Monophysitism
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Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning 'one, alone' and physis meaning 'nature') is the christological position that Christ has only one nature (divine), as opposed to the Chalcedonian position which holds that Christ has two natures, one divine and one human. The term also refers to the movement centered on this concept, which struggled against the Chalcedonian formula in the fifth through sixth centuries CE.
Monophysitism and its antithesis, Nestorianism, were both hotly disputed and divisive competing tenets in the maturing Christian traditions during the first half of the fifth century. Monophysitism grew to prominence in the Eastern Roman empire, particularly in Syria, the Levant, Egypt, and Anatolia, while the Western Roman empire remained for the most part under the religious influence of the papacy, which denounced the doctrine as heresy.
Two major doctrines are specifically associated with Monophysitism:
- Eutychianism, which held that the human and divine natures of Christ were fused into one new single (mono) nature.
- Apollinarianism, which held that, while Christ possessed a normal human body and emotions, the Divine Logos had basically taken the place of the nous, or mind.
The Eutychian form of Monophysitism emerged after the "diaphysite" doctrine of Nestorius, Archbishop of Constantinople, had been rejected at the First Council of Ephesus. Eutyches, also from Constantinople, emerged with a diametrally opposite view. Eutyches' was accused of heresy in 448, leading to his excommunication. In 449, at the controversial Second Council of Ephesus, Eutyches was reinstated and his chief opponents were deposed. However, Monophysitism and Eutyches were again rejected at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
Monophysitism continued to have many adherents, however, and the controversy reemerged in a major way in late fifth century, in the form of the Acacian schism. In this drama, Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople and Emperor Zeno sought to reconcile the Monophysite and Chalcedonian Christians by means of the Henotikon, a document which essentially banned debate over the question of Christ's "natures." The schism lasted for several decades until the orthodox emperor Justin I reversed the policy of his predecessors and encouraged Patriarch John II of Constantinople to submit to the doctrine promulgated by Pope Hormisdas.
History
Background
The doctrine of Monophysitism can be seen as evolving in reaction to the "diaphysite" theory of Bishop Nestorius of Constantinople in the early fifth century. Nestorianism was an attempt to explain rationally the doctrine of the Incarnation, which held that God the Son had dwelt among men in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. Nestorius held that the human and divine essences of Christ were separate, so that the man Jesus and the divine Logos, were in effect two "persons," a similar sense of the Trinity being three "persons."[1] Consequently, Nestorians rejected such terminology as "God was crucified," because the humanity of Jesus Christ that suffered was distinct from his divinity. Likewise, Nestorius rejected the term Theotokos (God-bearer or Mother of God) as a title of the Virgin Mary, suggesting instead the title Christotokos (Mother of Christ), as more accurate.
Bishop Cyril of Alexandria led the theological criticism of Nestorius beginning 429. "I am amazed," he said, "that there are some who are entirely in doubt as to whether the holy Virgin should be called Theotokos or not." Pope Celestine I, who was suspicious of Nestorius for granting hospitality to certain certain Pelagian clerics whom the pope had condemned soon joined Cyril in condemning Nestorius. After considerable wrangling and intrigue the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus in 431 condemned Nestorianism as heresy. Nestorius himself was deposed as bishop of Constantinople and excommunicated.
Eutychianism
Cyril taught that in Christ, "There is only one physis, since it is the Incarnation, of God the Word." Only this sounds very much like Monophysitism, Cyril was apparently beyond reproach. Eutyches (c. 380—c. 456), a presbyter and archimandrite of a monastery of 300 monks near Constantinople, emerged after Cyril's death as Nestorianism's most vehement opponent. He held that Christ's divinity and humanity were perfectly united, and his vehement expression of this principle led to his being understood to insist that Christ had only one nature (essentially divine) rather than two.
Eutychianism became a major controversy among the eastern church and Pope Leo I, from Rome, wrote that Eutyches teaching was indeed an error, although he admitted that it seemed to be more from a lack of skill on the matters than from malice. Nevertheless, Eutyches found himself denounced as a heretic in November 447, during a local synod in Constantinople. Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople did not wish the council to consider the matter due to the great prestige that Eutyches enjoyed, but he finally relented, and Eutyches was condemned as a heretic by the synod. However, the emperor Theodosius II and the Patriarch Dioscorus of Alexandria did not accept this decision. Dioscorus held his own synod at Alexandria reinstating Eutyches, and the emperor called a council to be held in Ephesus in 449, inviting Pope Leo I, who agreed to be represented by four legates.
The Second Council of Ephesus convened on August 8, 449, with some 130 bishops in attendance. Dioscorus of Alexandria presided by command of the emperor, who denied a vote to any bishop who had voted in Eutyches' deposition two years earlier. As a result, there was a near-unanimous support for Eutyches—the pope's representatives being among the few who insisted on Eutyches' being in error. Moreover, the council went so far as to condemn and expel Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople, who soon died.
The decisions of this council threatened schism between the East and the West, and soon became known in the west as the "Robber Synod."
Chalcedon
The situation continued to deteriorate until the ascension of Emperor Marcian to the imperial throne, brought about a reversal of policy in the East. The Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon was now convened in 451, under terms less favorable to the Monophysites. It promulgated the doctrine which ultimately—though not without serious challenges—stood as the settled christological formula for most of Christendom. Eutychianism was once again rejected, and the formula of "two natures without confusion, change, division, or separation" was adopted.
- "We confess that one and the same Christ, Lord, and only-begotten Son, is to be acknowledged in two natures without confusion, change, division, or separation. The distinction between natures was never abolished by their union, but rather the character proper to each of the two natures was preserved as they came together in one person and one hypostasis."
Legacy
Monophysitism is also rejected by the Oriental Orthodox Churches, but was widely accepted in Syria, the Levant, and Egypt leading to many tensions in the early days of the Byzantine Empire.
Later, Monothelitism was developed as an attempt to bridge the gap between the Monophysite and the Chalcedonian position, but it too was rejected by the members of the Chalcedonian synod, despite at times having the support of the Byzantine emperors and one of the Popes of Rome, Honorius I. Some are of the opinion that Monothelitism was at one time held by the Maronites, but the Maronite community, for the most part, dispute this, stating that they have never been out of communion with the Catholic Church.
Miaphysitism, the christology of the Oriental Orthodox churches, is sometimes considered a variant of Monophysitism, but these churches view their theology as distinct from Monophysitism and anathematize Eutyches.
See also
- Diophysitism
- Acephali
- Henotikon
- the Three-Chapter Controversy
- Christ the Logos
- West Syrian Rite
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Agreed Statements between representative of the Oriental and Eastern Orthodox Churches
- Joint Declaration by the Oriental and the Catholic Church
- Catholic Encyclopedia article
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- ↑ The Greek word hypostasis, translated into Latin as "persona" does not carry quite the same sense of distinction as the Latin, a factor that has contributed to the many theological misunderstandings between eastern and western Christianity, both during this and other theological controversies.
