is plain that there is nothing peculiar to the Celts in second sight; but the Gaelic words for it and the prevailing opinion indicate telepathy, the action of the [[spirit]]s of the living as the main agents. Yet, in cases of premonition, this explanation is difficult. Conceivably an [[engineer]], in 1881, was thinking out a line of [[railway]] from [[Oban]] to [[Ballachulish]], at the moment when four or five witnesses were alarmed by the whizz and thunder of a passing train on what was then the road, but was later (1903) usurped by the railway track. (For this amazing anecdote the writer has the first-hand evidence of a highly educated percipient.) If the speculation of the engineer was wired on, telepathically, to the witnesses, then telepathy may account for the premonition, which, in any case, is a good example of collective second sight. That second sight has died out, under the influence of education and newspapers, is an averment of popular superstition in the south.
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| − | The examples given, merely a selection from those known to the present writer, prove that the faculty is believed to be as common as in any previous age.
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| − | ===Study of second sight===
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| − | The [[literature]] of second sight is not insignificant. "The Secret Commonwealth" of the Rev. Mr Kirk (1691), edited by Sir [[Walter Scott]] [[in]] 1815 (a hundred copies), and by Andrew Lang in 1893, is in line with cases given in "Trials for Witchcraft" (cf. Dalyell's ''Darker Superstitions of Scotland'', and Wodrow's ''Analecta''). Aubrey has several cases in his "Miscellanies," and the correspondence of [[Robert Boyle]], [[Henry More]], [[Glanvil]] and [[Pepys]], shows an early attempt at scientific examination of the alleged faculty. The great treatise on Second Sight by [[Theophilus Insulanus]] (a [[Macleod]]) may be recommended; with Martin's ''Description of the Western Isles'' (1703, 1716), and the work of the Rev. Mr Fraser, Dean of the Isles (1707, 1820). Fraser was familiar with the contemporary scientific theories of [[hallucination]], and justly remarked that the sight was riot peculiar to the Highlanders; but that, in the south, people dared not confess their experiences, for fear of ridicule. (A. L.)
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> | |
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| | ==References== | | ==References== |
| − | *{{1911}}
| + | <references/> |
| | == External links == | | == External links == |
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Precognition (from the Latin 'praecognitio', or "to know beforehand") is the ability to see or know the future through paranormal means, and is a form of extra-sensory perception, or ESP. More specifically, precognition is a type of clairvoyance, or "second sight". This sort of foreknowledge is distinct from any that could be obtained through current knowledge and deductive reasoning. Precognition is the most frequently reported type of ESP, occurring most often in dreams.[1] A related ability is that of "retrocognition", or being able to see backwards in time. Premonitions are often included under the term "precognition", although they are generally more of an instinctual, emotional feeling than actual knowledge. (For example, having a dream or vision of a train wreck would be categorized as precognition, but a generalized strong feeling not to get on the train would be a premonition.)
History of Symbolic Visions and Precognition
Attempts to foresee the future are nearly ubiquitous throughout history. Most ancient cultures, including the Greeks, Romans, ancient Babylon, and prehistoric China, have used scrying or other prophetic methods to see into the future. Stories of visions, second sight, and prophecy are a feature of many cultures, including the Celts of the Scottish Highlands, the Sami in Scandinavia, the Native Americans, the Zulus of Africa, and the Maori of New Zealand. One of the earliest recorded accounts of precognitive vision can be found in the Odyssey, where Theoclymenus sees a shroud of darkness about the bodies of a group of doomed suitors, and drops of blood on the walls of the hall of Odysseus, signifying the death and destruction that was to come to them. Similar examples of symbolic visions occur in the literature of most cultures, including the Icelandic sagas and the Old Testament.
Anecdotal accounts of precognitions are just as prevalent in modern times as they were in ancient, such as people "knowing" who is on the other end of a ringing telephone before it is answered, or having a dream of unusual clarity with elements of content that later occur. While such accounts provide no scientific proof of precognition, the prevalence of such accounts has prompted a great deal of research into precognition and other psychical abilities.
Scientific Research on Precognition
J. W. Dunne, an accomplished British aeronautical engineer, was the first to undertake a systematic study of precognition in the early twentieth century. Dunne first became interested in precognition when he was unsettled by the fact that many of his dreams appeared to be precognitive. In 1927, he published the book An Experiment with Time, which contained his findings on dream precognition and retrocognition, as well as theories on the nature of time itself. Dunne's own precognitive dreams included mainly trivial incidents in his own life, with occasional instances of major news events. One of the findings Dunne found most intriguing was the fact that his dreams seemed to be fairly equally divided between past and future events, and began to formulate theories on the nature of time.</ref>"An Experiment With Time" November 30, 2004. Martin's O&O Blog. Retrieved April 9, 2007.</ref>
Dr. Joseph Banks Rhine, born in 1895, is widely considered to be the father of modern parapsychology, and coined the term "extrasensory perception". Along with his wife, Dr. Louisa Rhine, he began the next significant systematic research of precognition during the 1930s at the Parapsychology Laboratory at Duke University. Rhine tested subjects for precognitive abilities using Zener cards. Participants were often asked to guess the order of cards before the deck was even shuffled. In one set of experiments, Rhine recorded 489 correct guesses (or 'hits') out of 2400 total guesses. This result is equivalent to odds of 1,000,000 to one against chance, although critics argue that cheating by subjects and sloppiness of experimenters skewed Rhine's results.[2]
By 1983, approximately a dozen parapsychological research centers were established throughout the United States and Europe, producing a number of studies of the phenomenon of precognition, with varying results. Most parapsychologists admit that there are several issues with testing for psychic phenomena like precognition. The success of a subject is often found to vary with experimental conditions, the publication of experimental results, or the investigator controlling the test. Little to no consistency can be obtained in this way. There is also what is often referred to as the "file drawer problem"; the indisputable fact that a great deal of studies with negative results are confined to the file drawers of their researchers and are never published.[3] Despite numerous problems inherent in the testing of psychic phenomenon, the fact remains that a number of experiments have indeed produced results that cannot be attributed to chance. The significance of such results remains debatable, as do the procedures used to procure such results.
Anecdotal Evidence
There is seemingly no end to the amount of anecdotal evidence for precognition, retrocognition, and premonitions. While anecdotes of retrocognition are less common (including less socially embraced concepts of past life regression, for example), most people have at least one story of precognitive abilities or a premonition.
Some claim that premonitions, while subtler and more emotional than precognitive visions or knowledge, are potentially able to cause people to subconsciously alter their plans, thus avoiding tragedy. Evidence such as passenger counts on trains is cited; on days where a train wrecked, it sometimes had significantly fewer passengers than non-accident days. The Titanic carried only fifty eight percent of her passenger load on her doomed maiden voyage, and some passengers even canceled their tickets; it is argued that precognition and premonitions, both conscious and unconscious, are responsible for the lower passenger rate on some doomed vessels.[4]
After a coal mining accident killed 116 children and 28 adults in Wales, surveys taken after the tragedy showed a great number of people who claimed to have had premonitions, dreams, or visions of the tragedy before it happened. Shortly afterwards, in 1967, British psychiatrist Barker established the British Premonitions Bureau, in the hope that the collection of any and all precognitive experiences might aid in preventing future tragedies. A year later, a similar organization, the Central Premonitions Registry, was formed in New York. The collection of premonitions to avoid disaster proved to be impractical, however, and both institutions were gradually shut down.[5]
References
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External links
- Edgar Cayce: Twentieth Century Psychic [1]
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