Difference between revisions of "Jehovah's Witnesses" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Tetragrammaton_scripts.svg|thumb|300px|The sacred Jewish name for God ''([[Yahweh|YHWH]])'' rendered in Phoenician, Aramaic, and Modern Hebrew scripts. The name is pronounced ''Jehovah'' by modern Jehovah's Witnesses.]]  
  
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'''(Darry, Please reduce the size of this aricle to around 6000 words)'''
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The '''Jehovah’s Witnesses''' are an international religious organization, a [[Millenarianism|millenarian]] restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream [[Christianity]]. The religion was developed in response to what was perceived to be "compromise and corruption in mainstream Christianity” and it repudiates common Christian doctrines such as the [[Trinity]], [[hell]]fire, immortality of the [[soul]], and clergy-laity divisions, interpreting them as illegitimate additions to the original church's teachings.<ref name=Chu>Jolene Chu, [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1462352042000265837 God’s things and Caesar’s: Jehovah’s Witnesses and political neutrality] ''Journal of Genocide Research'' 6(3) (September 2004):319-342. Jolene Chu is a researcher for the Watch Tower Society.</ref>  
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'''Jehovah’s Witnesses''' are an international religious organization that rejects much of modern mainstream [[Christianity]] in favour of what they believe is a restored form of first-century Christianity.<ref>[[The Watchtower]], October 1, 1977 p. 598, “''Jehovah’s Witnesses today have made efforts to learn the mode of operation of the early Christian congregation and to follow that Scriptural pattern''.”</ref><ref>Cote, P., Richardson, J.T., Disciplined Litigation, Vigilant Litigation, and Deformation: Dramatic Organization Change in Jehovah’s Witnesses, ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'', March 2001 Vol. 40 No 1 p 23, “''Not taking part in political activities, the ‘neutrality principle’ as it is known, is for the Witnesses, along with the blood taboo, the surest sign that theirs is the original community of true Christians''.”</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses are governed by their understanding of Scriptural laws and principles based on instructions received from the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses. [[Legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses|Watchtower Bible and Tract Society]] of New York, Inc. is a legal organization in use by Jehovah’s Witnesses for their ministry work.
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The name "Jehovah’s Witnesses" is derived from a number of biblical passages in which the disciples of YHWH (pronounced "Jehovah" by the group), considered the personal name of God, are called "Witnesses" (Isaiah 43:10).<ref>[https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/name-jehovahs-witnesses/ How Did Jehovah’s Witnesses Get Their Name?] ''Jehovah’s Witnesses''. Retrieved January 11, 2022.</ref> The community adopted the term "Jehovah's Witnesses" in 1931.
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The religion was developed in response “to what they saw as compromise and corruption in mainstream Christianity.”<ref>Chu, J., God’s things and Caesar’s: Jehovah’s Witnesses and political neutrality, ''Journal of Genocide Research'', September 2004, 6(3) pp 319-342. Jolene Chu is a researcher for the Watch Tower Society.</ref> They dispute doctrines such as the [[Trinity]], [[hell]]fire, immortality of the soul, and clergy-laity divisions as illegitimate additions to the original Christian teachings.<ref>Ibid</ref> The name "Jehovah’s Witnesses" is based on Isaiah 43:10, and was adopted in 1931.<ref>Ibid</ref> The Watchtower Society has been publishing religious materials since the late 19th century, its most widely known publications being the magazines ''The Watchtower'' and ''Awake!''<ref>Wah, C., An Introduction to Research and Analysis of Jehovah’s Witnesses: A View from the Watchtower, ''Review of Religious Research'', 2001, Vol. 43, No. 2, p. 161-174, Carolyn Wah is Associate General Counsel for the Watch Tower Society</ref><ref>[[The Watchtower]], December 15, 2002, “By means of printed publications, including the journals ''The Watchtower'' and ''Awake!'', as well as by meetings, assemblies, and conventions, Jehovah supplies us with what we need when we need it.”</ref>  
 
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Jehovah’s Witnesses count as ''adherents'' the number attending its meetings, which as of 2006 is some 16.5 million.<ref>Wah, C., Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Responsibility of Religious Freedom: The European Experience, Journal of Church and State, June 2001, p. 582, Carolyn Wah is Associate General Counsel for the Watch Tower Society</ref><ref>2007 Yearbook of Jehovah’s Witnesses</ref> Of these adherents it counts as ''members'' those who report time preaching each month. As of August 2006 this membership is about 6.5 million.<ref name="population">''2007 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses'', pg. 31: "Peak of Publishers in Kingdom Service — 6,741,444. Average Publishers Preaching Each Month — 6,491,775. Worldwide Memorial Attendance — 16,675,113." A Publisher is defined as an active member who submits a monthly report of time spent preaching.</ref>
 
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The central theme of their preaching is the [[sanctification]] of God's [[reputation|name]] and the vindication of His [[sovereignty]] by means of His [[Kingdom of God|Kingdom]], with [[Jesus Christ]] as its [[Ruler]]. The Witnesses believe that the reign of Jesus began with the [[Second Coming]] or ''presence'' of Christ which was marked prophetically as the end of the "Gentile Times." Originally, this was believed to have occurred invisibly in 1874, but this date was later revised to 1914.<ref>''Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom'', pp. 631-637</ref>
 
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Other Witness teachings include the use of God's personal name, [[Jehovah]] which appears more than 7,000 times in the original Bible manuscripts and is usually translated as [[YHWH]] &ndash; also [[Yahweh]] in English &ndash; and the belief that making his personal name known to others is an important part of worship.<ref>What Does The Bible ''Really'' Teach?, p. 148</ref> They believe that Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, [[Adam]], thus opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind. It is also taught that [[144,000]] people will receive immortal life in heaven as co-rulers, with Jesus Christ, guiding the rest of mankind to perfection on a paradise earth during the [[Millenniam|1000 year reign]]. Witnesses believe that during the war of [[Armageddon]], which they believe to be imminent, the wicked will be destroyed, and that the survivors of this event, along with millions of individuals resurrected, will form a new society ruled by a heavenly government and have the possibility of living forever in an earthly paradise &ndash; that possibility based on their actions post-resurrection.
 
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
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{{main|History of Jehovah's Witnesses|Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses|Jehovah's Witnesses and governments}}
 
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===Ancient Israelites===
 
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Historically, Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the first one of Jehovah's Witnesses is [[Abel]].(Heb.11:4) He is called one of "many witnesses" of God.(Heb.12:1) [[Enoch]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], [[Joseph]] etc. are also referred to as such. Ancient Israelites were a nation dedicated to God, and they were also called Jehovah's witnesses.<ref> “Jehovah’s Witnesses – Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom” –1993, p. 11 | “Jehovah Gathers and Equips His People for Work” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania  </ref>(Isaiah 43:10)
 
  
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===Jesus Christ and Christian===
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===Original witnesses of the Bible===
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[[Jesus Christ]] is called the faithful witness of God in the [[Bible]].(Rev.1:5) During his life, he declared the good news of the kingdom of God. (Luke 4:43) After his death, early Christians became Jesus' witnesses. <ref> The Watchtower -  Jan 1, 1971, p. 10. par. 9  | “Have You Entered the Great Contest of Faith?”  | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania </ref>(Acts 1:8) They were also witnesses of God because they witnessed for the glory to God.(Phil. 2:9-11) But in about C.E.56, the apostasy occurred among them, their mind started to be divided.(Acts 20:29, 30) After the death of [[Apostle John|John]], the last apostle, the apostasy had spread.(2 Timothy 2:17) Jehovah's Witnesses believe they dismissed [[Bible]] teaching, and they received Greek philosophy and heathen teaching. They believe Apostate Christians formed Christendom.
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According to the beliefs of the Jehovah's Witnesses, their origins can be traced back to the ancient [[Israelites]]. The original Jehovah's Witness is said to have been [[Abel]], son of [[Adam]] who is proclaimed to be one of "many witnesses" of God in Hebrews 12:1. Important biblical figures including [[Enoch]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], and [[Joseph]] are also referred to as "Witnesses." Ancient Israelites were a nation dedicated to God, and for that reason they too are also called Jehovah's witnesses (Isaiah 43:10).<ref>“Jehovah Gathers and Equips His People for Work” in ''Jehovah’s Witnesses – Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom'' (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, 1993), 11. </ref>
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{{readout||right|250px|Jehovah's Witnesses are so named due to their belief that they are the witnesses to the truth about [[God]], whose personal name they believe to be "Jehovah"}}
  
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=== Modern Witnesses ===
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[[Jesus Christ]] is also called the faithful witness of God in the [[Bible]], as in Revelations 1:5. After his death, early Christians became witnesses of Jesus as well as of God Himself because they experienced firsthand the glory of God (Phil. 2:9-11). In the year 56 C.E., however, it is said that an apostasy occurred among the immediate followers of Christ, and their philosophies began to grow divided (Acts 20:29, 30). After the death of [[John]], the last apostle, this apostasy began to spread rampantly (2 Timothy 2:17). Jehovah's Witnesses believe that at this point, important biblical teachings were dismissed, with [[Hellenistic philosophy]] and other heathen teachings corrupting the true vision of Christ. According to Jehovah's witnesses, these apostate Christians went on to form Christendom as it is known today, which exists as a complete corruption of Christ's original teachings.
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Modern Jehovah's Witnesses originated with the religious movement known as '''[[Bible Student movement|Bible Students]]''', which was founded in the late 1870s by [[Charles Taze Russell]]. A schism erupted in 1917 at the beginning of the presidency of Russell's successor, [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]]. Those who remained supportive of the [[Watchtower Society]] adopted the name ''Jehovah's Witnesses'' in 1931 under Rutherford's leadership. Those who did not support Rutherford formed various [[Bible Student movement|Bible Student]] groups which have retained Russell's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses no longer use "Bible Students" as a name for their religion.
 
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[[Image:Russell Charles Taze 1911 .jpg|left|120px|thumb|[[Charles Taze Russell]] (1852–1916)]]
 
  
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===Russell and Barbour===
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=== Modern origins===
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In the early 1870s, Russell organized a Bible study group of friends and family of various religions, mostly [[Advent Christian Church|Second Adventists]] (a group that arose after the [[Millerites|Millerite]] [[Great Disappointment]]) in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].<ref>"Looking back to 1871, we see that many of our company were what are known as Second Adventists."—''Zion's Watch Tower'', February 1881. [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1881FEB.asp#R187 ''Reprints'', p. 187]. "Second Adventists" is an older name for the Advent Christian Church.</ref>  
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[[File:Charles Taze Russell sharp.jpg|thumb|300px|Charles Taze Russell]]
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An interest in Bible [[prophecy]] was sparked, in part, by [[Jonas Wendell]]. In 1876, Russell met [[Nelson H. Barbour]] and subsequently adopted Barbour's [[eschatology]]. Barbour had predicted the visible return of Christ at 1873, and when that failed to occur, he revised the prediction to 1874.  
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[[File:Watchtower Bible & Tract Society 01 (9424483891).jpg|thumb|right|400px|Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York]]
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<ref>{{cite web | first = N.H. | last = Barbour | year = 1871 | title =''Evidences for the Coming of the Lord in 1873: or the Midnight Cry''| url = http://www.heraldmag.org/olb/contents/history/barbour%20midnight%20cry.htm | accessmonthday=20 February | accessyear=2006}}</ref>
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The modern institution of Jehovah's Witnesses can be traced back to the religious movement known as the ''Bible Students,'' which was founded in the late 1870s by [[Charles Taze Russell]]. The group consisted mainly of Russell's friends and family, who came from a variety of religious backgrounds, particularly Second Adventists, a group that arose after the Millerite "Great Disappointment" in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].<ref>''Zion's Watch Tower'', February 1881.</ref> An interest in Bible [[prophecy]] was sparked among group members due in no small part to Jonas Wendell, a passionate Adventist preacher. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour, a [[Millerite]] Adventist, and subsequently adopted his [[eschatology]], including Barbour's prediction that the visible return of Christ would occur in 1873. However, when that failed to occur, Russell rescheduled the second coming for 1874.<ref> Nelson H. Barbour, [https://archive.org/details/EvidencesForTheComingOfTheLordIn1873OrTheMidnightCry/page/n15/mode/2up ''Evidences for the Coming of the Lord in 1873: or the Midnight Cry''], 1871. Retrieved January 11, 2022. </ref> Soon after what was apparently Barbour's second disappointment, his group decided Christ had indeed returned to Earth in 1874, although he had come in an ''invisible'' form. <ref> A Conspiracy Exposed ''Zion's Watch Tower'',  April 25, 1894. </ref> With this in mind, a gathering of the saints in heaven was expected for 1878, with the year 1914 demarcated as the time of the final end of human governments.<ref>Nelson H. Barbour, ''The Three Worlds, and the Harvest of this World'' (Rochester, NY: N.H. Barbour and C.T. Russell, 1877). </ref>
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<ref>{{cite web | first = N.H. | last = Barbour | year = 1874 | title =''The Midnight Cry and Herald of the Morning''| url = http://www.heraldmag.org/olb/contents/history/barbour%20herald%20of%20the%20morning.htm | accessmonthday=20 February | accessyear=2006}} See Section under "Our Faith."</ref>  
 
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Soon after Barbour's second disappointment, his group decided Christ had returned ''invisibly'' to Earth in 1874. <ref>Russell recounts his meeting with Barbour and gives "a brief sketch of the development of present truth" in the [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1894_WT_Extra_A_Conspiracy_Exposed.pdf April 25, 1894 ''Watch Tower''] pp. 92-119. See also {{cite journal | author = Watchtower | year = 1906 | month = July 15 | title = Harvest Gatherings and Siftings | journal = Watchtower | pages = 3822 | url = http://www.agsconsulting.com/htdbv5/r3820.htm }}</ref>  
 
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They differed from most Second Adventists by teaching that all mankind descending from Adam would be given a chance to live in a paradise on Earth.<ref>{{cite web | coauthors=N.H. Barbour, C.T. Russell | title=''The Three Worlds and The Harvest of This World''| url=http://www.heraldmag.org/olb/contents/history/3worlds.pdf|year=1877}}</ref>A gathering of the saints to heaven was expected for 1878 and the year 1914 was to be the final end of the rule of human governments, marking a forty-year period from 1874.<ref>''The Three Worlds'', pp. 68, 89-93, 124, 125-126, 143, 189.</ref>
 
  
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===Russell's break with Barbour===
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In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour over the concept of substitutionary atonement, and soon began publishing his own magazine, ''Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence'' (now known simply as ''The Watchtower''). After the break, Russell and his followers retained the bulk of Barbour's eschatological views. They also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of [[Hell]], and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. Charles Taze Russell came to be referred to as "Pastor Russell," and by 1881 had formed the legal entity that would become ''The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania.'' In 1884, the society was incorporated, with Russell as president. By 1914, Russell's legal entity had extended to the [[United Kingdom]], where he founded the International Bible Students Association.
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In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour over the concept of [[substitutionary atonement]] <ref>The dispute between Barbour and Russell began in August, 1878 and lasted several months. Russell, as co-editor of ''The Herald of the Morning'' defended his view against Barbour's in the [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1878_Herald_of_the_Morning.pdf September, 1878] issue.</ref> and he soon began publishing his own magazine, ''Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence'' (now known as ''[[The Watchtower]]'').<ref>Online copies of ''The Watch Tower'' from 1879–1916 can be viewed by issue at [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/index.asp] or by article at [http://www.agsconsulting.com/htdbv5/links.htm] or in a PDF at [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1879-1916_Watch_Tower.pdf]. These are taken from the 7 volume ''Watch Tower Reprints'' published by the Watch Tower Society in 1920 which reprinted all the issues from 1879–1919.</ref> After the break, Russell retained the bulk of Barbour's eschatological views. He also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of [[Hell]] and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the [[Trinity]].<ref>July, 1882 ''Zion's Watch Tower'', [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1882JUL.asp#R369 Reprints, p. 369]. But see [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1879JUL.asp#R9 "God is Love"] in the first issue of ''Zion's Watch Tower'' (July, 1879).</ref> He became known as "Pastor Russell", and in 1881 formed the legal entity which developed into the [[non-profit organization]]: The [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]] (currently headquartered in [[New York City]]).<ref> Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society was formed on February 16, 1881, with W. H. Conley as president and C. T. Russell as secretary and treasurer. {{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|publisher=Watchtower|year=1993|pages=576}}</ref>  In 1884, it was incorporated, with Russell as president. He authored the six-volume series, ''Studies in the Scriptures''.<ref>Originally entitled ''Millennial Dawn''. The titles of the six volumes are: 1) [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC02393988&id=YK4OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:OCLC38151368 ''The Divine Plan of the Ages''], 2)[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38151368&id=k9wOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=inauthor:charles+inauthor:taze+inauthor:russell+date:1902-1902&num=100&as_brr=1 ''The Time is At Hand''], 3)[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38151371&id=w60OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=related:ISBN0972824324 ''Thy Kingdom Come''], 4)[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38151368&id=P7MOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:OCLC38151368 ''The Day of Vengeance''] (later retitled [http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/armageddon/atitles.html ''The Battle of Armageddon'']), 5)[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38151368&id=99kOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:OCLC38151371 ''The At-one-ment Between God and Man''], 6)[http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/newcreation/nctitles.html ''The New Creation'']. Volumes available at [http://www.archive.org/index.php Internet Archive]: [http://www.archive.org/details/studiesinthescri014262mbp 1], [http://www.archive.org/details/studiesinthescri00unknuoft 2], [http://www.archive.org/details/studiesinthescri03unknuoft 3], [http://www.archive.org/details/studiesinthescri011970mbp 5].</ref> Early editions predicted that [[Armageddon]] would culminate in the year 1914.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Time is At Hand|author=C.T. Russell|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38151368&id=k9wOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA10-PA101|publisher=Watch Tower|year=1902|pages= 101}} The predictions for 1914 were revised in later editions.</ref>Russell also wrote regarding his expectations: "We are not prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises . . . We do not even aver that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophecy and our calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you, leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to them."<ref>See article [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1908JAN.asp#Z4:4 "Yet Seven Years More"] in ''Zion's Watch Tower,  Jan. 1, 1908 (reprint)'', p. 4110.</ref> In 1914, Russell founded the [[International Bible Students Association]] in the [[United Kingdom]].
 
  
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===Presidency of Joseph Franklin Rutherford===
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===Schism===
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[[Image:Rutherford.jpg|120px|right|thumb|[[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]] (1869-1942)]]
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[[File:J.F. Rutherford.gif|300px|right|thumb|Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869-1942)]]  
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Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the ''Watch Tower'' magazine, as set forth in Russell's [[Will (law)|Last Will and Testament]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Jehovah's Witnesses&mdash;Proclaimers of God's Kingdom | publisher=Watchtower | pages = 64–65}};{{cite web | title=C.T. Russell's Last Will and Testament| url=http://www.agsconsulting.com/htdbv5/r5999.htm}} from the December 1, 1916 ''Watch Tower.'' This editorial committee was requested to not write, or be connected with, any other publications.</ref> On January 6, 1917, [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]] (also known as "Judge Rutherford") was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the Society.<ref>New by-laws were passed at the time of Rutherford's election that strengthened the President's authority. {{cite book | author = M.J. Penton | title=Apocalypse Delayed|pages=p. 51}} Rutherford, as chief legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society, had written the new by-laws. (See ''Harvest Siftings II'', written by J.F. Rutherford.) Initially, the Board of Directors for the Watch Tower Society accepted this change, but four of the board members withdrew their support. Rutherford published his account of the dispute in {{cite web|url=http://www.biblestudents.net/history/harvest_siftings_1917.htm|title=Harvest Siftings}} and {{cite web|url=http://www.biblestudents.net/history/harvest_siftings2_1917.htm|title=Harvest Siftings II}} The four directors replied to Rutherford's first booklet in {{cite web|url=http://www.biblestudents.net/history/light_after_darkness.htm|title=Light After Darkness}} The June 20, 1917 meeting of the full board of directors tabled, for one month, a proposal to return control of the Society to the board (see Rutherford's ''Harvest Siftings'' under subheading "Seeds Begin to Bring Forth"), but Rutherford prevented the board from meeting again.</ref> Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book ''The Finished Mystery'' was released to the staff of Bethel, which is the name by which the headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses in Brooklyn is known.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC13089093&id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:OCLC38151368|publisher=Watchtower|title=The Finished Mystery}}, published 1917, was called the seventh volume of ''Studies in the Scriptures''.</ref> Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.<ref>{{cite book|author=A.H. MacMillan|title=Faith on the March|pages=80|url=http://reactor-core.org/faith-on-the-march.html|accessdate=December 31, 2006}}. The ousted directors disagreed: "...if the directors were not legally elected, neither were the Society's three officers: Rutherford, Pierson, and Van Amburgh. In order to have been chosen officers in January 1917, they would have had to have been legally elected directors. Yet, they had not been, and hence, by Rutherford's own logic, did not hold office legally."&mdash;''Apocalypse Delayed'', M. James Penton, p. 52</ref> The four dismissed directors set up the [[Pastoral Bible Institute]] and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918,<ref>"Also, in the year 1918, when God destroys the churches wholesale and the church members by millions, it shall be that any that escape shall come to the works of Pastor Russell to learn the meaning of the downfall of 'Christianity.'"&mdash;{{cite book|title=The Finished Mystery|year=1917|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC13089093&id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&pg=RA10-PA485&dq=editions:OCLC38151368|pages=485|publisher=Watchtower}} (later editions read differently)</ref> 1920<ref>"And the mountains were not found. Even the republics will disappear in the fall of 1920. And the mountains were not found. Every kingdom of earth will pass away, be swallowed up in anarchy."{{cite book|title=The Finished Mystery|year=1917|pages=258|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC13089093&id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&pg=RA10-PA258&dq=editions:OCLC38151368|publisher=Watchtower}}. (This date was changed in later editions.)</ref> and 1925.<ref>
 
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{{cite book|title=Millions Now Living Will Never Die|url=http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/millions/millions.html| publisher=Watchtower|pages=88|year=1920}}. This book was distributed as part of a major lecture program worldwide. See [http://www.theocraticlibrary.com/downloads/Millions_Campaign_News_Clippings.pdf News Clippings from the "Millions Now Living Will Never Die" Campaign (1919-1925)] </ref><ref>{{cite book| title=The Way to Paradise|publisher=Watchtower|pages=220–235|year=1924}} Scans available at: [http://www1.tip.nl/~t661020/wtp/wtp_nl.htm http://www1.tip.nl/~t661020/wtp/wtp_nl.htm]</ref>
 
  
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{{Jehovah's Witnesses/eschatology}}
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Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the ''Watch Tower'' magazine, as set forth in Russell's Last Will and Testament. On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society to replace Russell. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven members of the society's Board of Directors, due in part to the fact that new by-laws had been passed at the time of Rutherford's election strengthening the President's authority. The June 20, 1917 meeting of the full board of directors tabled, for one month, a proposal to return control of the Society to the board, but Rutherford prevented the board from meeting again.<ref name=Penton> M. James Penton, ''Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses'' (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0802079732). </ref> Rutherford, as chief legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society, had written the new by-laws. Initially, the Board of Directors for the Watch Tower Society accepted this change, but four of the board members withdrew their support.
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''The Finished Mystery'', published in 1917, was controversial in its criticism of Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.<ref>''The Finished Mystery'' [http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/finishedmystery/fmr16.html pp. 247-253] [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC13089093&id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&pg=RA10-PA468&dq=editions:OCLC38151368 468] and [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC13089093&id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&pg=RA10-PA474&dq=editions:OCLC38151368  474]. </ref>Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violating the [[Espionage Act|''Espionage Act'']] on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison. The charges were later dropped.<ref>{{cite book|title=Apocalypse Delayed|author=M.J. Penton|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=apocalypse+delayed&sig=9rClKXiom_GcQPMLkgsCyoFYzws|pages=55–56}} {{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses&mdash;Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|publisher=Watchtower|year=1993|pages=647-654}} Rutherford gives his defense against the charges in {{cite book|title=Souvenir Report of the Bible Student's Convention (1919)|url=http://cchasson.free.fr/deposit/CR/1919convention.pdf|publisher=Watchtower|pages=62-63}}</ref>
 
  
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An emphasis on house-to-house preaching began in 1922.<ref>{{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses&mdash;Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|publisher=Watchtower|year=1993|pages=259–260}}</ref> The period from 1925-1933 saw many significant changes in doctrine. Attendance at their yearly [[Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses#Memorial of Christ's death|Memorial]] dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925<ref>{{cite book|title=Your Will Be Done on Earth|publisher=Watchtower|year=1958|pages=337}}</ref> down to 17,380 in 1928,<ref>{{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose|publisher=Watchtower|year=1959|pages=313}}</ref> due to the previous power struggle, the failed predictions for the year 1925,<ref>{{cite book|title=Apocalypse Delayed&mdash;The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses|author=M. James Penton|pages=61}} Attendance at the annual Memorial (statistics were published each year in the ''Watch Tower'') shows the growth in the period before 1925. 1919: 17,961, 1922: 32,661, 1923: 42,000, 1924: 62,696, 1925: 90,434. 1926 marked the first decrease: 89,278. There are no published statistics from 1929-1934. In 1935, Memorial attendance was 63,146. {{cite journal|title=Watchtower|date=August 15, 1996|pages=31}}</ref> and the evolving doctrinal changes which alienated those who sided with Russell's views.<ref>See, for example, {{cite book|url=http://www.pastor-russell.com/legacy/wprd.pdf|title=When Pastor Russell Died|publisher=Dawn Bible Students Association|year=1946|pages=6-16}}</ref> By 1933, 1914 was seen as the beginning of Christ's presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" instead of being considered the terminal date in their chronology.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Harp of God|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Fjw3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA231|year=1921|pages=231–236}} affirms that “the Lord’s second presence dates from 1874.” {{cite journal|title=Watchtower|pages=71|year=1922|month=March 1|publisher=Watchtower}} and {{cite book|title=Prophecy|pages=65–66|title=Prophecy|year=1930}} reiterated this position. The eschatological changes during this period are documented in {{cite book|title=Historical Idealism and Jehovah's Witnesses|pages=3–37|author=Thomas Daniels|url=http://www.catholic-forum.com/members/popestleo/Historical%20Idealism%20and%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses.pdf|accessdate=February 1, 2006}} These are the current teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses regarding 1914, 1918 and 1919. They no longer consider the dates 1799, 1874 and 1878 to have any [[eschatology|eschatological]] significance</ref> The editorial committee was disbanded with Rutherford having the final say regarding what went into Watchtower publications.<ref>''A People For His Name'' by Timothy White, pp. 186-188. ''The Watchtower'', June 15, 1938, p. 185</ref> The offices and election of elders and deacons were also discontinued during this era with all "servants" in local congregations being appointed by headquarters.<ref>''Proclaimers'', p. 214. June 15, 1938 ''Watchtower''</ref>
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Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 when Russell's book ''The Finished Mystery'' (listed as Volume VII of ''Studies in the Scriptures'')<ref name=Finished> Charles Taze Russell, ''The Finished Mystery'' (Wentworth Press, 2019 (original 1917), ISBN 978-0469287839).</ref> was released to the staff of Bethel, which is the name by which the headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses in Brooklyn is known. The book was controversial in its criticism of Catholic and Protestant clergy as well as Christian involvement in war. Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors on May 7, 1918 for violating the ''Espionage Act.'' They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and all parties were released from prison; the charges were later dropped.
  
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[[Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Germany]] persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses and many were imprisoned in [[concentration camps]]. Their identifying [[Nazi concentration camp badges|badge]] was a [[purple triangle]].<ref>See article on the persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses from the {{cite web|title=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005394|accessmonthday=22 February |accessyear=2005}}</ref> In a book on Jehovah's Witnesses under the Nazi regime, Hans Hesse commented, "Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith"<ref>.{{cite book|title=Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime|author=Hans Hesse|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN3861087502&id=mcxD0qxHMO0C&printsec=frontcover|year=2001|pages=10}}</ref> During this time period, Witnesses also experienced mob violence in America and were temporarily banned in Canada and Australia because they were perceived as being against the war effort.<ref>{{cite book|title=Visions of Glory|author=[[Barbara Grizzuti Harrison]]|pages=185, 281|year=1978|url=http://www.exjws.net/vg.htm}} {{cite web|title=The Banning of Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia in 1941|url=http://www.tasa.org.au/conferencepapers05/papers%20(pdf)/religion_persian.pdf|author=Jayne Persian|date=December 2005}}</ref>
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In the aftermath, Rutherford promptly announced to the staff that he was dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.<ref>Alexander Hugh Macmillan, ''Faith on the March'' (Lulu Publishers, 2010, ISBN 978-0557206711). </ref> As a result, the four dismissed directors set up the Pastoral Bible Institute and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations of Bible Students worldwide as a result of these events, and also as the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918 (in which God was to destroy all churches)<ref name=Finished/> and 1920 (in which widespread anarchy would ensue).<ref name=Finished/> Those who remained supportive of the Watchtower Society adopted the name ''Jehovah's Witnesses'' in 1931 under Rutherford's leadership, while those against Rutherford formed various Bible Student groups that have retained Russell's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses no longer use the term  "Bible Students" in association with their religion.
  
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Under Rutherford, membership grew from about 21,000 in 1917 to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942.
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===Rise in membership===
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The Jehovah's Witnesses began to emphasize their trademark house-to-house preaching in 1922. This followed the 1920 announcement that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as [[Abraham]] and [[Isaac]]) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year earthly Kingdom.<ref> J.F. Rutherford, ''Millions now living will never die!'' (International Bible Students Association, 1920).</ref> In spite of these efforts, attendance at their yearly Memorial dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925 down to 17,380 in 1928, due to the previous power struggle, the failed predictions for the year 1925,<ref name=Penton/> and a number of significant doctrinal changes that alienated those who sided with Russell's views.  
  
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===Nathan Knorr, reorganization, and subsequent Presidents===
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On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name – Jehovah's witnesses – based on Isaiah 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me." —which was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods. In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938, introduced what he called a "theocratic" (literally, God-ruled) organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.
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[[Nathan H. Knorr|Nathan Homer Knorr]] succeeded Rutherford as president of the [[Legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses|Watch Tower Society]]. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr founded the [[Gilead school|Watchtower Bible School of Gilead]] to train missionaries, as well as the [[Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses#The Theocratic Ministry School|Theocratic Ministry School]] to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Significant [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] victories involving the rights of [[Freedom of speech|free speech]] and [[Freedom of religion|religion]] for Jehovah's Witnesses have had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others.<ref>*[http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1606&context=expresso Writing Their Faith into the Law of the Land: Jehovah's Witnesses, the Supreme Court and the Battle for the Meaning of the Free Exercise Clause, 1939-1945]</ref> In 1943, the United States Supreme Court ruled in [[West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette]] that school children of Jehovah's Witnesses could not be compelled to salute the flag.
 
  
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Knorr's vice-president [[Frederick W. Franz|Frederick William Franz]] became the leading [[theology|theologian]], and is believed to have been the principal translator of the ''[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]].''<ref>At a trial in Scotland, Fred Franz was asked: "Were you yourself responsible for the translation of the Old Testament?" He replied: "I cannot answer that question." [http://www.catholic-forum.com/members/popestleo/Walsh_Trial.pdf Pursuer's Proof: Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh], p. 92. Since 1942, Witness publications are produced under a policy of anonymity. Former Governing Body member [[Raymond Franz]] (nephew of Fred Franz) claims the translators of the ''New World Translation'' were [[Fred Franz]], [[Nathan Knorr]], [[Albert Schroeder]] and [[George Gangas]]. {{cite book|title=Crisis of Conscience|edition=4th|year=2004|pages=56|publisher=Commentary Press|id=0-914675-23-0}}</ref> Also produced were a Greek-English New Testament interlinear (''The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures'') and a Bible dictionary (''[[Aid to Bible Understanding]]'').<ref> In 1988, this was replaced by the 2-volume set ''Insight on the Scriptures''.</ref> The offices of elder and ministerial servant (deacon) were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.<ref>{{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses&mdash;Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|publisher=Watchtower|pages=106|year=1993}}</ref> Membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr's presidency.
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From 1932, it was taught that the "little flock" of 144,000 would not be the only people to survive [[Armageddon]]. Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144,000 "anointed" who would be resurrected—or transferred at death—to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ, a separate class of members, the "great multitude," would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class. By 1933, the year 1914 had been reinterpreted as the beginning of Christ's presence and therefore the start of the "last days" rather than the terminal date in their chronology.  
  
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[[Image:Watchtower headquarters.jpg|thumb|left|Watchtower Building facing East River in New York]]During the 1960s<ref>The year 1975 was first mentioned in 1966. See {{cite journal|title=How Much Longer Will It Be?|journal=''Awake!''|year=1966|month=October 8|pages=17–20}}</ref> and early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and at assemblies, implying that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign might begin by 1975.<ref>See [http://www.escapefromwatchtower.com/1975franz.html 1975: 'THE APPROPRIATE TIME FOR GOD TO ACT'].  Page 14 of the October 8, 1968 ''Awake!'' demonstrates the disclaimer that was made at the time: "Does this mean that the above evidence positively points to 1975 as the complete end of this system of things? Since the Bible does not specifically state this, no man can say...If the 1970s should see intervention by Jehovah God to bring an end to a corrupt world drifting toward ultimate disintegration, that should surely not surprise us.".</ref> The chronology pointing to 1975 was noted in the secular media at the time.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Witnessing the End|year=1969|month=July 18|journal=Time|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,901074-1,00.html|accessdate=September 12, 2006}}</ref> From 1975 to 1980, there was a drop in membership following the failure of this prediction.<ref>{{cite book|title=Crisis of Conscience|author=Raymond Franz|chapter=1975—The Appropriate Time for God to Act|pages=237–253|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20031209184316/http://users.volja.net/izobcenec4/coc/9.pdf|accessdate=July 27, 2006}}This drop in membership has been variously analyzed. Richard Singelenberg ([http://www.watchtowerinformationservice.org/index.php/dates/the-1975-prophecy-and-its-impact-among-dutch-jehovahs-witnesses/  “The ‘1975′-prophecy and its impact among Dutch Jehovah’s Witnesses”]) in ''Sociological Analysis'' 50(1)1989, pp 23–40 notes a 9 per cent drop in total publishers (door-to-door preachers) and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers (full-time preachers) in the Netherlands. Stark and Iannoccone have analyzed the impact on US Witnesses. {{cite journal|title=The Journal of Contemporary Religion|article=Why the Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application|url=http://www.geocities.com/rogueactivex/JWGrow-O.pdf|year=1997|pages=142-143}} The January 30, 1982 ''Los Angeles Times'' ("Defectors Feel 'Witness' Wrath: Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth" by John Dart, p. B4) cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971–1981 of 737,241, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.</ref> In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975.<ref>The Watchtower, 15 March, 1980, p.17 "With the appearance of the book ''Life Everlasting—in Freedom of the Sons of God'', ... considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. ... there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a buildup of the expectation already initiated. ... ''persons having to do with the publication of the information'' ... contributed to the buildup of hopes centered on that date."</ref>
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Under Rutherford, the downward trend in membership soon reversed itself, and the movement's membership grew to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942.
  
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In 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses]]. Subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been [[Frederick William Franz]], [[Milton George Henschel]] and [[Don A. Adams]]. However, since 1976, doctrinal and organizational decisions have been made by the Governing Body and they supervise the writing of Watchtower publications.<ref>''1977 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses'', p. 258</ref> Witnesses no longer teach that the generation of people alive in 1914 will survive until [[Armageddon]],<ref>"A Time To Keep Awake", ''The Watchtower'' (November 1, 1995), p. 19 par. 12, and p. 20 par. 15.</ref> but are encouraged not to lose confidence in "the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment"<ref>"Jesus was concerned that his followers too could become distracted by Satan's world, even to the point that they might 'return to the things behind.' (Luke 17:22, 31) And, indeed, this has happened to some Christians. For years such ones longed for the day when Jehovah will put an end to this wicked world. However, when Armageddon did not occur by the time they expected, they became disheartened. Their confidence in the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment faded. They slowed down in the ministry and gradually became so involved in the mundane matters of life that little time was left for spiritual matters. (Luke 8:11, 13, 14) In time, they `returned to the things behind'—how sad!" {{cite journal|title=Watchtower|date=December 15, 2006|pages=25-29}}</ref>
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===Nazi persecution===
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[[Hitler|Adolph Hitler]]'s Nazi Germany persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses. Many followers were imprisoned in [[concentration camp]]s, bearing purple triangles by which they were identified.<ref>[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nazi-persecution-of-jehovahs-witnesses Nazi Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses] ''United States Holocaust Memorial Museum''. Retrieved January 13, 2022.</ref> Under the Nazi regime:
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<blockquote>Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners,' so termed because if they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith.<ref>Hans Hesse (ed.), ''Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime'' (Manchester University Press, 2002, ISBN 3861087502). </ref></blockquote>
  
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== Demographics ==
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===Reorganization and beyond===
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{{main|Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses}}
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[[File:Nathan Knorr, Jehovas vitne - (cropped).jpg|thumb|300px|Nathan H. Knorr, third president of the Watch Tower Society]]
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Nathan H. Knorr succeeded Rutherford as president of the Watch Tower Society on January 13, 1942. Membership rose from 115,000 to over two million under Knorr's presidency. Knorr also founded the Gilead school to train missionaries, as well as the Theocratic Ministry School to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Several significant [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] victories for Jehovah's Witnesses involving their rights to practice their religion were not only successes for the church, but also had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others. In 1943, for example, the United States Supreme Court ruled in ''West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette'' that the children of Jehovah's Witnesses attending school could not be compelled to salute the flag along with their schoolmates.
  
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[[Image:JWStats.png|right|thumb|350px|Average Publishers, 1945–2005]]
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Knorr's vice-president Frederick W. Franz became the most prominent [[theology|theologian]] in the history the Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses. Subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams.  
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Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], and the [[United States]] are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of August 2006, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 6.5 million members actively involved in preaching.<ref> To be counted, an individual must be approved as a minister and report at least 15 minutes in the ministry. In 2006, these reports indicated a total of over 1.3 billion hours.</ref>  Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 6.7 million.<ref>Yearbooks of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1996&ndash;2007.</ref> However, there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2% per annum since 1999.<ref>http://jwfacts.com/index_files/statistics.htm</ref> Growth rates and activity reports tend to show significant geographical variation. <ref>http://www.sektes.info/stats-e.htm</ref> The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' members, who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial, with over 16.6 million attending in 2006.<ref>If Witnesses counted members like other churches, the number of members would then be over 15 million. (See study by Rodney Stark on Jehovah's Witness growth at http://www.geocities.com/rogueactivex/JWGrow-O.pdf and article comparing Mormon and other churches growth, including the Witnesses, at http://www.sltrib.com/ci_2890645).</ref><!--Neither of the cited websites indicate 15 million—>
 
  
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==Organizational structure==
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During the 1960s and early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and at assemblies to the effect that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign might very well begin by 1975. The chronology pointing to 1975 was well-noted in the secular media at the time.<ref> [http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,901074,00.html Sects: Witnessing the End] ''TIME'', July 18, 1969. Retrieved January 14, 2022.</ref> Subsequently, from 1975 to 1980, the years following the failure of this prediction, there was a drop in Jehovah's Witnesses membership.<ref name=Franz/> In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975. <ref>[https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1980207 Hold to Your Choice!] ''The Watchtower'', March 15, 1980, 17. Retrieved January 14, 2022.</ref>
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{{main|Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses}}
 
  
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The Watchtower Society was incorporated as Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1884. Its directors served as the central [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses|Governing Body]] overseeing the global preaching of God’s Kingdom.<ref>[[The Watchtower]], February 1, 1999, p. 17</ref> This initial Governing Body was comprised of five men and two women.<ref>Zion’s Watch Tower, Extra Edition April 25, 1894 p. 56, Charles T. Russell, Henry Weber, Maria F. Russell, W. C. McMillan, J. B. Adamson, Simon O. Blunden, Rose Ball.</ref> As of 1971 the Governing Body consisted of the [[Board of Directors]] of the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]], a body of seven men, and the agenda of the Governing Body was set by the President of the Watch Tower Society, who was also a member. The Governing Body was enlarged by [[Nathan H. Knorr]] to include other members of the Society in 1971, and its membership rose to eleven men. In that year, the chairmanship of the group began to rotate annually. <ref>{{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|author=Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania|publisher=Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York|date=1993|pages=233, 234}}</ref>
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The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters (and later, also by branch committees). It was announced that, starting in September 2014, appointments would be made by traveling overseers. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses|Governing Body]].<ref>George D. Chryssides, ''Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses'' (Scarecrow Press, 2008, ISBN 0810860740).</ref> Since Knorr's death in 1977, the position of president has been occupied by [[Frederick William Franz|Frederick Franz]] (1977–1992), and [[Milton George Henschel|Milton Henschel]] (1992–2000), both members of the Governing Body, and since 2000 by others who are not Governing Body members.  
  
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Jehovah's Witnesses are currently led by a small [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses|Governing Body]] located at the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania|Watchtower]] headquarters. The Governing Body operates in line with scriptual example. The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from 9 to 17 and now stands at 9. The Governing Body, through the departments of its various legal organizations, directs the operation of the 112 branches throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web| author=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society |year=2005| title=Membership and Publishing Statistics | url=http://www.jw-media.org/people/statistics.htm| work=Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses | accessmonthday=4 December | accessyear=2005}}</ref> Members volunteer to operate these facilities. Each branch assigns circuit overseers who travel among various congregations, spending a week with each. Within each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the congregation's public ministry and schedule various speakers for congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership.
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In 1995, Jehovah's Witnesses abandoned the idea that [[Armageddon]] must occur during the lives of the generation that was alive in 1914 and in 2010 changed their teaching on the "generation."<ref>M. James Penton, ''Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses'' (University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0802079732).</ref>
  
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Elders are prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling.  Ministerial servants generally assist elders in a limited administrative capacity.  Both are unpaid, but circuit and district overseers receive a small financial living allowance. All baptized Witnesses are considered to be ordained ministers<!--Clarify. Does any external recognition of qualification as ministers exist??—> and are expected to be able to provide religious instruction to others. Males are encouraged to qualify for responsibilities in the congregation and to work towards becoming ministerial servants or elders. Within local congregations the role of women is minimal in terms of responsibility.  They cannot serve as elders or ministerial servants, though they carry out a large proportion of the preaching work, including helping others in the congregation to become more regular in preaching.
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==Beliefs and practices==
  
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The [[legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses]] include corporations that represent the religion in legal matters. Most well known is the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]]. In 2000, three new [[non-profit]] corporations were organized:
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===Jehovah and Jesus===
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Jehovah's Witnesses view [[God]] as the creator of the universe and the supreme being within it. Witnesses believe that the proper name of this being is Jehovah, a derivative of the [[Tetragrammaton]], and that its use is a requirement for true worship. [[Jesus of Nazareth|Jesus]], meanwhile, is believed to literally be the only begotten Son of God, His first creation, and thus is considered an entity independent from God. In this sense, Jehovah's Witnesses reject the notion of [[Trinity]]. In contrast to trinitarian doctrine, they believe that the [[Holy Spirit|holy spirit]] is not an entity comparable to God or Jesus but is instead God's "active force." <ref>Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, ''Insights on the Scriptures'' Vols 1 and 2 (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1988).</ref>
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'''Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses''' coordinates all service (i.e., preaching) activities, including door-to-door preaching, circuit and district conventions, etc.
 
  
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'''Religious Order of Jehovah's Witnesses''' coordinates the activities of those involved in full-time service, including pioneers, missionaries, and circuit and district overseers.
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Jesus' most important theological function for Jehovah's Witnesses is as the sole means by which to approach God in [[prayer]]. His role as mediator between human beings and God can only be enjoyed by those individuals going to heaven. Witnesses believe that only Jesus Christ is their leader and that he is head of their Congregation. As such, their leaders must obey him (Heb. 13:7).  
  
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'''Kingdom Support Services, Inc.''' controls construction of new Kingdom Halls and other facilities and holds the titles to Society-owned vehicles.
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While Jesus is still acknowledged by Jehovah's Witnesses as the sole means of salvation for all worthy human beings, he is understood somewhat differently. For example, Witnesses believe that Jesus did not die on a cross, as is traditionally recognized by mainstream Christianity, but instead on a "torture stake."<ref>[https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/bible-teach/the-ransom-jesus-sacrifice/ The Ransom​—God’s Greatest Gift] ''Jehovah's Witnesses''. Retrieved January 14, 2022.</ref> This event is commemorated yearly in an event referred to as "the Memorial," the most important annual event for Jehovah's Witnesses. The Memorial is held after sundown on the day of the year corresponding to Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar.
  
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==Publications==
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===Scripture===
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{{main|List of Watchtower publications}}
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Jehovah's Witnesses employ the Bible as their foremost text, specifically the ''New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.'' This version extensively uses the name "Jehovah" in place of the Greek word for "Lord" over 200 times in the New Testament in order to refer to God. Frederick Wilhelm Franz is believed to have been the principal translator of this version of the scripture, although this has never been officially confirmed since the translation was intended to remain anonymous.<ref name=Franz>Raymond Franz, ''Crisis of Conscience'' (Commentary Press, 2002, ISBN 0914675230).</ref> 
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The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]] engages in extensive publication work. In addition to their two magazines&mdash; 'The Watchtower' and 'Awake!' &mdash; they also publish many brochures, tracts, books, Bible maps, and encyclopedias including the ''New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures''. All publications now available in 432 languages.
 
  
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* ''[[The Watchtower]]'' has been published since 1879.<ref>PDFs of the ''Watchtower'' magazines from 1879-1949 are available online at [http://tjliberte.free.fr/Library/Watchtower_Publications/]</ref>This magazine is published twice a month and is now available in 161 languages. It is the Witnesses' main journal and its articles are considered authoritative. It features articles primarily dealing with Bible topics and interpretation. Organizational news and biographies of various members are also occasionally included. Beginning in 2008, only the first issue of each month will be distributed to the general public. The second issue of each month will not be offered to the public but will contain congregational study articles and other inter-organizational information.
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At the Watch Tower Society's annual meeting on October 5, 2013, a significantly revised translation was released. Referring to the new revision, the publishers stated, "There are now about 10 percent fewer English words in the translation. Some key Biblical terms were revised. Certain chapters were changed to poetic format, and clarifying footnotes were added to the regular edition."<ref>[https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20151215/nwt-bible-2013/ The 2013 Revision of the New World Translation] ''Jehovah’s Witnesses''. Retrieved January 13, 2022.</ref>
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* ''[[Awake!]]'', a general interest magazine, has a wider scope than the ''Watchtower'', publishing articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were ''The Golden Age'' (1919&ndash;1937) and ''Consolation'' (1937&ndash;1946). It is now published monthly and is available in 81 languages.
 
  
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* ''[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]]'' is a translation of the Bible. This Bible extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew [[Tetragrammaton]], also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" over 200 times in the New Testament. However, it is said not to be a replacement since the translators quote that they have placed the name 'Jehovah' (JHVH/YHWH) into the scriptures wherever the tetro. appeared, as is agreed by many. {{Fact|date=August 2007}}It was translated by the New World Bible Translation Committee from 1950 to 1960, and was last revised in 1984 in English. It is now available in 64 Languages. The translators have opted to remain anonymous but others have identified them as being prominent leaders of the movement.<ref>(2004) Crisis of Conscience, 4th, Commentary Press, 56. 0-914675-23-0. {{cite book|title=Visions of Glory|author=Harrison|url=http://www.exjws.net/vg.htm|pages=231}}</ref>
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Witnesses consider the entire Biblical canon, excluding the [[Apocrypha]], to be the inspired word of God. They interpret many of the scriptures literally, though it is acknowledged that biblical writers and characters employed [[symbolism]], [[parable]], [[figure of speech|figures of speech]], and [[poetry|poeticism]]. Jehovah's Witnesses hold that the Bible alone should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is considered the exclusive responsibility of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.
  
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All publications printed by Jehovah's Witnesses in their 8 locations branch office : United States of America, (for United States of America, Alaska, Hawaii, and Canada), Mexico (for Mexico and Central America Countries), Brazil (for Brazil and South America Countries), Germany (for Germany, West Europe Countries, North Europe Countries, South Europe Countries, East Europe Countries, Greenland, Iceland, Indonesia (for Arabic, Dutch, German, Russia, and Spanish) and former Soviet Union Countries), Britain (for United Kingdom, Northern Ireland, Ireland, and Middle East Countries), South Africa (for South Africa and African Countries), Japan (for Japan, East Asia Countries, West Asia Countries, South Asia Countries, and South East Asia Countries), and Australia (for Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, Indonesia (for French), Pacific Countries, Pacific Islands, and Pacific Territory). Since 1 January 2000 in worldwide all publications are offered free of charge.
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===Soteriology===
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Jehovah's Witnesses expect that their faith will allow them to one day live on a renewed paradise on Earth. Their surviving component will not be a [[soul]], at least not in the traditional sense, since they do not believe in the concept of an immortal immaterial entity that dwells inside the body. Instead, the component that survives after death is claimed to be the individual person as he or she is. Thus, souls of deceased persons who are not immediately resurrected to heaven are considered dead, and death itself is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. Jehovah's witnesses do not believe in any sort of [[Hell]] wherein a sinner suffers an eternity of fiery torment. Rather, they designate [[Hades]] or [[Sheol]] to be the common grave of all humankind.  
  
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==Beliefs and practices==
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Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the [[eschatology|eschaton]] (end times) began in 1914, and that full-fledge [[Armageddon]] is imminent. This will commence with the destruction of all false religions, after which point governments will also be annihilated. Any who are not deemed faithful by God will be destroyed at this juncture with no hope of resurrection. The fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, remains to be decided by God. After Armageddon, an unknown number of people who died prior to Armageddon will be resurrected, with the prospect of living forever in paradise.
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{{main|Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses}}
 
  
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[[Image:kingdomhall.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Jehovah's Witnesses meet in buildings called [[Kingdom Hall]]s.]]
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===Family and sexuality===
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Witnesses consider the entire Biblical [[Biblical canon#Orthodox.2C Catholic and Protestant|canon]], excluding the [[Apocrypha]], to be the inspired word of God. They interpret some of the scriptures literally and some of the scriptures figuratively, <ref> “Awake!” -  March 8, 1982, p. 10. | “How Protestantism Undermines Respect for the Bible”  | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania </ref> though it is acknowledged that biblical writers and characters employed [[symbolism]], [[parable]], [[figure of speech|figures of speech]], and [[poetry|poeticism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Book for All People|year=2005|publisher=Watchtower}}</ref>  They hold that the Bible alone should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is considered the responsibility of the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Christ Leads His Congregation|journal=Watchtower|month=March 15|year=2002|pages=13–16}}</ref>                                                                                                  Jehovah's Witnesses view God as the creator of everything and supreme being, the sovereign of the universe. They believe that God's name is [[Jehovah]] (a derivative of the [[Tetragrammaton]]<ref>The rendering of the Tetragrammaton is different for different languages: "Geova" in Italian, for example.</ref>), and that its use is a requirement for true worship.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Why True Worship Receives God's Blessing|journal=Watchtower|month=April 15|year=1996|pages=17}}.</ref> [[Jesus]] is believed to be God's first creation, and thus is considered to be an independent entity from God who was used by Him to create everything else.<ref>{{cite journal|publisher=Watchtower|title=What Do the Scriptures Say About "the Divinity of Christ"?|month=January 15|year=1992|pages=20–23}}</ref> Jesus is literally the only begotten Son of God, and received his life from God. He is the only means by which to approach God in [[prayer]], and is also the means of salvation for all worthy mankind.<ref>{{cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures Vol. e2|publisher=Watchtower|pages=60–61|chapter="His Vital Place in God's Purpose" and "Chief Agent of life"}}</ref> They believe that only Jesus Christ is their leader (Matt.23:10), and he is a head of Congregation(Col.1:18), and ''those who are taking the lead'' (a president of Watch Tower Society, members of governing body and elders) must obey him.(Heb.13:7) His role as mediator of the "[[New Covenant|new covenant]]" is limited to those going to heaven,<ref>"Consequently, 1 Timothy 2:5, 6 is not using 'mediator' in the broad sense common in many languages. It is not saying that Jesus is a mediator between God and all mankind. Rather, it refers to Christ as legal Mediator (or, "attorney") of the new covenant, this being the restricted way in which the Bible uses the term." (August 15 1989) "Watchtower": 30. </ref> whose number totals [[144,000]]. The  vast majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live on a renewed paradise on Earth.<ref>{{cite book|title=What Does the Bible Really Teach?|year=2005|pages=33–36|publisher=Watchtower}}.</ref> They believe that Jesus did not die on a [[Christian cross|cross]] but on a "[[torture stake]]".<ref>{{cite book|title=What Does the Bible Really Teach?|publisher=Watchtower|pages=204}}</ref> The [[Holy Spirit|holy spirit]] is not a person but is God's active force.<ref>{{cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2|year=1988|pages=1019}}</ref>  The [[soul]] is the person itself, not an immortal immaterial entity that dwells inside the body.<ref>"The...Scriptures show 'soul' to be a person, an animal, or the life that a person or an animal enjoys." {{cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2|year=1988|pages=1004}}</ref>  Thus, souls of deceased persons who are not immediately resurrected to heaven are considered dead, and death itself is a state of non-existence with no consciousness.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Is There LIFE After Death?|journal=Watchtower|month=July 15|year=2001|url=http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2001/7/15/article_01.htm|accessdate=January 26, 2006}}</ref> [[Hades in Christianity|Hades]] or [[Sheol]] is the designated common grave of all mankind. They do not believe in any [[Hell]] of fiery torment.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hell&mdash;Eternal Torture or Common Grave?|journal=The Watchtower|month=April 15|year=1993|pages=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2|year=1988|pages=189}}</ref> The "last days" began in 1914 and [[Armageddon]] is imminent.<ref>{{cite journal|title="In the Last Days" Since When?|journal=Watchtower|month=October 1|year=1980|pages=19}}</ref> After false religion is destroyed, governments also face destruction.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Flight to Safety Before the "Great Tribulation"|journal=Watchtower|month=June 1|year=1996|pages=14–19}}</ref> Any who are not deemed faithful by God will be destroyed with no hope of resurrection.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Remaining Organized for Survival Into the Millennium|journal=Watchtower|month=September 1|year=1989|pages=19}}</ref> The fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, remains to be decided by God.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Strengthening Our Confidence in God's Righteousness|journal=Watchtower|month=August 15|year=1998|pages=20}}</ref> After [[Armageddon]], an unknown number of people, both righteous and unrighteous, who had died (prior to Armageddon) will be resurrected, with the prospect of living forever in paradise.<ref>{{cite journal|title="Death Is to Be Brought to Nothing"|journal=Watchtower|month=July 1|year=1998|pages=19–24}}</ref> <!-- Has the idea that each "day" equals 7,000 years been abandoned?—They do not believe that earth was created in 7 literal days but that those days represent each a period of unspecific number of years and that "the beginning" is not included in these days.—>
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Jehovah's Witnesses believe the ideal family structure is [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]], with the husband considered the final authority on all family decisions. The husband is, however, strongly encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings in reaching any given decision. As is typical in Christianity, marriages are required to be [[Monogamy|monogamous]].  [[Fornication|Premarital sex]], [[Homosexuality]] and all other variations of intercourse in which the ends are non-procreative, are considered to be [[sin]]s. <ref>[https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/g20040722/Whats-Wrong-With-Premarital-Sex/ Young People Ask... What's Wrong With Premarital Sex?] ''Awake!'', July 22, 2004. Retrieved January 14, 2022.</ref> [[Abortion]] is considered to be [[murder]].<ref>[https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/Knowledge-That-Leads-to-Everlasting-Life/Why-Living-a-Godly-Life-Brings-Happiness/ Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness] ''Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life.'' Retrieved January 14, 2022. </ref> In order to preclude the possibility of temptation, modesty is heavily encouraged in dress and grooming for both females and males. [[Gambling]] is also strictly forbidden, as it too is considered a hazard to proper family life.<ref> Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, ''Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life.'' (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1995), 120.</ref>
  
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Their view of morality often reflects conservative Christian views. [[Homosexuality]] and [[Fornication|premarital sex]] are considered [[sin]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Young People Ask... What's Wrong With Premarital Sex?|journal=Awake!|month=July 22|year=2004|pages=12}}</ref> [[Abortion]] is considered [[murder]].<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness|title=Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life|year=1995|pages=118|publisher=Watchtower}}</ref>  Modesty is heavily encouraged in dress and grooming. [[Gambling]] is strictly forbidden.<ref>{{cite book|title=Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life|publisher=Watchtower|year=1995|pages=120}}</ref> The family structure is [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]]. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is strongly encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings. Marriages are required to be [[Monogamy|monogamous]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=''The Bible's Viewpoint'' What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?|journal=Awake!|month=July 8|year=2004|pages=26}}</ref> They are widely criticized for their literal interpretation of the scriptures that prohibit eating or storing blood. (Leviticus 17:13,14; Acts 15:28,29) This interpretation leads to the controversial conclusion that blood should not be transfused. <ref> {{cite book|title=What Does the Bible Really Teach?|publisher=Watchtower|pages=128-129}}</ref> Practices that connote nationalism or false religion are avoided. Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are typically observed; however, common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as [[birthday]]s, [[Thanksgiving]], and [[Christmas]] are regarded as unchristian and are not celebrated.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Questions From Readers|journal=Watchtower|month=October 15|year=1998|pages=30}}</ref> Witnesses are perhaps best known for the vigorous efforts by all members to spread their beliefs throughout the world. They do this mainly by visiting people house to house,<ref> “jv chap. 25 pg. 570” –1993| “House-to-House Preaching —An Identifying Mark” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania  </ref> <ref> The Watchtower - May 15, 1981, p. 17. | “Showing Lifesaving Neighbor Love”  | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania </ref> but also in a variety of other ways. They use Watchtower publications to explain their beliefs. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of [[book]]s, [[magazine]]s and other publications, with a small number being available in as many as 410 languages. 
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===Blood===
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The Jehovah's Witnesses regard blood as sacred based on an literal interpretation of the Biblical admonition to " abstain from … blood," based on Acts 15:28, 29, and also on Leviticus 17:11, 12, "For the life of the flesh is in the blood … No soul of you shall eat blood." Therefore, Jehovah's Witnesses reject allogeneic and pre-operative autologous [[transfusion]]s of whole blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma.<ref>[https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/How-Can-Blood-Save-Your-Life/Blood-Vital-for-Life/ Blood—Vital for Life] ''Jehovah's Witnesses''. Retrieved January 14, 2022.</ref> Despite this prohibition of transfusion, it is left as a personal decision for individual witnesses as to how their ''own'' blood will be handled in the course of a medical procedure. Some experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies. <ref>Nicholas Jabbour, ''Transfusion-Free Medicine and Surgery'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2005, ISBN 978-0470674086), 15-22 </ref>
  
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Jehovah's Witnesses are politically neutral.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Can You Make the World a Better Place?|journal=Watchtower|month=October 15|year=2001|url=http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2001/10/15/article_01.htm|accessdate=January 26, 2006}}</ref> They feel that their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs.<ref>{{cite journal|title="Salvation Belongs to Jehovah"|journal=Watchtower|month=September 15|year=2002|pages=21}}</ref> They believe that such an act would be tantamount to worshipping an idol. Members are expected to obey all laws, including the paying of taxes, of the country in which they reside, so long as these do not violate what they view as God's law.<ref>{{cite journal|title=God and Caesar|journal=Watchtower|month=May 1|year=1996|pages=9}}</ref> The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service, even when such is of a compulsory nature, and by their detachment from secular politics. Before 1996, Jehovah's Witnesses also refused alternatives to military service.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Awake!|year=1997|month=May|pages=22–23|title=Should Christians Be Pacifists?}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title="Salvation Belongs to Jehovah"|journal=Watchtower|month=November 1|year=1990|pages=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=Watch Tower Information Service |year=2000| title=The Watchtower Society Receives New Light on Alternative Military Service | url=http://www.watchtowerinformationservice.org/index.php/doctrine-changes/the-watchtower-society-receives-new-light-on-alternative-military-service/| work= | accessmonthday=4 August | accessyear=2006}}</ref>
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Baptized Witnesses who violate the prohibition on blood were subject to organized communal shunning under Scriptural doctrine. However, a statement issued in 2000 changed this to voluntary revocation of membership, rather than the congregation initiating this step.<ref>Osamu Muramoto, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119307/ Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses] ''BMJ'' 322(7277) (2001): 37–39. Retrieved January 14, 2022.</ref>
  
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Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work, though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members and rebuilding [[Kingdom Hall]]s, while providing assistance to others in need near the area in which they are working. Examples of relief work include that provided to [[Hutu]] and [[Tutsi]] victims during the [[Rwandan genocide]], as well as to [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] refugees.<ref>{{cite journal|quote=Since 1994, Jehovah's Witnesses in [[Europe]] alone have sent more than 190 tons of food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies to the Great Lakes region of Africa|title=Christianity in Action: Amid Turmoil|journal=Watchtower|publisher=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania|month=January 15|url=http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/1998/1/15/|accessdate=December 4, 2005}}</ref> Witnesses have also had an active share in the relief work of [[hurricane Katrina]] in the United States of America.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Awake!|month=June|year=2006|pages=14–19}}</ref><!--Is Hurricane Katrina relief work of particular note in comparison to other Witness relief efforts? Just a more recent event? Or just an American event? Consider removal.—> However, on-going aid work as provided by some other religious groups, such as soup kitchens, clothing donations, or building homes for the homeless is not practiced. The preaching work is regarded as a form of humanitarian effort by giving people hope for the future.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Watchtower|date=November 1, 1966|pages=647}}</ref>
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===Missionary work===
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Witnesses are known for the vigorous efforts made by members to spread their beliefs throughout the world, primarily by traveling from door to door, visiting the residents of each house in a given community. During these encounters, Witnesses discuss their religion, as well as the nature of religion in general with those who engage them, usually leaving Watchtower publications such as ''Awake!'' and ''The Watchtower'' for non-members. This missionary work is carried out by Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide, and accordingly, their literature is published in hundreds of languages.
  
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The most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death (referred to as "the Memorial") held after sundown on the date corresponding to [[Nisan]] 14 on the [[Hebrew calendar]]. Onlookers do not partake of the emblems representing Christ's flesh and blood unless they believe they have the heavenly hope. Typically, in most congregations no one partakes since almost all Witnesses today believe their hope is to live on a paradise earth. Weekly meetings are also held, featuring a variety of discourses. Elders and ministerial servants deliver the majority of these. But in the "Theocratic Ministry School", one of the five meetings, some male students who are not appointed servants can also give discourses in a class setting. "Sisters are also given opportunity to enroll in the school and present talks in  settings that involve house to house ministry, or informal settings where one might share a Bible thought. <ref> “Benefit From Theocratic Ministry School Education” p. 82” –2002| “Use a Variety of Settings” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania  </ref> The sisters are not addressing themselves to the entire audience but, rather, to the one assigned to take the role of householder or other person." .<ref>{{cite book|chapter=25 "Preaching Publicly and From House to House "|title=Jehovah’s Witnesses—Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom|year=1993|pages=569|publisher=Watchtower}}</ref> Certain segments also feature audience participation.
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With the advent of digital technology, publications are also available online at the organization's official website.<ref name=JW>[https://www.jw.org/en/ Jehovah's Witnesses]. Retrieved January 12, 2022.</ref> Witnesses use digital tablets to show residents videos and other materials.
  
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==Congregational discipline==
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===Political and cultural views===
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{{main|Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline}}
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Since Jehovah's Witnesses firmly believe that their allegiance belongs solely to God's Kingdom (which is viewed as an actual perfected government, of sorts), members abstain from partaking in any observances promoted by the secular state. For example, Witnesses do not salute the flag of any country or sing nationalistic songs, nor do they recognize common celebrations or national holidays such as birthdays, [[Thanksgiving]], and [[Christmas]]. They believe that partaking in such observances and celebrations would be tantamount to worshiping false idols, thereby constituting [[idolatry]]. Members are still expected to observe the protocols of good citizens, however, obeying all laws and statutes of the country in which they reside so long as these do not violate what they view as God's law. The Jehovah's Witnesses are politically neutral, a sentiment which they express by way of their almost total detachment from secular politics, and their refusal to participate in any sort of military service, even when it is compulsory.
  
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Jehovah's Witnesses employ various levels of congregational discipline as formal controls administered by elders in the congregation. The determination of guilt or innocence is judged by a tribunal of elders. A variety of controls can be enforced, from a restriction of duties performed in the congregation to excommunication, known as disfellowshipping, and shunning by the congregation. Members who are disfellowshipped have an opportunity to regain membership. The practice of shunning has been criticized by many non-members.
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===Humanitarian efforts===
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Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of the Jehovah's Witnesses' mission, although it is secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used within impoverished areas for purposes of rebuilding communities and providing aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members and rebuilding Kingdom Halls, while providing assistance to others in need within the area in which they are working. Examples of relief work include help provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the [[Rwanda]]n [[genocide]], as well as that given to [[refugee]]s of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]. Witnesses also had an active share in the relief work responding to [[hurricane]] Katrina, which crippled the southeastern United States in 2005. Preaching work is considered to be the ultimate form of humanitarian effort, since it gives people a means of hope for the future.
  
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Congregational discipline is administered by congregation elders through a 'judicial committee'. Only after an accusation (or confession) of serious wrongdoing is made against a baptized member of the congregation, and there appears to be sufficient substance to the accusation, is a judicial committee (usually consisting of three elders) formed to review the facts and to determine if there is sufficient proof of evidence or admission to offer counsel or to administer discipline. ''Marking'' is employed when a member persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant disfellowshipping. If the conduct of the individual is considered a danger to the members of the congregation, a talk may be given regarding the conduct (without naming the individual), thus 'marking' the member in the minds of those who know of the conduct.(2 Thessalonians 3:6, 13-15)<ref> The Watchtower -  April 15, 1985, p. 31. | “Questions From Readers”  | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania </ref> Though such a person would not be shunned, social interaction outside of formal worship settings would generally be minimized.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Question From Readers|year=1985|month=April 15||pages=31|journal=Watchtower}}</ref> ''Reproof'' involves sins which are more serious than those for which one would be "marked". Reproof is given before all who have knowledge of the transgression.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Giving Reproof "Before All Onlookers"|journal=Watchtower|month=December 1|year=1976}}</ref> The most severe discipline, administered as a last resort after previously mentioned assistance has failed, is ''disfellowshipping''. The factor determining whether an individual would be disfellowshipped or not is based on whether the wrongdoer by his actions is giving evidence of repentance. The Judicial Committee asks probing questions particularly when the committee are meeting in relation to sexual matters and reviews actions of the member being considered, ascertaining which scriptural law or principle has been violated in consultation with guidelines provided by the Governing Body.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Watchtower|year=1979|month=November 15|title=Questions from Readers}}</ref> Baptized members who oppose essential Scriptural doctrine, or organizational teachings such as the inspiration of the Governing Body may be disfellowshipped for [[apostasy]] after repeated admonitions.<ref> The Watchtower -  May 1, 2000, p. 12 Par. 20. | “20 Firmly Uphold Godly Teaching”  | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania </ref> <ref>Letter to Circuit and District Overseers, From the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society 1980. (''Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses'', M. J. Penton, p. 349)</ref>Once the decision to disfellowship has been made, a person has seven days to appeal. If no legitimate appeal is made, the disfellowshipping will be announced to the congregation by letting them know that the person "is no longer one of Jehovah's Witnesses".If a member does appeal the decision a special Judicial committee is formed of at least 3 elders, typically from a neighboring congregation. After a member has been disfellowshipped, all congregation members avoid all association with that person.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Watchtower|month=April 15|year=1988}}</ref> Exceptions are made in business and family household situations. If the disfellowshipped person is living in the same home with other baptized family members, religious matters are not discussed, with the exception of minors, for whose training  parents are still responsible.<ref>{{cite journal|title=How Can You Help a 'Prodigal' Child?|year=2001|month=October 1||pages=16-17|journal=Watchtower}}</ref>  Disfellowshipped family members outside the home are [[shunning|shunned]].<ref>{{cite journal|quote=It might be possible to have almost no contact at all with the relative. Even if there were some family matters requiring contact, this certainly would be kept to a minimum|title=Disfellowshiping&mdash;How to View It|journal=Watchtower|month=September 15|year=1981|pages=26}}</ref> Disfellowshipped members are still permitted to attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/jehovahs_witnesses/practices.htm#shunning|title=Practices of Jehovah's Witnesses|work=[[ReligionFacts]]}}</ref> A member can officially leave the religion by writing a letter stating he no longer wishes to be known as one of Jehovah's Witnesses thus disassociating himself from the congregation and will thereafter be treated the same way as a disfellowshipped person. In rare cases elders may also determine a member has disassociated himself by his actions. Both result in shunning.<ref> There is no honorable way out of the religion. "Those who formally say they do not want to be part of the organization any more are also avoided." — "Beliefs—Frequently Asked Questions" from Official Website: http://www.jw-media.org/beliefs/beliefsfaq.htm accessed August 2, 2006</ref> If a disassociated or disfellowshipped individual requests reinstatement to the congregation, a Judicial Committee, usually consisting of the elders who sat on the original committee if available, is formed to review the evidence. Once a decision is made to reinstate, a brief announcement is made to the congregation that the disfellowshipped member is once again one of Jehovah's Witnesses. Each year, the elders make an attempt to remind disfellowshipped ones of the steps they can take to qualify for reinstatement.
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==Polity and institutions==
  
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[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070510/ap_on_re_us/jehovah_s_witnesses_sex_abuse_1].<ref>Ousted Members Say Jehovah's Witnesses' Policy on Abuse Hides Offenses, ''New York Times'', Aug 11, 2002, p 26</ref> The current procedure that is followed when allegations of abuse are reported is based on a strict application of the principle at Deuteronomy 19:15: "No single witness should rise up against a man respecting any error or any sin, in the case of any sin that he may commit. At the mouth of two witnesses or at the mouth of three witnesses the matter should stand good" (New World Translation). If an allegation of child abuse is made, and the alleged perpetrator denies it, the local congregational elders will investigate to see if there can be any others who can substantiate the claim. If there are none, the elders do not disfellowship the accused individual, since the accusation may have no merit. Young children are known to exaggerate the truth and may be out to bring another congregation member down due to a personal vendetta. The religon will act only on cases where there have been two witnesses to child sex abuse to proctect their flock. However, according to the Jehovah's Witness Office of Public Information: "Even if the elders cannot take congregational action, they are expected to report the allegation to the branch office of Jehovah's Witnesses in their country, if local privacy laws permit. In addition to making a report to the branch office, the elders may be required by law to report even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to the authorities. If so, we expect the elders to comply. Additionally, the victim may wish to report the matter to the authorities, and it is his or her absolute right to do so."<ref> http://www.jw-media.org/region/global/english/backgrounders/e_molestation.htm</ref> In 1997 it was also stated that, "for the protection of our children, a man known to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible position in the congregation" (e.g. serving as elders or ministerial servants). However the matter is not made public to the congregation for to avoid negative feelings developing amongst the members. The elder body prefer to keep these matters quiet and to avoid potentially slandering a good person's name. This would be upheld even if the crime was committed years before, or prior to the person's becoming a Witness. The general policy is not premised as punishment to the offender, but seen rather, by the religion, as a means of protecting the congregation's members.<ref> ''The Watchtower'' 1997 January 1 p. 29 Let Us Abhor What Is Wicked </ref>
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===Organizational structure===
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Jehovah's Witnesses are led by a small Governing Body located at the Watchtower headquarters. This Governing Body has established six committees to oversee various aspects of our work, and each member serves on one or more of these committees.<ref>[https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/governing-body-jw-helpers/ What Is the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses?] ''Jehovah's Witnesses''. Retrieved January 14, 2022.</ref> These direct the operation of the branches throughout the world. Individual members volunteer to conduct the hands-on operation of these branches. Within each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the congregation's public ministry and schedule various speakers for congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, which require the approval of higher leadership.
  
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==Blood==
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Elders are prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling. Ministerial servants generally assist elders in a limited administrative capacity. Both are unpaid positions.<ref>[https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/no-paid-clergy/ Do Jehovah’s Witnesses Have a Paid Clergy?] ''Jehovah's Witnesses''. Retrieved January 14, 2022.</ref> Male Witnesses are encouraged to work towards becoming ministerial servants or elders for their congregation. Within local congregations the role of women is minimal in terms of responsibility; they cannot serve as elders or ministerial servants, though they do carry out a significant proportion of the preaching work.
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{{main|Jehovah's Witnesses and blood}}
 
  
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The official teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses regards blood as sacred and rejects allogeneic and pre-operative autologous [[transfusion]]s of whole blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma.<ref>{{cite web|title=How Can Blood Save Your Life?|url=http://watchtower.org/library/hb/ How Can Blood Save Your Life?}} Accessed 4 December 2005.</ref> This is based on an understanding of the Biblical admonition to " abstain from ... blood," based on Acts 15:28, 29, and also on Leviticus 17:11,12, "For the life of the flesh is in the blood ... No soul of you shall eat blood."
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===Congregational discipline===
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Although accepted by a majority of Jehovah's Witnesses, evidence indicates a minority does not wholly endorse this doctrine.<ref>[[The Watchtower]] May 1, 1950 p. 143 </ref><ref>[[The Watchtower]] August 1, 1958 p. 478, "'''One of Jehovah’s witnesses who claims to be of the anointed remnant recently went to the hospital and took a blood transfusion, voluntarily. Should she be allowed to partake of the emblems of bread and wine at Memorial time? — R. J., United States.''' We, of course, regret with you that this sister who professes to be one of the anointed remnant took a blood transfusion voluntarily during her stay in the hospital. We believe that she did the wrong thing contrary to the will of God. However, congregations have never been instructed to disfellowship those who voluntarily take blood transfusions or approve them. We let the judgment of such violators of God’s law concerning the sacredness of blood remain with Jehovah, the Supreme Judge. The only thing that can be done in the cases of individuals like this is to view them as immature and therefore not capable of taking on certain responsibilities, hence refusing to make certain assignments of service to such ones.
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Jehovah's Witnesses employ various levels of congregational discipline in the form of controls administered by elders in the congregation. After a substantial accusation of serious wrongdoing is made by or against a baptized member of the congregation, a committee is formed in order to determine their guilt or innocence. Ultimately, this decision is adjudicated by a 'judicial committee' usually composed of three elders. If a member of the congregation is found guilty, a variety of punitive controls can be enforced, such as ''marking,'' which is employed when a member persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant excommunication. Alternatively, a shamed member can be given "reproof," in the case of sins which are more serious than those for which one would be "marked," and is given before all who have knowledge of the transgression.  
  
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Since an individual is not disfellowshiped because of having voluntarily taken a blood transfusion or having approved of a dear one’s accepting a blood transfusion, you have no right to bar this sister from the celebration of the Lord’s Evening Meal. As an anointed member of Christ’s body she is under orders and command by Christ Jesus to partake. Whether she is unfaithful as to what she professes to be by virtue of taking the emblems of the Lord’s Evening Meal is something for Jehovah God to determine himself. His judgment begins at the house of God. It is not for you or anyone serving the Memorial emblems to act as the judge, but to allow the emblems to go to anyone in the audience as these are passed along in the normal manner of letting each one have the opportunity to partake."</ref><ref>Cynthia Gyamfi, MD, and Richard L. Berkowitz, MD, Obstet and Gynecol Vol. 104, No. 3, September 2004, “''This review refutes the commonly held belief that all Jehovah’s Witnesses refuse to accept blood or any of its products. In this population of pregnant women, the majority were willing to accept some form of blood or blood products.''”</ref><ref>Letter to All Bodies of Elders in the United States, Watchtower December 1, 1993, This correspondence reports that up to 50% of Jehovah’s Witnesses had failed to maintain up-to-date Medical Directive cards and were unprotected from routine transfusions.</ref>
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The most severe discipline, administered as a last resort after the aforementioned assistance has failed, is known as disfellowshiping. The main factor determining whether an individual would be disfellowshiped or not is based on whether or not the wrongdoer is showing repentance for his or her actions. Disfellowshiping invariably leads to shunning by the congregation, wherein all congregation members avoid any association with the offending party, a practice which has been criticized by many non-members. Disfellowshiped members are still permitted to attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.<ref>[https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1963486?q=disfellowship What Disfellowshiping Means] ''Jehovah's Witnesses''. Retrieved January 14, 2022.</ref> If a disassociated or disfellowshiped individual requests reinstatement to the congregation, a Judicial Committee, usually consisting of the elders who sat on the original committee if available, is formed to review the evidence. Once a decision is made to reinstate, a brief announcement is made to the congregation that the disfellowshiped member is once again a Jehovah's Witness.
  
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Baptized Witnesses who violate the prohibition on blood are subject to organized communal shunning under Scriptural doctrine.<ref>{{cite book|title=Pay Attention to Yourselves and to All the Flock|publisher=Watchtower|year=1991|pages=95}} {{cite journal|journal=BMJ|title=Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1119307|date=January 6, 2001|pages=37-39}}</ref><ref>Watchtower letter to All Hospital Liaison Committees dated June 16, 2000, “If a baptized member of the faith willfully and without regret accepts a blood transfusion, he indicates by his own actions that he no longer wishes to be one of Jehovah’s Witnesses. The individual is no longer viewed as a member of the Christian congregation because he no longer accepts and follows the Biblical prohibition to abstain from blood.</ref><ref>Watchtower media release dated June 14, 2000</ref><ref>Our Kingdom Ministry, Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative Is Disfellowshipped, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, August, 2002 p. 3, “Cooperating with the Scriptural arrangement to disfellowship and shun unrepentant wrongdoers is beneficial.”</ref> However, it is a personal decision on how their "own blood will be handled in the course of a surgical procedure, medical test, or current therapy."<ref>''The Watchtower'' June 15, 2000 pp. 29-30</ref><ref>Instructions for Filling In the Advance Decision Document, published by Watchtower in Britain, August 2005 p. 1, "addresses autologous transfusion procedures (those that involve the use of your own blood, which may temporarily leave your body…)" A Jehovah's Witness is aware that there is a risk of death yet believes that dying faithfully is better then living and breaking God's command to abstain from blood. Procedures which are permitted include where a "quantity of blood is withdrawn in order to tag it or to mix it with medicine, whereupon it is put back into the patient" and intra-operative cell salvage. ''The Watchtower'' October 15, 2000 pp. 30-31</ref> This is qualified by their understanding that "collecting, storing, and transfusing of blood directly contradicts what is said in Leviticus and Deuteronomy," so their position is they do not "store for transfusion our blood that should be ‘poured out." <ref>Occasionally, a doctor will urge a patient to deposit his own blood weeks before surgery (preoperative autologous blood donation, or PAD) so that if the need arises, he could transfuse the patient with his own stored blood. However, such collecting, storing, and transfusing of blood directly contradicts what is said in Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Blood is not to be stored; it is to be poured out—returned to God, as it were. Granted, the Mosaic Law is not in force now. Nevertheless, Jehovah’s Witnesses respect the principles God included in it, and they are determined to ‘abstain from blood.’ Hence, we do not donate blood, nor do we store for transfusion our blood that should be ‘poured out.’ That practice conflicts with God’s law. ''The Watchtower'' October 15, 2000 pp. 30-31</ref> Of course, in current medical practice, whole blood transfusions are very rare, and individual blood components are used instead.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fractions Background|url=http://www.noblood.org/wiki/FractionsBackground}}</ref> While Witnesses may not accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may accept any fractions made from these components.<ref>[[The Watchtower]], June 15, 2000 p. 30. {{cite journal|author=Sniesinski et al|journal=Anesthesia & Analgesia|title=Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah's Witness Patients: Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa|url=http://www.freeminds.org/doctrine/sniecinski_analgesia2.pdf|date=April 2007}}</ref><ref>Durable Power of Attorney form, published by [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]], January 2001 p. 1, "I accept all fractions derived from any primary component of blood." Examples of permitted fractions are: [[Interferon]], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Immune_Serum_Globulins Immune Serum Globulins] and [[Factor VIII]]; preparations made from [[Hemoglobin]] such as [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Polyheme PolyHeme] and [[Hemopure]]. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Intraoperative_blood_salvage Cell Salvage], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Acute_Normovolemic_Hemodilution Hemodilution], [[heart lung machine|Heart-Lung Machine]], [[Dialysis]], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Epidural_Blood_Patch Epidural Blood Patch], [[Plasmapheresis]], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Blood_cell_scintigraphy Labeling or Tagging of Blood] and [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Platelet_Gel Platelet Gel] ([[Autologous]]). See [http://www.aggelia.be/km_nov2006.pdf November 2006 ''Our Kingdom Ministry''], pp. 5–6 </ref> However, if a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to them but is permissible.<ref>'' Awake!'' August 2006 box on P. 11 </ref>
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===Publications===
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The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, has produced ''The Watchtower'' since 1879 and ''Awake!''. They also publish brochures, tracts, books, Bible maps, and the ''New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.'' Since January 1, 2000, all publications have been offered free of charge around the world.
  
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Jehovah's Witnesses have been known to highlight dangers of blood transfusions. Witness representatives have stated that plasma volume expanders are often sufficient to take care of various medical emergency situations.<ref>"Student: 'Well, suppose somebody was just coming to the hospital. They've got a few seconds to live. The only possible way out is a blood transfusion. Well, what's your answer to that?' Witness: 'That situation doesn't exist. Wherever there are cases where a person . . . let's say comes in off the highway here . . . and there is extreme loss of blood. Every emergency room, in every hospital, has a plasma volume expander which can . . .keep the volume up in the system...' Witness: "The need there is to keep the volume up in the system. It's not the blood so much that's needed then, but the volume that must be replaced. These expanders will do it. They are used in emergency situations; they are recommended by Civil Defense organizations when blood is not available. Obviously it works—it has worked on thousands of Jehovah's witnesses." {{cite journal|month=February 22|year=1976|title=Awake!|pages=15}}</ref> However, Witnesses explain that their objections to blood transfusions are for ''religious'' reasons.<ref>[http://www.jw-media.org/medical/medical_care.htm Jehovah's Witnesses and Medical Care]: "Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood for religious rather than medical reasons"; accessed July 19, 2006</ref>
+
With the advent of digital technologies, these publications are now available online. In addition, study materials as well as reports on activities are available in video format to watch online.<ref name=JW/>
  
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A growing number of hospitals are offering bloodless techniques in medicine and surgery.<ref>[http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/bloodless/blood_step1.html University of Pennsylvania article]</ref> A number of medical professionals have credited Jehovah's Witnesses and their related organizations for their contribution to the dissemination of information regarding [[bloodless surgery]] techniques.<ref>[http://www.jw-media.org/region/global/english/releases/health/021118.htm] Article from Jehovah's Witnesses official website</ref><ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12466831 MSNBC article on Jehovah's Witnesses and bloodless surgery]</ref> Experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies.<ref>{{cite book|title=Transfusion-Free Medicine and Surgery|author=Nicolas Jabbour|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1405121599&id=-kQ6Mbe25Y4C&pg=PP4&lpg=PP4&sig=2hmfw36wQvczkLQEixH3gBs8qQ0|pages=15-22}}</ref>
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== Demographics ==
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+
Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in 239 countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any particular nation. [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], and the [[United States]] are the only countries where the number of active Witness members exceeds half a million. Since the mid-1990s, the number of members actively involved in preaching has increased from 4.5 million to 8.7 million, with almost 120,000 congregations.<ref>[https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/how-many-jw/ How Many of Jehovah’s Witnesses Are There Worldwide?] ''2021 Report''. Retrieved January 12, 2022. </ref><ref> To be counted, an individual must be qualified to share in the preaching work and be active in preaching each month.</ref>
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Witness publications have acknowledged that abiding by this doctrine has led to premature deaths due to blood loss, but there are no published statistics on total deaths.<ref>"In former times thousands of youths died for putting God first. They are still doing it, only today the drama is played out in hospitals and courtrooms, with blood transfusions the issue." {{cite journal|journal=Awake!|title=Youths Who Put God First|date=May 22, 1994|pages=2}}</ref> However, regarding the single patient presentation of pregnancy, a 2002 medical journal stated: "In the CEMD the very high risk of mortality in women who refuse blood transfusion was highlighted. The death rate in this group was 1 per 1,000 maternities compared with an expected incidence of less than 1 per 100,000 maternities."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Khadra et al|journal=BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth|title=A criterion audit of women's awareness of blood transfusion in pregnancy|year=2002|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2393/2/7}} {{cite journal|author=Singla et al|journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology|title=Are women who are Jehovah's Witnesses at risk of maternal death?|url=http://pt.wkhealth.com/pt/re/ajog/abstract.00000447-200110000-00023.htm;jsessionid=FhyFGxnpjGRLVc1mR4zRz6bG7lt2Z3X55qxQlM7y2qXgtHS7nhGJ!380829556!-949856145!8091!-1|date=October 2001}}</ref>
 
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In her article in the ''Journal of Church and State'', Kerry Louderback-Wood alleges that labeling the currently acceptable blood fractions as "minute" in relation to whole blood causes followers to misunderstand the scope and extent of allowed fractions.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Jehovah's Witnesses, Blood Transfusions and the Tort of Misrepresentation|journal=Journal of Church and State|year=2005|volume=47, Number 4|month=Autumn|pages=816}}</ref> She also claims that Witness publications exaggerate the medical risks of taking blood and the efficiency of non-blood medical therapies in critical situations.<ref>Ibid., p. 808: "[The Watchtower Society] builds a case that other doctors wish all surgeons would become bloodless surgeons, when in fact those doctors recognize the benefits of blood transfusions for those who are in desperate need."</ref>
 
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Ethical concerns in managing blood crisis situations in pediatric cases has sometimes led to transfusions being administered to children against family wishes.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Pediatrics and Child Health|title=Medical Emergencies in Children of Orthodox Jehovah's Witness Families|url=http://www.pulsus.com/Paeds/11_10/Pdf/guic_ed.pdf|date=December 2006|pages=655-658}} {{cite journal|journal=Macleans|title=The Sextuplets: Whose Babies Are They?|url=http://elsewhereishere.com/jw/blood/macleansjwblood.pdf|date=February 19, 2007|pages=34-38}}</ref> Some medical ethicists contend that "serious ethical violations are currently used to enforce the blood policy" among Jehovah's Witnesses, including the suppression of dissident views within the religion.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=The Journal of Medical Ethics|title=Medical confidentiality and the protection of Jehovah's Witnesses' autonomous refusal of blood|url=http://jme.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/26/5/381|date=October 1, 2000}} {{cite journal|journal=The Journal of Medical Ethics|title=Refusal of potentially life-saving blood transfusions by Jehovah's Witnesses: should doctors explain that not all JWs think it's religiously required?|url=http://jme.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/26/5/299|date=October 1, 2000}}</ref> Witness leaders have defended these policies as obedience to scripture and religious conscience.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|title=Jehovah's Witnesses' refusal of blood: obedience to scripture and religious conscience|url=http://www.ajwrb.org/jme/jmef.htm|date=December 1999}}</ref>
 
  
 
== Controversy ==
 
== Controversy ==
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{{main|Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses}}
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The [[theology]] of the Jehovah's Witnesses has incurred much controversy. Most of the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from those of mainstream Christianity, and are considered [[heresy]] by most Christian scholars. In contrast, the Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Christian church gradually diverged from the original teachings of [[Jesus]] on several major points.  
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Witnesses teach that after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a [[Great Apostasy]] (2 Thessalonians 2:6-12), from the original teachings of Jesus on several major points. Thus most of the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from those of mainstream Christianity, and are considered [[heresy]] by most mainstream Christian scholars. Possibly the most controversial doctrinal differences relate to the nature of God and of Jesus, particularly the Jehovah's Witnesses' rejection of the [[Trinity]]. In contrast with trinitarian doctrine, they believe that Jesus  was not God in a human body, but rather that he was created by God. The beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses about [[hell]], the immortality of the soul, the [[Second Coming|return of Jesus]] to the earth, and salvation are also controversial.
 
  
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Some scholars have criticized the [[New World Translation]], the translation of the Bible published by Jehovah's Witnesses, stating that the group has changed the Bible to suit their doctrine and that the translation contains a number of errors and inaccuracies.<ref> Robert M. Bowman Jr, ''Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses'', (Grand Rapids MI: Baker Book House, 1992); Samuel Hass: "While this work indicates a great deal of effort and thought, it is to be regretted that religious bias was allowed to colour many passages." (''Journal of Biblical Literature'', December 1955, p. 283).</ref>  
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Some have also criticized the publications produced by the Jehovah's Witnesses, including the ''New World Translation'' of the Bible, which is believed by some scholars to have been unreasonably shaped by the group so as to suit their doctrine.<ref> Robert M. Bowman, Jr., ''Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses'' (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992, ISBN 978-0801009952).</ref> <ref>Randall Watters, ''Thus Saith the governing body of Jehovah's Witnesses'' (Free Minds, 1984).</ref> <ref>Edmond Gruss, ''Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?'' (Longwood, FL: Xulon Press, 2001, ISBN 193123230X). </ref><ref> David A. Reed, (ed.) ''Index of Watchtower Errors, 1879 to 1989'' (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1990, ISBN 978-0801077562). </ref> Critics state that the Watchtower Society has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel" used by God to continually dispense truth.
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Critics have also argued that various Witness policies and practices &mdash; including the treatment of members who dissociate themselves or who have been disfellowshiped by the congregation, limiting of external information about the group from former members, and the regulation of members' lives &mdash; limit the ability of members to exercise personal freedom.
  
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A number of books have been published that are critical of the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society.<ref>e.g., Watters, Randall (2004) Thus Saith Jehovah's Witnesses, Common Sense Publications; Gruss, Edmond (2001) Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?, Xulon Press; Reed, David A. (1990) Index of Watchtower Errors, 1879 to 1989, Baker Books</ref> Critics state that the Watchtower Society has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel"<ref>''Watchtower'', Apr. 1, 1919; see also ''Watchtower'', May 15, 1933, pp. 154–155; Jul. 15, 1960, pp. 438–439; ''Our Kingdom Ministry'', Sep. 2002, p. 8</ref> used by God to continually dispense truth.
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==Notes==
  
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[[Raymond Franz]], a former member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, has challenged the Witnesses' policies on blood transfusions, stating that their requirements are inconsistent and contradictory.<ref> Franz, Raymond. "In Search of Christian Freedom" [http://www.ajwrb.org/misc/ray.htm Chapter Nine]. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 1991. ISBN 0-914675-16-8. p. 732.</ref> However, to Witnesses blood as the fluid ''per se'' is not the real issue, it is what it represents. They say that "the important thing is that respect has been shown for the sanctity of blood, regard has been shown for the principle of the sacredness of life" represented by the blood.<ref>''The Watchtower'' [[November 1]], [[1961]] p. 669 Questions From Readers</ref><ref>''What Does The Bible Really Teach?'' 2005 P.128 </ref> When the blood has been drained from an animal, the '''respect''' has been shown to God and then a person may eat the meat even though it may contain minute traces of blood.
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{{reflist|2}}
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Critics have also argued{{Views needing attribution|date=May 2007}} that various Witness policies and practices &mdash; including the treatment of members who dissociate themselves or who have been disfellowshipped by the congregation, limiting of external information about the group from former members, and the regulation of members' lives &mdash; limit the ability of members to exercise personal freedom. Witnesses teach that "freedom to make decisions [is] to be exercised within the boundaries of God’s laws and principles." <ref> ''Worship the Only True God'' chap. 5 p. 43 par. 4 Freedom Enjoyed by Worshipers of Jehovah </ref> And that “only Jehovah [is] free to set the standard of what is good and bad.”<ref> ''The Watchtower'' June 1 p. 11 par. 7 A Free People but Accountable </ref> However, the leadership promotes itself as the channel God uses<ref>''The Watchtower'' [[September 1]], [[1991]] "Jehovah and Christ - Foremost Communicators" p. 18 par.15</ref> to interpret and instruct members about "what is good and bad".
 
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Some countries such as [[Uzbekistan]], [[Cuba]], [[Belarus]], and the city of [[Moscow]] have opposed the building of facilities (such as [[Kingdom Hall]]s) and the holding of large conventions in their territory. Though such opposition is at times specifically directed at the religious group, at other times more mundane concerns are involved, such as traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, (such as ''Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village)''), disputes that have been about appropriate land use have been claimed by the Witnesses to have come out of religious bias.
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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* Barbour, Nelson H. ''The Three Worlds, and the Harvest of this World''. Rochester, NY: N.H. Barbour and C.T. Russell, 1877. {{OCLC|41016956}}
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{{reflist|2}}
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* Bowman, Jr., Robert M. ''Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses: Why They Read the Bible the Way They Do.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992. ISBN 978-0801009952
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+
* Chryssides, George D. ''Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses''. Scarecrow Press, 2008. ISBN 0810860740
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==Further reading==
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* Franz, Raymond. ''Crisis of Conscience.'' Commentary Press, 2002. ISBN 0914675230
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===Books===
+
* Gruss, Edmond. ''Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?''  Longwood, FL: Xulon Press, 2001. ISBN 193123230X 
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*'''Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses''' by M. James Penton. Penton, who is a former Jehovah's Witness and a professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA3&;lpg=PA3&dq=apocalypse+delayed&prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3Dapocalypse%2Bdelayed%26lr%3D&sig=McaOJ75X4EEbvJHEsbwk4dTYk8o Apocalypse Delayed: the Story of Jehovah's Witnesses] University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
+
* Hesse, Hans (ed.). ''Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime''. Manchester University Press, 2002. ISBN 3861087502
−
*'''The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return''' by Carl O. Jonsson. Jonsson considers the origin of the belief that the Gentile Times began in 607 B.C. and examines several lines of evidence and the methodology for deriving it. ISBN 0-914675-06-0 Publisher: Commentary Press (July, 1998, Fourth edition 2004)
+
* Holden, Andrew. ''Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement.'' London: Routledge, 2002. ISBN 9780415266109
−
*'''Jehovah's Witnesses Defended''' by Greg Stafford. Stafford reviews and thoroughly explores the most common, and/or prevalent, criticisms made about Jehovah's Witnesses and the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society. http://elihubooks.com/books/
+
* Jabbour, Nicolas. ''Transfusion-Free Medicine and Surgery.'' Wiley-Blackwell, 2014. ISBN 978-0470674086
−
* '''Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement''' by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978-0415266109. 224 pages.
+
* Jonsson, Carl O. ''The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return'' Commentary Press, 1998. ISBN 0914675060
−
* '''Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom''' (1993) by [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]]. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses. 750 pages.
+
* Macmillan, Alexander Hugh. ''Faith on the March''. Lulu Publishers, 2010. ISBN 978-0557206711
−
* '''A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation''' by Tony Wills, (2006) 2nd edition. (The first edition was published under the pseudonym Timothy White.) He explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 300 pages. ISBN 978-1-4303-0100-4 Publisher: [http://www.lulu.com/browse/preview.php?fCID=340079 Lulu Press].
+
* Penton, M. James. ''Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0802079732.  
 +
* Reed, David A. (ed.). ''Index of Watchtower Errors, 1879 to 1989.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1990. ISBN 978-0801077562
 +
* Russell, Charles Taze. ''The Finished Mystery''. Wentworth Press, 2019 (original 1917). ISBN 978-0469287839
 +
* Rutherford, J.F. ''Millions now living will never die!'' International Bible Students Association, 1920. {{ASIN|B00086MIMY}}
 +
* Stafford, Greg. ''Jehovah's Witnesses Defended.'' Elihu Books, 2006. ISBN 0965981479
 +
* Watchtower Bible & Tract Society. ''Insights on the Scriptures'' Vols 1 and 2. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1988. {{ASIN|B0012LCK1S}}
 +
* Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. ''Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom.'' Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc., 1993. {{ASIN|B0012ZL9IO}}
 +
* Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. ''Knowledge that leads to Everlasting Life.'' Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, 1995. {{ASIN|B000I146NS}}
 +
* Watters, Randall. ''Thus Saith the governing body of Jehovah's Witnesses.'' Free Minds, 1984. {{ASIN|B0006YKNCU}}
 +
* Wills, Tony. ''A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation.'' Lulu Press, 2006. ISBN 9781430301004
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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===Official websites===
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All links retrieved July 30, 2022.
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* [http://www.watchtower.org Jehovah's Witnesses: Watchtower Society Official Web Site]
 
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* [http://www.jw-media.org/ Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses]
 
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===Other sites===
 
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*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/witnesses/ BBC Religion: Jehovah's Witnesses]
 
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*[http://www.jehovah.to/ Jehovah's Witnesses United] — A collection of scholarly information supporting the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society's teachings and the New World Translation.
 
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*[http://www.knocking.org/ 'Knocking'] - an independently made documentary about Jehovah's Witnesses. [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oj4cS4n9ZkA Sample Trailer]
 
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*[http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/index.html Strictly Genteel Theocratic Resources] — Scans of complete books and booklets from Russell's era to Knorr's. The "site is maintained by one of Jehovah's Witnesses who fully supports the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society." Emphasis is on literature not found in the Watchtower Library CD-ROM.
 
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*[http://www.tookyware.com/wordlists/e/eec/www/index.html Theocratese Glossary] - Glossary of terms used by Jehovah's Witnesses
 
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*[http://www.watchtowerinformationservice.org Watchtower Information Service] - News, articles and discussion on Jehovah's Witnesses and the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society from a critical perspective.
 
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*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2183288529160546808&q=Jehovah Witnesses of Jehovah] - A critical documentary by [[Jeremiah Films]] detailing the history, structure and beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses.
 
  
 +
*[https://www.jw.org/en/ Jehovah's Witnesses] official website
 +
*[https://www.state.gov/international-religious-freedom-or-belief-alliance-statement-on-jehovahs-witnesses/ Statement on Jehovah's Witnesses] ''U.S. Department of State''
 +
*[https://www.christianity.com/church/denominations/10-things-everyone-should-know-about-jehovah-s-witnesses-and-their-beliefs.html 10 Things Everyone Should Know about Jehovah's Witnesses and Their Beliefs] ''Christianity.com''
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[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
  
  
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{{Credit1|Jehovah's_Witnesses|150271273}}

Latest revision as of 01:06, 9 February 2023

The sacred Jewish name for God (YHWH) rendered in Phoenician, Aramaic, and Modern Hebrew scripts. The name is pronounced Jehovah by modern Jehovah's Witnesses.

The Jehovah’s Witnesses are an international religious organization, a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The religion was developed in response to what was perceived to be "compromise and corruption in mainstream Christianity” and it repudiates common Christian doctrines such as the Trinity, hellfire, immortality of the soul, and clergy-laity divisions, interpreting them as illegitimate additions to the original church's teachings.[1]

The name "Jehovah’s Witnesses" is derived from a number of biblical passages in which the disciples of YHWH (pronounced "Jehovah" by the group), considered the personal name of God, are called "Witnesses" (Isaiah 43:10).[2] The community adopted the term "Jehovah's Witnesses" in 1931.

History

Original witnesses of the Bible

According to the beliefs of the Jehovah's Witnesses, their origins can be traced back to the ancient Israelites. The original Jehovah's Witness is said to have been Abel, son of Adam who is proclaimed to be one of "many witnesses" of God in Hebrews 12:1. Important biblical figures including Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph are also referred to as "Witnesses." Ancient Israelites were a nation dedicated to God, and for that reason they too are also called Jehovah's witnesses (Isaiah 43:10).[3]

Did you know?
Jehovah's Witnesses are so named due to their belief that they are the witnesses to the truth about God, whose personal name they believe to be "Jehovah"

Jesus Christ is also called the faithful witness of God in the Bible, as in Revelations 1:5. After his death, early Christians became witnesses of Jesus as well as of God Himself because they experienced firsthand the glory of God (Phil. 2:9-11). In the year 56 C.E., however, it is said that an apostasy occurred among the immediate followers of Christ, and their philosophies began to grow divided (Acts 20:29, 30). After the death of John, the last apostle, this apostasy began to spread rampantly (2 Timothy 2:17). Jehovah's Witnesses believe that at this point, important biblical teachings were dismissed, with Hellenistic philosophy and other heathen teachings corrupting the true vision of Christ. According to Jehovah's witnesses, these apostate Christians went on to form Christendom as it is known today, which exists as a complete corruption of Christ's original teachings.

Modern origins

Charles Taze Russell
Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York

The modern institution of Jehovah's Witnesses can be traced back to the religious movement known as the Bible Students, which was founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell. The group consisted mainly of Russell's friends and family, who came from a variety of religious backgrounds, particularly Second Adventists, a group that arose after the Millerite "Great Disappointment" in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[4] An interest in Bible prophecy was sparked among group members due in no small part to Jonas Wendell, a passionate Adventist preacher. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour, a Millerite Adventist, and subsequently adopted his eschatology, including Barbour's prediction that the visible return of Christ would occur in 1873. However, when that failed to occur, Russell rescheduled the second coming for 1874.[5] Soon after what was apparently Barbour's second disappointment, his group decided Christ had indeed returned to Earth in 1874, although he had come in an invisible form. [6] With this in mind, a gathering of the saints in heaven was expected for 1878, with the year 1914 demarcated as the time of the final end of human governments.[7]

In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour over the concept of substitutionary atonement, and soon began publishing his own magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence (now known simply as The Watchtower). After the break, Russell and his followers retained the bulk of Barbour's eschatological views. They also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of Hell, and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. Charles Taze Russell came to be referred to as "Pastor Russell," and by 1881 had formed the legal entity that would become The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. In 1884, the society was incorporated, with Russell as president. By 1914, Russell's legal entity had extended to the United Kingdom, where he founded the International Bible Students Association.

Schism

Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869-1942)

Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the Watch Tower magazine, as set forth in Russell's Last Will and Testament. On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society to replace Russell. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven members of the society's Board of Directors, due in part to the fact that new by-laws had been passed at the time of Rutherford's election strengthening the President's authority. The June 20, 1917 meeting of the full board of directors tabled, for one month, a proposal to return control of the Society to the board, but Rutherford prevented the board from meeting again.[8] Rutherford, as chief legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society, had written the new by-laws. Initially, the Board of Directors for the Watch Tower Society accepted this change, but four of the board members withdrew their support.

Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 when Russell's book The Finished Mystery (listed as Volume VII of Studies in the Scriptures)[9] was released to the staff of Bethel, which is the name by which the headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses in Brooklyn is known. The book was controversial in its criticism of Catholic and Protestant clergy as well as Christian involvement in war. Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors on May 7, 1918 for violating the Espionage Act. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and all parties were released from prison; the charges were later dropped.

In the aftermath, Rutherford promptly announced to the staff that he was dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.[10] As a result, the four dismissed directors set up the Pastoral Bible Institute and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations of Bible Students worldwide as a result of these events, and also as the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918 (in which God was to destroy all churches)[9] and 1920 (in which widespread anarchy would ensue).[9] Those who remained supportive of the Watchtower Society adopted the name Jehovah's Witnesses in 1931 under Rutherford's leadership, while those against Rutherford formed various Bible Student groups that have retained Russell's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses no longer use the term "Bible Students" in association with their religion.

Rise in membership

The Jehovah's Witnesses began to emphasize their trademark house-to-house preaching in 1922. This followed the 1920 announcement that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year earthly Kingdom.[11] In spite of these efforts, attendance at their yearly Memorial dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925 down to 17,380 in 1928, due to the previous power struggle, the failed predictions for the year 1925,[8] and a number of significant doctrinal changes that alienated those who sided with Russell's views.

On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name – Jehovah's witnesses – based on Isaiah 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me." —which was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods. In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938, introduced what he called a "theocratic" (literally, God-ruled) organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.

From 1932, it was taught that the "little flock" of 144,000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon. Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144,000 "anointed" who would be resurrected—or transferred at death—to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ, a separate class of members, the "great multitude," would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class. By 1933, the year 1914 had been reinterpreted as the beginning of Christ's presence and therefore the start of the "last days" rather than the terminal date in their chronology.

Under Rutherford, the downward trend in membership soon reversed itself, and the movement's membership grew to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942.

Nazi persecution

Adolph Hitler's Nazi Germany persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses. Many followers were imprisoned in concentration camps, bearing purple triangles by which they were identified.[12] Under the Nazi regime:

Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners,' so termed because if they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith.[13]

Reorganization and beyond

Nathan H. Knorr, third president of the Watch Tower Society

Nathan H. Knorr succeeded Rutherford as president of the Watch Tower Society on January 13, 1942. Membership rose from 115,000 to over two million under Knorr's presidency. Knorr also founded the Gilead school to train missionaries, as well as the Theocratic Ministry School to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Several significant Supreme Court victories for Jehovah's Witnesses involving their rights to practice their religion were not only successes for the church, but also had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others. In 1943, for example, the United States Supreme Court ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette that the children of Jehovah's Witnesses attending school could not be compelled to salute the flag along with their schoolmates.

Knorr's vice-president Frederick W. Franz became the most prominent theologian in the history the Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses. Subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams.

During the 1960s and early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and at assemblies to the effect that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign might very well begin by 1975. The chronology pointing to 1975 was well-noted in the secular media at the time.[14] Subsequently, from 1975 to 1980, the years following the failure of this prediction, there was a drop in Jehovah's Witnesses membership.[15] In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975. [16]

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters (and later, also by branch committees). It was announced that, starting in September 2014, appointments would be made by traveling overseers. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body.[17] Since Knorr's death in 1977, the position of president has been occupied by Frederick Franz (1977–1992), and Milton Henschel (1992–2000), both members of the Governing Body, and since 2000 by others who are not Governing Body members.

In 1995, Jehovah's Witnesses abandoned the idea that Armageddon must occur during the lives of the generation that was alive in 1914 and in 2010 changed their teaching on the "generation."[18]

Beliefs and practices

Jehovah and Jesus

Jehovah's Witnesses view God as the creator of the universe and the supreme being within it. Witnesses believe that the proper name of this being is Jehovah, a derivative of the Tetragrammaton, and that its use is a requirement for true worship. Jesus, meanwhile, is believed to literally be the only begotten Son of God, His first creation, and thus is considered an entity independent from God. In this sense, Jehovah's Witnesses reject the notion of Trinity. In contrast to trinitarian doctrine, they believe that the holy spirit is not an entity comparable to God or Jesus but is instead God's "active force." [19]

Jesus' most important theological function for Jehovah's Witnesses is as the sole means by which to approach God in prayer. His role as mediator between human beings and God can only be enjoyed by those individuals going to heaven. Witnesses believe that only Jesus Christ is their leader and that he is head of their Congregation. As such, their leaders must obey him (Heb. 13:7).

While Jesus is still acknowledged by Jehovah's Witnesses as the sole means of salvation for all worthy human beings, he is understood somewhat differently. For example, Witnesses believe that Jesus did not die on a cross, as is traditionally recognized by mainstream Christianity, but instead on a "torture stake."[20] This event is commemorated yearly in an event referred to as "the Memorial," the most important annual event for Jehovah's Witnesses. The Memorial is held after sundown on the day of the year corresponding to Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar.

Scripture

Jehovah's Witnesses employ the Bible as their foremost text, specifically the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. This version extensively uses the name "Jehovah" in place of the Greek word for "Lord" over 200 times in the New Testament in order to refer to God. Frederick Wilhelm Franz is believed to have been the principal translator of this version of the scripture, although this has never been officially confirmed since the translation was intended to remain anonymous.[15]

At the Watch Tower Society's annual meeting on October 5, 2013, a significantly revised translation was released. Referring to the new revision, the publishers stated, "There are now about 10 percent fewer English words in the translation. Some key Biblical terms were revised. Certain chapters were changed to poetic format, and clarifying footnotes were added to the regular edition."[21]

Witnesses consider the entire Biblical canon, excluding the Apocrypha, to be the inspired word of God. They interpret many of the scriptures literally, though it is acknowledged that biblical writers and characters employed symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism. Jehovah's Witnesses hold that the Bible alone should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is considered the exclusive responsibility of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Soteriology

Jehovah's Witnesses expect that their faith will allow them to one day live on a renewed paradise on Earth. Their surviving component will not be a soul, at least not in the traditional sense, since they do not believe in the concept of an immortal immaterial entity that dwells inside the body. Instead, the component that survives after death is claimed to be the individual person as he or she is. Thus, souls of deceased persons who are not immediately resurrected to heaven are considered dead, and death itself is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. Jehovah's witnesses do not believe in any sort of Hell wherein a sinner suffers an eternity of fiery torment. Rather, they designate Hades or Sheol to be the common grave of all humankind.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the eschaton (end times) began in 1914, and that full-fledge Armageddon is imminent. This will commence with the destruction of all false religions, after which point governments will also be annihilated. Any who are not deemed faithful by God will be destroyed at this juncture with no hope of resurrection. The fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, remains to be decided by God. After Armageddon, an unknown number of people who died prior to Armageddon will be resurrected, with the prospect of living forever in paradise.

Family and sexuality

Jehovah's Witnesses believe the ideal family structure is patriarchal, with the husband considered the final authority on all family decisions. The husband is, however, strongly encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings in reaching any given decision. As is typical in Christianity, marriages are required to be monogamous. Premarital sex, Homosexuality and all other variations of intercourse in which the ends are non-procreative, are considered to be sins. [22] Abortion is considered to be murder.[23] In order to preclude the possibility of temptation, modesty is heavily encouraged in dress and grooming for both females and males. Gambling is also strictly forbidden, as it too is considered a hazard to proper family life.[24]

Blood

The Jehovah's Witnesses regard blood as sacred based on an literal interpretation of the Biblical admonition to " abstain from … blood," based on Acts 15:28, 29, and also on Leviticus 17:11, 12, "For the life of the flesh is in the blood … No soul of you shall eat blood." Therefore, Jehovah's Witnesses reject allogeneic and pre-operative autologous transfusions of whole blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma.[25] Despite this prohibition of transfusion, it is left as a personal decision for individual witnesses as to how their own blood will be handled in the course of a medical procedure. Some experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies. [26]

Baptized Witnesses who violate the prohibition on blood were subject to organized communal shunning under Scriptural doctrine. However, a statement issued in 2000 changed this to voluntary revocation of membership, rather than the congregation initiating this step.[27]

Missionary work

Witnesses are known for the vigorous efforts made by members to spread their beliefs throughout the world, primarily by traveling from door to door, visiting the residents of each house in a given community. During these encounters, Witnesses discuss their religion, as well as the nature of religion in general with those who engage them, usually leaving Watchtower publications such as Awake! and The Watchtower for non-members. This missionary work is carried out by Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide, and accordingly, their literature is published in hundreds of languages.

With the advent of digital technology, publications are also available online at the organization's official website.[28] Witnesses use digital tablets to show residents videos and other materials.

Political and cultural views

Since Jehovah's Witnesses firmly believe that their allegiance belongs solely to God's Kingdom (which is viewed as an actual perfected government, of sorts), members abstain from partaking in any observances promoted by the secular state. For example, Witnesses do not salute the flag of any country or sing nationalistic songs, nor do they recognize common celebrations or national holidays such as birthdays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas. They believe that partaking in such observances and celebrations would be tantamount to worshiping false idols, thereby constituting idolatry. Members are still expected to observe the protocols of good citizens, however, obeying all laws and statutes of the country in which they reside so long as these do not violate what they view as God's law. The Jehovah's Witnesses are politically neutral, a sentiment which they express by way of their almost total detachment from secular politics, and their refusal to participate in any sort of military service, even when it is compulsory.

Humanitarian efforts

Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of the Jehovah's Witnesses' mission, although it is secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used within impoverished areas for purposes of rebuilding communities and providing aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members and rebuilding Kingdom Halls, while providing assistance to others in need within the area in which they are working. Examples of relief work include help provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the Rwandan genocide, as well as that given to refugees of the Congo. Witnesses also had an active share in the relief work responding to hurricane Katrina, which crippled the southeastern United States in 2005. Preaching work is considered to be the ultimate form of humanitarian effort, since it gives people a means of hope for the future.

Polity and institutions

Organizational structure

Jehovah's Witnesses are led by a small Governing Body located at the Watchtower headquarters. This Governing Body has established six committees to oversee various aspects of our work, and each member serves on one or more of these committees.[29] These direct the operation of the branches throughout the world. Individual members volunteer to conduct the hands-on operation of these branches. Within each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the congregation's public ministry and schedule various speakers for congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, which require the approval of higher leadership.

Elders are prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling. Ministerial servants generally assist elders in a limited administrative capacity. Both are unpaid positions.[30] Male Witnesses are encouraged to work towards becoming ministerial servants or elders for their congregation. Within local congregations the role of women is minimal in terms of responsibility; they cannot serve as elders or ministerial servants, though they do carry out a significant proportion of the preaching work.

Congregational discipline

Jehovah's Witnesses employ various levels of congregational discipline in the form of controls administered by elders in the congregation. After a substantial accusation of serious wrongdoing is made by or against a baptized member of the congregation, a committee is formed in order to determine their guilt or innocence. Ultimately, this decision is adjudicated by a 'judicial committee' usually composed of three elders. If a member of the congregation is found guilty, a variety of punitive controls can be enforced, such as marking, which is employed when a member persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant excommunication. Alternatively, a shamed member can be given "reproof," in the case of sins which are more serious than those for which one would be "marked," and is given before all who have knowledge of the transgression.

The most severe discipline, administered as a last resort after the aforementioned assistance has failed, is known as disfellowshiping. The main factor determining whether an individual would be disfellowshiped or not is based on whether or not the wrongdoer is showing repentance for his or her actions. Disfellowshiping invariably leads to shunning by the congregation, wherein all congregation members avoid any association with the offending party, a practice which has been criticized by many non-members. Disfellowshiped members are still permitted to attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.[31] If a disassociated or disfellowshiped individual requests reinstatement to the congregation, a Judicial Committee, usually consisting of the elders who sat on the original committee if available, is formed to review the evidence. Once a decision is made to reinstate, a brief announcement is made to the congregation that the disfellowshiped member is once again a Jehovah's Witness.

Publications

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, has produced The Watchtower since 1879 and Awake!. They also publish brochures, tracts, books, Bible maps, and the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. Since January 1, 2000, all publications have been offered free of charge around the world.

With the advent of digital technologies, these publications are now available online. In addition, study materials as well as reports on activities are available in video format to watch online.[28]

Demographics

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in 239 countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any particular nation. Brazil, Mexico, and the United States are the only countries where the number of active Witness members exceeds half a million. Since the mid-1990s, the number of members actively involved in preaching has increased from 4.5 million to 8.7 million, with almost 120,000 congregations.[32][33]

Controversy

The theology of the Jehovah's Witnesses has incurred much controversy. Most of the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from those of mainstream Christianity, and are considered heresy by most Christian scholars. In contrast, the Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Christian church gradually diverged from the original teachings of Jesus on several major points.

Some have also criticized the publications produced by the Jehovah's Witnesses, including the New World Translation of the Bible, which is believed by some scholars to have been unreasonably shaped by the group so as to suit their doctrine.[34] [35] [36][37] Critics state that the Watchtower Society has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel" used by God to continually dispense truth.

Critics have also argued that various Witness policies and practices — including the treatment of members who dissociate themselves or who have been disfellowshiped by the congregation, limiting of external information about the group from former members, and the regulation of members' lives — limit the ability of members to exercise personal freedom.

Notes

  1. ↑ Jolene Chu, God’s things and Caesar’s: Jehovah’s Witnesses and political neutrality Journal of Genocide Research 6(3) (September 2004):319-342. Jolene Chu is a researcher for the Watch Tower Society.
  2. ↑ How Did Jehovah’s Witnesses Get Their Name? Jehovah’s Witnesses. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
  3. ↑ “Jehovah Gathers and Equips His People for Work” in Jehovah’s Witnesses – Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, 1993), 11.
  4. ↑ Zion's Watch Tower, February 1881.
  5. ↑ Nelson H. Barbour, Evidences for the Coming of the Lord in 1873: or the Midnight Cry, 1871. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
  6. ↑ A Conspiracy Exposed Zion's Watch Tower, April 25, 1894.
  7. ↑ Nelson H. Barbour, The Three Worlds, and the Harvest of this World (Rochester, NY: N.H. Barbour and C.T. Russell, 1877).
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0802079732).
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Charles Taze Russell, The Finished Mystery (Wentworth Press, 2019 (original 1917), ISBN 978-0469287839).
  10. ↑ Alexander Hugh Macmillan, Faith on the March (Lulu Publishers, 2010, ISBN 978-0557206711).
  11. ↑ J.F. Rutherford, Millions now living will never die! (International Bible Students Association, 1920).
  12. ↑ Nazi Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved January 13, 2022.
  13. ↑ Hans Hesse (ed.), Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime (Manchester University Press, 2002, ISBN 3861087502).
  14. ↑ Sects: Witnessing the End TIME, July 18, 1969. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience (Commentary Press, 2002, ISBN 0914675230).
  16. ↑ Hold to Your Choice! The Watchtower, March 15, 1980, 17. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  17. ↑ George D. Chryssides, Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses (Scarecrow Press, 2008, ISBN 0810860740).
  18. ↑ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses (University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0802079732).
  19. ↑ Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, Insights on the Scriptures Vols 1 and 2 (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1988).
  20. ↑ The Ransom​—God’s Greatest Gift Jehovah's Witnesses. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  21. ↑ The 2013 Revision of the New World Translation Jehovah’s Witnesses. Retrieved January 13, 2022.
  22. ↑ Young People Ask... What's Wrong With Premarital Sex? Awake!, July 22, 2004. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  23. ↑ Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  24. ↑ Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life. (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1995), 120.
  25. ↑ Blood—Vital for Life Jehovah's Witnesses. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  26. ↑ Nicholas Jabbour, Transfusion-Free Medicine and Surgery (Wiley-Blackwell, 2005, ISBN 978-0470674086), 15-22
  27. ↑ Osamu Muramoto, Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses BMJ 322(7277) (2001): 37–39. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Jehovah's Witnesses. Retrieved January 12, 2022.
  29. ↑ What Is the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses? Jehovah's Witnesses. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  30. ↑ Do Jehovah’s Witnesses Have a Paid Clergy? Jehovah's Witnesses. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  31. ↑ What Disfellowshiping Means Jehovah's Witnesses. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
  32. ↑ How Many of Jehovah’s Witnesses Are There Worldwide? 2021 Report. Retrieved January 12, 2022.
  33. ↑ To be counted, an individual must be qualified to share in the preaching work and be active in preaching each month.
  34. ↑ Robert M. Bowman, Jr., Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992, ISBN 978-0801009952).
  35. ↑ Randall Watters, Thus Saith the governing body of Jehovah's Witnesses (Free Minds, 1984).
  36. ↑ Edmond Gruss, Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show? (Longwood, FL: Xulon Press, 2001, ISBN 193123230X).
  37. ↑ David A. Reed, (ed.) Index of Watchtower Errors, 1879 to 1989 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1990, ISBN 978-0801077562).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Barbour, Nelson H. The Three Worlds, and the Harvest of this World. Rochester, NY: N.H. Barbour and C.T. Russell, 1877. OCLC 41016956
  • Bowman, Jr., Robert M. Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses: Why They Read the Bible the Way They Do. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992. ISBN 978-0801009952
  • Chryssides, George D. Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses. Scarecrow Press, 2008. ISBN 0810860740
  • Franz, Raymond. Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press, 2002. ISBN 0914675230
  • Gruss, Edmond. Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show? Longwood, FL: Xulon Press, 2001. ISBN 193123230X
  • Hesse, Hans (ed.). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime. Manchester University Press, 2002. ISBN 3861087502
  • Holden, Andrew. Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. London: Routledge, 2002. ISBN 9780415266109
  • Jabbour, Nicolas. Transfusion-Free Medicine and Surgery. Wiley-Blackwell, 2014. ISBN 978-0470674086
  • Jonsson, Carl O. The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return Commentary Press, 1998. ISBN 0914675060
  • Macmillan, Alexander Hugh. Faith on the March. Lulu Publishers, 2010. ISBN 978-0557206711
  • Penton, M. James. Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0802079732.
  • Reed, David A. (ed.). Index of Watchtower Errors, 1879 to 1989. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1990. ISBN 978-0801077562
  • Russell, Charles Taze. The Finished Mystery. Wentworth Press, 2019 (original 1917). ISBN 978-0469287839
  • Rutherford, J.F. Millions now living will never die! International Bible Students Association, 1920. ASIN B00086MIMY
  • Stafford, Greg. Jehovah's Witnesses Defended. Elihu Books, 2006. ISBN 0965981479
  • Watchtower Bible & Tract Society. Insights on the Scriptures Vols 1 and 2. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1988. ASIN B0012LCK1S
  • Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc., 1993. ASIN B0012ZL9IO
  • Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. Knowledge that leads to Everlasting Life. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, 1995. ASIN B000I146NS
  • Watters, Randall. Thus Saith the governing body of Jehovah's Witnesses. Free Minds, 1984. ASIN B0006YKNCU
  • Wills, Tony. A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation. Lulu Press, 2006. ISBN 9781430301004

External links

All links retrieved July 30, 2022.


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