Difference between revisions of "Lymphoma" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | '''Lymphoma''' is a | + | '''Lymphoma''' is any of a diverse group of [[cancer]]s that originate in [[lymphocyte]]s of the [[lymphatic system]], a secondary (but open) circulatory system in [[vertebrate]]s. |
| − | In the | + | In lymphoma, the [[cell (biology)|cells]] in the lymphatic system grow abnormally, dividing too rapidly and growing without any order or control (Longe 2005). As a result, too much [[tissue]] develops and tumors are formed. Since lymph is widely distributed in the body, with twice as much lymph as blood and twice as many lymph vessels as blood vessels, the cancer may occur in many areas, such as the [[liver]], [[spleen]], and [[bone marrow]]. |
| − | + | Ironically, the lymphatic system is fundamentally important for combating cancer cells—as wellas foreign bodies, such as viruses and bacteria, and combating heart disease and arthritis as well. It is those cancers that originate in the lymphatic system that are referred to as lymphomas. But cancers can also originate outside the lymphatic system and then make their way into lymphoid tissues and glands. | |
| + | |||
| + | There are many types of lymphoma. Lymphomas are part of the broad group of diseases called [[Hematological malignancy|hematological neoplasms]]. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Lymphoma commonly is categorized broadly as [[Hodgkin's lymphoma]] (HL) and [[Non-Hodgkin lymphoma|non-Hodgkin lymphoma]] (NHL, all other types of lymphoma). These are distinguished by cell type (Longe 2005). Scientific classification of the types of lymphoma is more detailed. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the affliction was called simply Hodgkin's Disease, as it was discovered by Thomas Hodgkin in 1832. | ||
==Prevalence== | ==Prevalence== | ||
| − | According to the U.S. | + | According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health, lymphomas account for about five percent of all cases of cancer in the United States. Hodgkin's lymphoma accounts for less than one percent of all cases of cancer in the United States. |
| − | Because the lymphatic system is part of the body's immune system, patients with weakened immune system, such as from [[HIV]] infection or from certain drugs or medication, also have a higher incidence of lymphoma. | + | Because the lymphatic system is part of the body's [[immune system]], patients with weakened immune system, such as from [[HIV]] infection or from certain drugs or medication, also have a higher incidence of lymphoma. |
==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
===WHO classification=== | ===WHO classification=== | ||
| − | The '''WHO Classification''' | + | The '''WHO Classification''', published by the [[World Health Organization]] in 2001, is the latest classification of lymphoma (Sarkin 2001). It was based upon the "Revised European-American Lymphoma classification" (REAL). |
This classification attempts to classify lymphomas by cell type, i.e. the normal cell type that most closely resembles the tumor. They are classified in three large groups: the [[B cell]] tumors, the [[T cell]] and [[natural killer cell]] tumors, [[Hodgkin lymphoma]], and other minor groups: ([[ICD-O]] codes are provided where available) | This classification attempts to classify lymphomas by cell type, i.e. the normal cell type that most closely resembles the tumor. They are classified in three large groups: the [[B cell]] tumors, the [[T cell]] and [[natural killer cell]] tumors, [[Hodgkin lymphoma]], and other minor groups: ([[ICD-O]] codes are provided where available) | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''B cells''' are [[lymphocyte]]s (a class of [[white blood cell]]s) that play a large role in the [[immune system#Adaptive immune system|adaptive immune system]] by making [[antibody|antibodies]] to identify and neutralize invading pathogens like [[bacteria]] and [[virus]]es. Specially, B cells play the major role in the [[humoral immunity|humoral immune response]], as opposed to the [[cell-mediated immunity|cell-mediated immune response]] that is governed by [[T cell]]s, another type of lympocyte. They can be distinguished from other lymphocyte types, such as B cells and NK cells, by the presence of a special receptor on their cell surface that is called the T cell receptor (TCR). lymphocyte-like cells called natural killer (NK) cells are involved in the immune system, albeit part of the innate immune system. They play a major role in defending the host from both tumors and virally infected cells. NK cells distinguish infected cells and tumors from normal and uninfected cells by recognizing alterations in levels of a surface molecule called MHC (major histocompatibility complex) class I. NK cells are activated in response to proteins called interferons. Activated NK cells release cytotoxic (cell-killing) granules, which then destroy the altered cells (Janeway et al. 2001). | ||
| + | |||
====Mature B cell neoplasms==== | ====Mature B cell neoplasms==== | ||
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</div> | </div> | ||
| + | * Lemole, G. M. 2001. ''The Healing Diet.'' William Morrow. | ||
| + | * Longe, J. L. 2005. ''The Gale Encyclopedia of Cancer: A Guide to Cancer and its Treatments''. Detroit: Thomson Gale. ISBN 1414403623. | ||
| + | Jaffe, Elaine Sarkin. 2001. Pathology and genetics of tumours of haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. Lyon: IARC Press. | ||
| + | <ref name="isbn92-832-2411-6">{{cite book |author= |title=Pathology and Genetics of Haemo (World Health Organization Classification of Tumours S.) |publisher=Oxford Univ Pr |location= |year= |pages= |isbn=9283224116 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> | ||
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==External links== | ==External links== | ||
Revision as of 00:57, 7 July 2007
| Lymphoma Classification and external resources | |
| ICD-10 | C81-C96 |
|---|---|
| ICD-O: | 9590-9999 |
| MeSH | D008223 |
Lymphoma is any of a diverse group of cancers that originate in lymphocytes of the lymphatic system, a secondary (but open) circulatory system in vertebrates.
In lymphoma, the cells in the lymphatic system grow abnormally, dividing too rapidly and growing without any order or control (Longe 2005). As a result, too much tissue develops and tumors are formed. Since lymph is widely distributed in the body, with twice as much lymph as blood and twice as many lymph vessels as blood vessels, the cancer may occur in many areas, such as the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
Ironically, the lymphatic system is fundamentally important for combating cancer cells—as wellas foreign bodies, such as viruses and bacteria, and combating heart disease and arthritis as well. It is those cancers that originate in the lymphatic system that are referred to as lymphomas. But cancers can also originate outside the lymphatic system and then make their way into lymphoid tissues and glands.
There are many types of lymphoma. Lymphomas are part of the broad group of diseases called hematological neoplasms.
Lymphoma commonly is categorized broadly as Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL, all other types of lymphoma). These are distinguished by cell type (Longe 2005). Scientific classification of the types of lymphoma is more detailed. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the affliction was called simply Hodgkin's Disease, as it was discovered by Thomas Hodgkin in 1832.
Prevalence
According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health, lymphomas account for about five percent of all cases of cancer in the United States. Hodgkin's lymphoma accounts for less than one percent of all cases of cancer in the United States.
Because the lymphatic system is part of the body's immune system, patients with weakened immune system, such as from HIV infection or from certain drugs or medication, also have a higher incidence of lymphoma.
Classification
WHO classification
The WHO Classification, published by the World Health Organization in 2001, is the latest classification of lymphoma (Sarkin 2001). It was based upon the "Revised European-American Lymphoma classification" (REAL).
This classification attempts to classify lymphomas by cell type, i.e. the normal cell type that most closely resembles the tumor. They are classified in three large groups: the B cell tumors, the T cell and natural killer cell tumors, Hodgkin lymphoma, and other minor groups: (ICD-O codes are provided where available)
B cells are lymphocytes (a class of white blood cells) that play a large role in the adaptive immune system by making antibodies to identify and neutralize invading pathogens like bacteria and viruses. Specially, B cells play the major role in the humoral immune response, as opposed to the cell-mediated immune response that is governed by T cells, another type of lympocyte. They can be distinguished from other lymphocyte types, such as B cells and NK cells, by the presence of a special receptor on their cell surface that is called the T cell receptor (TCR). lymphocyte-like cells called natural killer (NK) cells are involved in the immune system, albeit part of the innate immune system. They play a major role in defending the host from both tumors and virally infected cells. NK cells distinguish infected cells and tumors from normal and uninfected cells by recognizing alterations in levels of a surface molecule called MHC (major histocompatibility complex) class I. NK cells are activated in response to proteins called interferons. Activated NK cells release cytotoxic (cell-killing) granules, which then destroy the altered cells (Janeway et al. 2001).
Mature B cell neoplasms
- Chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma
- B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia
- Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma/Waldenström macroglobulinemia
- Splenic marginal zone lymphoma
- Plasma cell neoplasms
- Plasma cell myeloma
- Plasmacytoma
- Monoclonal immunoglobulin deposition diseases
- Heavy chain diseases
- Extranodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma (MALT lymphoma)
- Nodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma
- Follicular lymphoma
- Mantle cell lymphoma
- Diffuse large B cell lymphoma
- Mediastinal (thymic) large B cell lymphoma
- Intravascular large B cell lymphoma
- Primary effusion lymphoma
- Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia
- Lymphomatoid granulomatosis
Mature T cell and natural killer (NK) cell neoplasms
- T cell prolymphocytic leukemia
- T cell large granular lymphocytic leukemia
- Aggressive NK cell leukemia
- Adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma
- Extranodal NK/T cell lymphoma, nasal type
- Enteropathy-type T cell lymphoma
- Hepatosplenic T cell lymphoma
- Blastic NK cell lymphoma
- Mycosis fungoides / Sezary syndrome
- Primary cutaneous CD30-positive T cell lymphoproliferative disorders
- Primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma
- Lymphomatoid papulosis
- Angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma
- Peripheral T cell lymphoma, unspecified
- Anaplastic large cell lymphoma
Hodgkin Lymphoma
- Nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma
- Classical Hodgkin lymphoma
- Nodular sclerosis
- Mixed cellularity
- Lymphocyte-rich
- Lymphocyte depleted or not depleted
Immunodeficiency-associated lymphoproliferative disorders
- Associated with a primary immune disorder
- Associated with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
- Post-transplant
- Associated with Methotrexate therapy
Histiocytic and dendritic cell neoplasms
- Histiocytic sarcoma
- Langerhans cell histiocytosis
- Langerhans cell sarcoma
- Interdigitating dendritic cell sarcoma/tumor
- Follicular dendritic cell sarcoma/tumor
- Dendritic cell sarcoma, unspecified
Working formulation
The Working Formulation, published in 1982, is primarily descriptive. It is still occasionally used, but has been superseded by the WHO classification, above.
Low grade
- Malignant Lymphoma, small lymphocytic (chronic lymphocytic leukemia)
- Malignant Lymphoma, follicular, predominantly small cleaved cell
- Malignant Lymphoma, follicular, mixed (small cleaved and large cell)
High grade
- Malignant Lymphoma, large cell, immunoblastic
- Malignant Lymphoma, lymphoblastic
- Malignant Lymphoma, small non-cleaved cells (Burkitt's lymphoma)
Miscellaneous
- Composite
- Mycosis fungoides
- Histiocytic
- Extramedullary plasmacytoma
- Unclassifiable
Other classification systems
- ICD-O (codes 9590-9999, details at [1]) (archive link, was dead)
- ICD-10 (codes C81-C96, details at [2])
For diagnosis, etiology, staging, prognosis, and treatment
Please see separate links to Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
Genetics
Enteropathy associated T-cell lymphoma (EATL) is environmentally induced as a result of the consumption of Triticeae glutens. In gluten sensitive individuals with EATL 68% are homozygotes of the DQB1*02 subtype at the HLA-DQB1 locus (serotype DQ2).[1] (See Coeliac Disease, HLA-DQ, HLA DR3-DQ2)
See also
- Hodgkin's lymphoma
- Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
- Follicular lymphoma
- Burkitt's lymphoma
- Mantle cell lymphoma
- Gastric lymphoma
- Cutaneous T Cell lymphoma
- Mycosis fungoides
- Anaplastic large cell lymphoma
- MALT lymphoma
- Primary central nervous system lymphoma
- BCP-1 cells
- Ann Arbor staging
- International Prognostic Index
Lymphoma in animals
Lymphoma in animals is a type of cancer defined by a proliferation of malignant lymphocytes within solid organs such as the lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver and spleen. The disease also may occur in the eye, skin, and gastrointestinal tract. It is also known as lymphosarcoma.
Lymphoma in dogs
Lymphoma is one of the most common malignant tumors to occur in dogs. The cause is genetic, but there also suspected environmental factors involved,[2] including in one study an increased risk with the use of the herbicide 2,4-D.[3] This risk was not confirmed in another study.[4]
Commonly affected breeds
- Boxer
- Scottish Terrier
- Basset Hound
- Airedale Terrier
- Chow Chow
- German Shepherd Dog
- Poodle
- St. Bernard
- English Bulldog
- Beagle
- Rottweiler[2]
- The Golden Retriever is especially prone to developing lymphoma, with a lifetime risk of 1:8.[5]
Classification
The cancer is classified into low and high grade types. Classification is also based on location. The four location types are multicentric, mediastinal, gastrointestinal, and extranodal (involving the kidney, central nervous system, skin, heart, or eye). Multicentric lymphoma, the most common type (by greater than 80 percent),[6] is found in the lymph nodes, with or without involvement in the liver, spleen, or bone marrow. Mediastinal lymphoma occurs in the lymph nodes in that area and possibly the thymus. Gastrointestinal lymphoma occurs as either a solitary tumor or diffuse invasion of the stomach or intestines, with or without involvement in the surrounding lymph nodes, liver or spleen.[7] Classification is further based on involvement of B-lymphocytes or T-lymphocytes. Approximately 70 percent are B-cell lymphoma.[8] Cutaneous lymphoma can be classified as epitheliotropic (closely conforming to the epidermis) or non-epitheliotropic. The epitheliotropic form is typically of T-cell origin and is also called mycosis fungoides. The non-epitheliotropic form is typically of B-cell origin.[9]
Signs
General signs and symptoms include depression, fever, weight loss, loss of appetite, and vomiting. Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) occurs in some cases of lymphoma, and can lead to the above signs and symptoms plus increased water drinking, increased urination, and cardiac arrhythmias.
Multicentric lymphoma presents as painless enlargement of the peripheral lymph nodes. This is seen in areas such as under the jaw, the armpits, the groin, and behind the knees. Enlargement of the liver and spleen causes the abdomen to distend. Mediastinal lymphoma can cause fluid to collect around the lungs, leading to coughing and difficulty breathing. Hypercalcemia is most commonly associated with this type.[10]
Gastrointestinal lymphoma causes vomiting, diarrhea, and melena (digested blood in the stool). Low serum albumin levels and hypercalcemia can also occur.[7]
Lymphoma of the skin is an uncommon occurrence. The epitheliotropic form typically appears as itchy inflammation of the skin progressing to nodules and plaques. The non-epitheliotropic form can have a wide variety of appearances, from a single lump to large areas of bruised, ulcerated, hairless skin.[9] The epitheliotropic form must be differentiated from similar appearing conditions such as pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, and lupus erythematosus.[11]
Signs for lymphoma in other sites depend on the location. Central nervous system involvement can cause seizures or paralysis. Eye involvement, seen in 20 to 25 percent of cases,[12] can lead to glaucoma, uveitis, bleeding within the eye, retinal detachment, and blindness. Lymphoma in the bone marrow causes anemia, low platelet count, and low white blood cell count.
Diagnosis
Biopsy of affected lymph nodes or organs confirms the diagnosis, although a needle aspiration of an affected lymph node can increase suspicion of the disease. X-rays, ultrasound, blood analysis, and bone marrow biopsy reveal other locations of the cancer. The stage of the disease is important to treatment and prognosis.
- Stage I - only one lymph node or lymphoid tissue in one organ involved.
- Stage II - lymph nodes in only one area of the body involved.
- Stage III - generalized lymph node involvement.
- Stage IV - any of the above with liver or spleen involvement.
- Stage V - any of the above with blood or bone marrow involvement.[2]
Each stage is divided into those with systemic symptoms (loss of appetite, weight loss, etc.) and those without.
Treatment
Complete cure is rare with lymphoma and treatment tends to be palliative, but long remission times are possible with chemotherapy. With effective protocols, average first remission times are 6 to 8 months. Second remissions are shorter and harder to accomplish. Average survival is 9 to 12 months. The most common treatment is a combination of cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone, L-asparaginase, and doxorubicin.[2] Other chemotherapy drugs such as chlorambucil, lomustine (CCNU), cytosine arabinoside, and mitoxantrone are sometimes used in the treatment of lymphoma by themselves or in substitution for other drugs. In most cases, appropriate treatment protocols cause few side effects, but white blood cell counts must be monitored.
Allogenic stem cell transplantation (as is commonly done in humans) has recently shown to be a possible treatment option for dogs.[13] Most of the basic research on transplantation biology was generated in dogs.
When cost is a factor, prednisone used alone can improve the symptoms dramatically, but it does not significantly affect the survival rate. The average survival times of dogs treated with prednisone and untreated dogs are both one to two months.[2] Using prednisone alone can cause the cancer to become resistant to other chemotherapy agents, so it should only be used if there is definitely no chance of further treatment.
Isotretinoin can be used to treat cutaneous lymphoma.[9]
Prognosis
Untreated dogs have an average survival time of sixty days.[14] Lymphoma with a histologic high grade generally respond better to treatment but have shorter survival times than dogs with low grade lymphoma.[7] Dogs with B-lymphocyte tumors have a longer survival time than T-lymphocyte tumors.[2] Mediastinal lymphoma has a poorer prognosis than other types, especially those with hypercalcemia.[12] Otherwise, the stage of the disease is the best prognostic factor.
Lymphoma in cats
Lymphoma is the most common malignancy diagnosed in cats.[15] Lymphoma in young cats occurs most frequently following infection with feline leukemia virus (FeLV) or to a lesser degree feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). These cats tend to have involvement of lymph nodes, spine, or mediastinum. Cats with FeLV are 62 times more likely to develop lymphoma, and cats with both FeLV and FIV are 77 times more likely.[16] Younger cats tend to have T-cell lymphoma and older cats tend to have B-cell lymphoma.[17] Cats living with smokers are more than twice as likely to develop lymphoma.[18] Older cats tend to have gastrointestinal lymphoma without FeLV infection,[19] although tests more sensitive to low level FeLV infections and replication-defective FeLV have found that many of these cats have been previously exposed.[20] The same forms of lymphoma that are found in dogs also occur in cats, but gastrointestinal is the most common type. Lymphoma of the kidney is the most common kidney tumor in cats, and lymphoma is also the most common heart tumor.[2]
Classification
Gastrointestinal lymphoma is classified into low grade, intermediate grade, and high grade. Low grade types include lymphocytic and small cell lymphoma. High grade types include lymphoblastic, immunoblastic, and large cell lymphoma. Low grade lymphoma is only found in the small intestine, while large grade can commonly be found in the stomach.[21]
Symptoms
Cats that develop lymphoma are much more likely to develop more severe symptoms than dogs. Whereas dogs often appear healthy initially except for swollen lymph nodes, cats will often be physically ill. The symptoms correspond closely to the location of the lymphoma. The most common sites for alimentary (gastrointestinal) lymphoma are, in decreasing frequency, the small intestine, the stomach, the junction of the ileum, cecum, and colon, and the colon. Cats with the alimentary form of lymphoma often present with weight loss, rough hair coat, loss of appetite, vomiting and diarrhea, although vomiting and diarrhea are commonly absent as symptoms.[22] The tumor can also cause life-threatening blockage of the intestine. Cats with the mediastinal form often have respiratory distress and fluid in the lung cavity. If lymphoma develops in the kidney, the cat may have increased water consumption and increased urination. Lymphoma of the kidney presents as bilateral kidney enlargement and failure. If the lymphoma is located in the nose, the cat may have discharge from the nose and facial swelling. Lymphoma of the heart causes congestive heart failure, pericardial effusion, and cardiac arrhythmias. Cats who are also infected with FeLV often present with pale mucous membranes due to anemia. Anemia is a common problem in all cats with lymphoma, but hypercalcemia is rare.
Diagnosis is similar to dogs, except cats should be tested for FeLV and FIV. It is important to differentiate the alimentary form of lymphoma from inflammatory bowel disease because the signs are so similar in cats. A biopsy is necessary to do this.[23]
Treatment and prognosis
Chemotherapy is the mainstay of treatment for lymphoma in cats. Most of the drugs used in dogs are used in cats, but the most common protocol uses cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisolone.[15] Gastrointestinal lymphoma has also commonly been treated with a combination of prednisolone and high dose pulse chlorambucil with success.[21] The white blood cell count must be monitored. Remission and survival times are comparable to dogs. Lower stage lymphoma has a better prognosis. Multicentric lymphoma has a better response to treatment than the gastrointestinal form, but infection with FeLV worsens the prognosis.[2]
Lymphoma in ferrets
Lymphoma is common in ferrets and is the most common cancer in young ferrets. There is some evidence that a retrovirus may play a role in the development of lymphoma like in cats.[24] The most commonly affected tissues are the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, intestine, mediastinum, bone marrow, lung, and kidney.
In young ferrets, the disease progresses rapidly. The most common symptom is difficulty breathing caused by enlargement of the thymus.[25] Other symptoms include loss of appetite, weight loss, weakness, depression, and coughing. It can also masquerade as a chronic disease such as an upper respiratory infection or gastrointestinal disease. In older ferrets, lymphoma is usually chronic and can exhibit no symptoms for years.[26] Symptoms seen are the same as in young ferrets, plus splenomegaly, abdominal masses, and peripheral lymph node enlargement.
Diagnosis is through biopsy and x-rays. There may also be an increased lymphocyte count. Treatment includes surgery for solitary tumors, splenectomy (when the spleen is very large), and chemotherapy. The most common protocol uses prednisone, vincristine, and cyclophosphamide.[27] Doxorubicin is used in some cases. Chemotherapy in relatively healthy ferrets is tolerated very well, but possible side effects include loss of appetite, depression, weakness, vomiting, and loss of whiskers. The white blood cell count must be monitored. Prednisone used alone can work very well for weeks to months, but it may cause resistance to other chemotherapy agents. Alternative treatments include vitamin C and Pau d'Arco (a bark extract).[27]
The prognosis for lymphoma in ferrets depends on the their health and the location of the cancer. Lymphoma in the mediastinum, spleen, skin, and peripheral lymph nodes has the best prognosis, while lymphoma in the intestine, liver, abdominal lymph nodes, and bone marrow has the worst.[27]
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- ↑ Al-Toma A, Verbeek WH, Hadithi M, von Blomberg BM, Mulder CJ (2007). Survival in Refractory Coeliac Disease and Enteropathy associated T cell Lymphoma: Retrospective evaluation of single centre experience.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Morrison, Wallace B. (1998). Cancer in Dogs and Cats, 1st ed., Williams and Wilkins. ISBN 0-683-06105-4.
- ↑ Zahm S, Blair A (1992). Pesticides and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Cancer Res 52 (19 Suppl): 5485s-5488s. PMID 1394159.
- ↑ Kaneene J, Miller R (1999). Re-analysis of 2,4-D use and the occurrence of canine malignant lymphoma. Vet Hum Toxicol 41 (3): 164-70. PMID 10349709.
- ↑ Modiano J, Breen M, Burnett R, Parker H, Inusah S, Thomas R, Avery P, Lindblad-Toh K, Ostrander E, Cutter G, Avery A (2005). Distinct B-cell and T-cell lymphoproliferative disease prevalence among dog breeds indicates heritable risk. Cancer Res 65 (13): 5654-61. PMID 15994938.
- ↑ Canine Malignant Lymphoma: Introduction. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Lowe A (2004). Alimentary lymphosarcoma in a 4-year-old Labrador retriever. Can Vet J 45 (7): 610-2. PMID 15317395.
- ↑ Simon, Daniela (2006). Malignant lymphoma in the dog: Short and long term chemotherapy. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference. Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Hoskins, Johnny D. (May 2006). Cutaneous paraneoplastic disease. DVM: 6S-7S.
- ↑ Hypercalcemia of Malignancy. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ Bhang D, Choi U, Kim M, Choi E, Kang M, Hwang C, Kim D, Youn H, Lee C (2006). Epitheliotropic cutaneous lymphoma (mycosis fungoides) in a dog. J Vet Sci 7 (1): 97-9. PMID 16434861.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Ogilvie, Gregory K. (2004). Canine Lymphoma: Protocols For 2004. Proceedings of the 29th World Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association. Retrieved 2006-08-20.
- ↑ Lupu M, Sullivan E, Westfall T, Little M, Weigler B, Moore P, Stroup P, Zellmer E, Kuhr C, Storb R (2006). Use of multigeneration-family molecular dog leukocyte antigen typing to select a hematopoietic cell transplant donor for a dog with T-cell lymphoma. J Am Vet Med Assoc 228 (5): 728-32. PMID 16506937.
- ↑ Siedlecki C, Kass P, Jakubiak M, Dank G, Lyons J, Kent M (2006). Evaluation of an actinomycin-D-containing combination chemotherapy protocol with extended maintenance therapy for canine lymphoma. Can Vet J 47 (1): 52-9. PMID 16536229.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Feline Leukemia Virus and Related Diseases: Introduction. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ Ettinger, Stephen J.;Feldman, Edward C. (1995). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 4th ed., W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 0-7216-6795-3.
- ↑ Seo K, Choi U, Bae B, Park M, Hwang C, Kim D, Youn H (2006). Mediastinal lymphoma in a young Turkish Angora cat. J Vet Sci 7 (2): 199-201. PMID 16645348.
- ↑ O'Rourke, Kate (November 1, 2002). Lymphoma risk in cats more than doubles if owners are smokers. JAVMA News. Retrieved 2006-08-20.
- ↑ Gastrointestinal Neoplasia. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ Richter, Keith P. (2006). Feline gastrointestinal lymphoma. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference. Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Matz, Michael E. (Jan. 2007). Chronic Vomiting in a Cat. Clinician's Brief 5 (1): 29-31.
- ↑ Gaschen, Frédéric (2006). Small Intestinal Diarrhea: Causes and Treatment. Proceedings of the 31st World Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association. Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ Evans S, Bonczynski J, Broussard J, Han E, Baer K (2006). Comparison of endoscopic and full-thickness biopsy specimens for diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease and alimentary tract lymphoma in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 229 (9): 1447-50. PMID 17078807.
- ↑ Hernández-Divers, Sonia M. (2005). Ferret Diseases. Proceedings of the 30th World Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association. Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ Mayer, Joerg (2006). Update on ferret lymphoma. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference. Retrieved 2007-01-28.
- ↑ Ferret Neoplasia. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved 2007-01-01.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Hillyer, Elizabeth V.;Quesenberry, Katherin E. (1997). Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 1st ed., W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 0-7216-4023-0.
- Lemole, G. M. 2001. The Healing Diet. William Morrow.
- Longe, J. L. 2005. The Gale Encyclopedia of Cancer: A Guide to Cancer and its Treatments. Detroit: Thomson Gale. ISBN 1414403623.
Jaffe, Elaine Sarkin. 2001. Pathology and genetics of tumours of haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. Lyon: IARC Press. [1]
External links
- The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society
- MedlinePlus: Lymphoma
- Summary at NIH/National Cancer Institute
- Lymphoma Research Foundation
- Lymphoma Support Ireland - Booklets & Patient Stories online
- US Lymphoma Fact Sheet from the American Cancer Society
- UK Hodgkin Lymphoma Statistics
- UK Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Statistics
- About Lymphomas - Patients Against Lymphoma
- Timeline of discovery and treatment of Hodgkin's Lymphoma
- ICD10 classification of lymphoma
- "Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of Haemopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues"
- Support Group web site for the Coventry Lymphoma Association Support Group in the UK
- Lymphomas in Children and Adolescents The Centre for Cancer and Blood Disorders at Sydney Children’s Hospital provides information on cancers in children and adolescents, including Hodgkins Disease and Non-Hodgkins lymphomas.
- Video that shows people how they can help
- About Lymphoma: A guide to lymphoma for patients
- Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Symptoms & Support Information
- National Cancer Institute, , "Risk of Lymphoma Increases with Hepatitis C Virus Infection", May 2007.
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- ↑ Pathology and Genetics of Haemo (World Health Organization Classification of Tumours S.). Oxford Univ Pr. ISBN 9283224116.
