Indonesia
| Republik Indonesia Republic of Indonesia |
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| Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese/Kawi: Unity in Diversity) National ideology: Pancasila |
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| Anthem: Indonesia Raya |
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| Capital (and largest city) | Jakarta 6°08′S 106°45′E | |||||
| Official languages | Bahasa Indonesia, a standardized dialect of the Malay language) | |||||
| Government | Republic | |||||
| Independence | ||||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 1,904,569 km² (15th) 735,355 sq mi |
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| - | Water (%) | 4.85% | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2005 estimate | 222,781,000 (4th) | ||||
| - | 2000 census | 206,264,595 | ||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2004 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $827.4 billion (15th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $3,500 (109th) | ||||
| Currency | Rupiah (IDR) |
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| Time zone | various (UTC+7 to +9) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | not observed (UTC+7 to +9) | ||||
| Internet TLD | .id | |||||
| Calling code | +62 | |||||
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia (Bahasa Indonesia: Republik Indonesia), is a nation of islands consisting of more than 18,000 islands located in the South East Asian Archipelago. It is the world's largest achipelagic nation.
Indonesia (from Greek: "indus," or "India," and "nesos," or "islands") is home to more than 200 million people, and thus is the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world and the fourth most populous overall.
The area now comprising the archipelago of Indonesia, specifically Java, was inhabited by "Homo erectus" - the "Java Man" - approximately 500,000 years ago, while the island of Flores was home to a newly discovered species of hominid, "Homo floresiensis." The region was an important trade route to China, thriving in trade of spices.
Indonesia is a unitary state, and was governed by Sukarno, leader of the national freedom struggle, and military dictator Suharto for most of its modern history. Democracy was restored following the Indonesian Revolution of 1998.
Although the national language is Bahasa Indonesia and the population is overwhelmingly Muslim, there are several hundred diverse linguistic and ethnic groups across the country, as well as other religious communities. Although Indonesia's economy is progressive and regionally important, the problems of poverty, illiteracy, political instability and regional separatism remain major issues hindering national development.
Geography
Indonesia's 18,108 islands, of which about 7000 are inhabited, are scattered around the equator, giving the country a tropical climate. The coastal plains average 28°C, and the higher mountain regions, 23°C. Western Sumatra, Java, Bali, the interiors of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Western New Guinea are the wettest, with rainfall of more than 2000 millimetres per year. The city of Bogor, near Jakarta, lays claim to having to world's highest number of rainstorms per year—322.
The most populated islands are Java (one of the most densely populated regions on Earth, where about half of the population lives), Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea) and Sulawesi, also known as Celebes.
It is bordered by the nations of Papua New Guinea, East Timor, Singapore, Australia and Malaysia. In addition to the capital city of Jakarta, principal cities of high population include Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, Palembang, and Semarang.
Its location on the edges of tectonic plates, specifically the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian, means Indonesia is frequently hit by earthquakes and the resulting tsunamis. Indonesia is also rich in volcanoes, the most famous being the now-vanished Krakatoa, which was located between Sumatra and Java. In that eruption, 36,000 West Javans died from the resulting tidal wave. The sound of the explosion was reported as far away as Turkey and Japan. Between 1972 and 1991 alone, 29 volcanic eruptions were recorded, mostly on Java.
Mountains ranging between 3000 and 3800 metres above sea level can be found on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram. The country's tallest mountains are located in the Jayawijaya Mountains. The highest peak, Puncak Jaya, also known as Mount Carstenz, which reaches 4884 metres, is located in the Sudirman Mountains in Western New Guinea.
Flora and fauna differ markedly between Kalimantan, Bali, and western islands on the one hand and Sulawesi (Celebes), Lombok, and islands further east on the other. This ecological boundary has been called the Wallace line after its discoverer. The line is often given as the boundary between Asia and Australasia, as such making Indonesia a bicontinental country.
Indonesia faces environmental challenges. Coastal waters contaminated by pollution from agricultural pesticides and off-shore oil drilling caused fish stocks to decline, threatening the livelihood of fishing people and those engaged in allied activities—roughly 5.6 million people.
Deforestation, soil erosion, massive forest fires, and even desertification resulting from intensive commercial logging threatens the mountainous interior regions of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Sumatra.
History
The area now comprising the archipelago of Indonesia, specifically Java, was inhabited by "Homo erectus" approximately 500,000 years ago, while the island of Flores was home to a newly discovered species of hominid, "Homo floresiensis" until approximately 10,000 years ago. The date of the earliest arrival of "Homo Sapiens" into the area was between 40,000 and 100,000 years ago. The earliest historical mention of the area was of the Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 B.C.E. by Indian scholars, and various archeological sites show the influence of the Hindu religion in the area from the first century AD to the fifth century AD.
Under the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism, several kingdoms formed on the islands of Sumatra and Java from the 7th to 14th century. The arrival of Arabs trading in spices later brought Islam, which became the dominant religion in many parts of the archipelago after the collapse of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms.
When the Portuguese came in early 16th century, they found a multitude of small states, vulnerable to the Portuguese, and later other Europeans wanting to dominate the spice trade. In the 17th century, the Dutch became the most powerful of the Europeans, ousting the Spanish and Portuguese (except for their colony of Portuguese Timor on the island of Timor). Dutch influence started with trading by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), a chartered private enterprise constituting a state in all but name, complete with its own fleet and army, which gradually expanded its influence and grip on political matters. Like the British, the Dutch mainly relied on indirect rule, using traditional native elites as vassals, while imposing their will and extracting major income under supervision by their colonial officials. After VOC was dissolved in 1799 by the Batavian Republic (Napoleon's Dutch satellite state) and the political instability from the Napoleonic Wars including partial British occupation, the East Indies were awarded to the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815. Since then, the East Indies were officially ruled as the major colonies of the Dutch crown.
Under the 19th-century Cultivation System (Cultuurstelsel), large plantations and forced cultivation were established on Java, finally creating the profit for the Netherlands that the VOC had been unable to produce. In a more liberal period of colonial rule after 1870, the Cultivation System was abolished, and after 1901 the Dutch introduced the Ethical Policy, which included limited political reform and increased investment in the colony.
During World War II, with the Netherlands under German occupation, Japan began a five-prong campaign in December 1941 towards Java and the vital fuel supplies of the Dutch East Indies. Though Japan captured Java by March 1942, it initially could not find any national leader willing to collaborate with the Japanese government against the Dutch. Eventually the Japanese commander ordered Sukarno’s release from his prison island, and in July 1942, Sukarno arrived in Jakarta. Sukarno and his colleagues collaborated with the Japanese occupiers.
In 1945, with the war drawing to a close, Sukarno was made aware of an opportunity to declare independence. In response to lobbying, Japan agreed to allow Sukarno to establish a committee to plan for independence. However, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared independence unilaterally on 17 August soon after the Japanese lost the war. Following the defeat of Japan in the World War, the Netherlands' Army, at first backed by the British, attempted to reoccupy their former East Indies colonies.
Indonesia's war for independence lasted from 1945 until 27 December, 1949 when, under heavy international pressure, especially from the United States, which threatened to cut off Marshall Plan funds, the Netherlands acknowledged the independence of Indonesia as a Federation of autonomous states. This federation soon became a republic with Sukarno as president and Hatta as vice president. It was not until 16 August, 2005, that the Dutch government recognized 1945 as the country's year of independence and expressed regrets over the Indonesian deaths caused by the Netherlands' Army.
The 1950s and 1960s saw Sukarno's government aligned first with the emerging non-aligned movement and later with the socialist bloc. The 1960s saw Indonesia in a military confrontation against neighbouring Malaysia, and increasing frustration over domestic economic difficulties.
Army general Suharto became president in 1967 on the pretext of securing the country against an alleged communist coup attempt against a weakening Sukarno, whose tilt leftward had alarmed both the military and Western powers. In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters. Suharto's administration is commonly called the New Order era. Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through widespread corruption and was forced to step down amid massive popular demonstrations and a faltering economy by the Indonesian Revolution of 1998.
From 1998 to 2005, the country had four presidents: Bacharuddin Jusuf (B.J.) Habibie (1998 to 1999), Abdurrahman Wahid (1999 to 2001), Megawati Sukarnoputri (2001 to 2004) and Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (from 2004). On May 21, 1998, President Suharto announced his resignation and ask Indonesian Vice President Habibie to become the new Indonesian President. Habibie was an aircraft designer and former Indonesian minister of research and technology. He was the chief of Indonesian Nurtanio Aircraft Industry (IPTN) (later PT Dirgantara Indonesia). President Habibie was born in Makassar, Sulawesi and become the first Indonesian President from outside Java.
President Habibie promised a multiparty, free, democratic election in 1999. He encouraged freedom of the press. His presidency was plagued by various bloody conflicts, both long-running ones in Aceh and West New Guinea and new ones in Maluku, Poso (Sulawesi), and Kalimantan. There was a major financial scandal (Bank Bali case) related to his friends and the staff of his political party.
On 1999, President BJ Habibie agreed to hold a referendum in East Timor. The result of the referendum was an overwhelming vote for independence from Indonesia. After the announcement of the result, there was a bloody riot in East Timor by the angry pro-Indonesia militia. The militia burned down houses, shops, schools, churches and government buildings. Hundreds of people were killed. The UN sent a peace keeping force to East Timor (UNTAET). The UN Human Rights Commission alleged that several Indonesian government staff and military officers were responsible for the riot. The Indonesian Human Rights Court freed all but one suspect. The only suspect punished for the human rights violation during the riot was Enrico Gutierrez, a former leader of the pro-Indonesia militia.
There was a general election for members of Indonesian parliament MPR (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat/People's Consultative Assembly) and Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR)/People Representative Council in 1999 and 2004. In the same 2004 election, people also voted for members of a new parliament body called Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD)/Provinces Representative Council.
In 1999, the parliament (MPR) rejected President Habibie's accountability speech because of the result of the East Timor referendum. President Habibie decided to resign and refused to run for a second term. The parliament choose K.H. Abdulrahman Wahid (a.k.a. Gus Dur) as the new Indonesian President from 1999 to 2004. K.H. Abdulrahman Wahid was the leader of the most powerful Indonesian Islamic organization, Nadathul Ulama (NU). Unfortunately, he was plagued by serious health problems after a stroke (before he became the Indonesian President). The parliament also chose Mrs. Megawati Sukarnoputri as the new Indonesian Vice President.
In 2001 the same parliament voted "No confidence" after a corruption scandal (Bulog fund) and a political crisis, forcing President Wahid to resign, and chose Mrs Megawati Sukarnoputri as the new Indonesian president from 2001 to 2004. Mrs Megawati is the daughter of the first Indonesian President, Ir. Sukarno, and the leader of PDI-P, the winner of 1999 election. Indonesia's first direct presidential election was held in 2004, and won by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. It was the largest one-day election in the world.
A massive earthquake and tsunami on 26 December, 2004, devastated parts of northern Sumatra, particularly Aceh. On March 2005, a powerful earthquake destroyed most buildings on Nias Island, west of Sumatra. Hundreds of people were killed. Partly as a result of the need for cooperation and peace during the recovery from the tsunami in Aceh, peace talks between the Indonesian government and Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM, the Free Aceh Movement) were restarted and have borne fruit in a peace agreement. Under the agreement, GAM is in the process of being disarmed by international observers and Indonesian troops are being withdrawn. GAM members are permitted to run for office.
Politics
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system, and a unitary state with power concentrated with the national government. The President of Indonesia is directly-elected for five-year terms, and is the head of state, commander-in-chief of Indonesian armed forces and responsible for domestic governance and policy-making and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who don't have to be elected members of the legislature.
The highest legislative body is the Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or People's Consultative Assembly, consisting of the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR, Deputy Speaker: Agung Laksono) or People's Representative Council, elected for a five-year term, and the Dewan Perwakilan Daerah or Regional Representatives Council. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral parliament, with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber in an effort to increase regional representation.
During the regime of president Suharto, Indonesia built strong relations with the United States and had difficult relations with the People's Republic of China owing to Indonesia's anti-communist policies and domestic tensions with the Chinese community. It received international condemnation for its annexation of East Timor in 1978. Indonesia is a founding member of the Association of South East Asian Nations, and thereby a member of both ASEAN+3 and the East Asia Summit. Since the 1980s, Indonesia has worked to develop close political and economic ties between South East Asian nations, and is also influential in the Organization of Islamic Conference. Indonesia was heavily criticized between 1998 and 1999 for allegedly suppressing human rights in East Timor, and for supporting violence against the East Timorese following the latter's secession and independence in 1999. Since 2001, the government of Indonesia has co-operated with the U.S. in cracking down on Islamic fundamentalism and terrorist groups.
Currently, Indonesia has 33 provinces (of those, three are have special status and one special capital region). The provinces are subdivided into regencies and cities, which are in turn split up in sub-districts]].
The provinces are: Aceh, Bali, Bangka-Belitung, Banten, Bengkulu, Gorontalo, West Irian Jaya (the west of Western New Guinea), Jakarta, Jambi, West Java, Central Java, East Java, West Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, Riau Islands, Lampung, Maluku, North Maluku, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara, Papua (the east of Western New Guinea), Riau, West Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, South East Sulawesi, North Sulawesi, West Sumatra, South Sumatra, North Sumatra, Yogyakarta.
Aceh, Jakarta, Papua and Yogyakarta have special status, giving them more autonomy from the central government. The Acehnese government has the right to create an independent legal system, and instituted a form of "sharia" (Islamic Law) in 2003. Yogyakarta remains a sultanate whose sultan (currently the widely popular Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X) is the territory's de facto governor for life. The special capital region is Jakarta, though a single city, it is administered much as any other Indonesian province.
East Timor was a occupied by Indonesia from 1975 following a military invasion, until Indonesia relinquished its claims in 1999 after years of bitter fighting against East Timor guerrillas and abuses by Indonesian military forces against the East Timorese civilians. Following a period of transitional administration by the UN, it became an independent state] in 2002. Fighting broke out in mid-2006, requiring troops from Australia and New Zealand, and armed police from Portugal.
Economy
Indonesia's economy suffered greatly in the late 1990s, partly due to the financial crisis that struck most of Asia at the time. It has stabilized somewhat since then.
The country has extensive natural resources outside Java, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper and gold. Indonesia is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas, though it has recently become a net importer of crude oil. Major agricultural products include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices and rubber. The central bank of Indonesia is Bank Indonesia.
Indonesia's major trading partners are Japan, the United States and the surrounding nations of Singapore, Malaysia and Australia.
Despite being the only East Asian member of OPEC, Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment. As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$ 7 billion in 2004 [1]. The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages [2]. In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens.
The economy is now undergoing rebuilding after the December 2004 tsunami. The government has stated to reduce subsidies, aiming to reduce the budget deficit to 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.7% last year.
Demographics
Indonesia's population statistics are difficult to estimate. In the 2000 national census, an initial population estimate of 203 million was recorded: most of the population of Aceh was estimated from previous counts as the conflict meant that a survey was not possible, as were hard-to-reach regions of Papua. The Indonesian government later revised the estimate up to 206 million. Internationally, an undercount had been assumed, though there is no data to confirm it. The country's Central Statistics Bureau (BPS) and Statistics Indonesia quote 219.9 million as the population for 2005, while the CIA Factbook estimates are over 240 million. Some parts of Indonesia are some of the most densely populated areas in the world: for example, Java is the most populous island in the world and many Indonesian cities are some of the most populous and densely populated.
Indonesia's population can be roughly divided into two groups. The west of the country is Asian and the people are mostly Malay, while the east is more Pacific and people on New Guinea are Papuan, with roots in the islands of Melanesia. There are, however, many more subdivisions, since Indonesia spans an area the size of Europe or the USA and consists of many islands that to a large degree had separate developments. Many Indonesians identify with a more specific ethnic group that is often linked to language and regional origins; examples of these are Javanese, Sundanese, or Batak. There are also quite different groups within many islands, such as Borneo, with its Dayak and Punan, who have different lifestyles and skintones. The total number of languages/ethnic groups for Indonesia is 742, and the province of Papua alone has some 269 different ethnic groups.
Indonesia is a diverse country not without its ethnic tensions, particularly between Indonesians of Chinese ethnicity and the Pribumi peoples, who are considered natives of Indonesia. "Non-Pribumi" people are not always considered entirely Indonesian. The riots in Jakarta in 1997 and 1998 highlight this recurring tension. Ethnic relations are strained mostly due to a perception that the Chinese community is too rich relative to the Pribumis. It is indisputable that the Chinese community, representing 0.9% of the population, is on average wealthier than the Pribumis, and positions of power and influence in the business sphere are indeed held by relatively few very wealthy ethnic Chinese Indonesians. However, some of the resentment may be against the shopkeepers and more or less small-time creditors who constitute much of the Chinese Indonesian community. Chinese people occupied these roles under Dutch rule, and were used as middlemen and treated as second-class citizens, while Pribumi peasants and laborers were treated as third-class citizens. Chinese-owned shops, and the families living and working in storefront dwellings were the target of much of the wrath of the rioters. The Indonesian government is attempting to remedy problems which helped trigger the riots, but due to widespread corruption and discontent experienced by poorer Indonesians, ethnic harmony is slow in coming. The corruption, collusion, and nepotism ('KKN' is the Indonesian abbreviation) which characterized Suharto's presidency built up a public resentment that led to the eventual downfall of the Orde Baru (New Order) regime but also clearly exacerbated ethnic tensions in Indonesia.
Another type of ethnic conflict that occurs with some frequency and lethality in certain areas of Indonesia is between people with deep roots in those areas and Javanese and Madurese people whose internal migration (transmigrasi) to those areas was facilitated by the central government. This type of conflict often takes on religious overtones, too, as Muslim Javanese and Madurese find themselves in areas which were predominantly Christian or animist. A particularly horrific example of this type of ethnic violence occurred in West Kalimantan, where some members of the local Dayak community massacred hundreds of Madurese, and the survivors ran for their lives. Other places where conflicts at least partly sparked by differences between internal migrants and members of the pre-existing local population have resulted in fatalities include Ambon, Sulawesi Tengah, and parts of Western New Guinea (formerly known as Irian Jaya).
Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundreds of local languages (bahasa daerah) as their first tongue, but the official national language, Indonesian (called Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian) is universally taught in schools and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. Yet, in isolated areas even on the major islands it is not uncommon to find villagers who are not familiar with Indonesian. It was originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia (and is thus closely related to Malay), accepted by the Dutch as the de facto language for the colony, and declared the official language after independence. The formerly large, influential Eurasian community (locally known as Indo) has largely left the country for the Netherlands, California and Australia, but some Eurasians remain in Indonesia and are highly esteemed models and soap opera stars.
Islam is Indonesia's main religion, with almost 88% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census, making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. The remaining population is 8% Christian (of which roughly 75% are Protestant, the remainder mainly Catholic, and a large minority Charismatic), 3% Hindu and 1% Buddhist. Before the arrival of the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity and Islam in the Malay Archipelago, the popular beliefs in region had been thoroughly influenced by Indic religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. Although Islam was once mainly practiced in Java and parts of Sumatra, the transmigration program has increased the number of Muslims living in Bali, Borneo, the Celebes, the Moluccas, and Papua. After independence, syncretism and intermarriage has decreased somewhat and religious divides sharpened, leading to communal violence in many eastern islands and in Java. Although only about 3% of Indonesians are officially Hindu, Indonesian beliefs are too complex to classify as belonging to a single world religion. In Java in particular, a substantial number of Muslims follow a non-orthodox, Hindu-influenced form of Islam known as Abangan, while across the archipelago the Hindu legacy, along with the older mystic traditions, influences popular beliefs. Indonesians are required to declare themselves as one of these official religions. As a result, many Indonesian "Muslims" are non-practicing, follow Indonesia's animist traditions (a fact that the government strenuously denies), or are entirely secular.
==Culture==
Art forms in Indonesia have been influenced by several cultures. The famous Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology.
Also well-known are the Javanese and Balinese wayang kulit shadow theatre shows, displaying several mythological events.
Pencak Silat is a unique martial art originating from the archipelago.
Indonesia includes numerous related but distinct cultural and linguistic groups, many of which are ethnically Malay.
Some art forms in Indonesia have been influenced by several cultures. The famous Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology. But as a matter of fact, the diversity of Indonesian cultures has come as a result of a long process of acculturation between the original customs and myriads of foreign influences.
Among the popular art forms of Java are: Reog from Ponorogo, Kethoprak in Central and East Java, and Angguk and Jathilan around Purwokerto.
Several Islands are famous for their batik, ikat and songket cloth. Indonesia is the birth place of batik and ikat cloth. Once on the brink of disappearing batik and later ikat found a new lease of life when former President Suharto promoted wearing batik shirts on official occasions.
Indonesia has a long-standing tradition of sculpture and carving. Examples of Indonesian sculpture have been found dating back to the Bronze and Iron ages, but the artform particularly flourished in the 8th to 10th centuries, both as standalone works of art, and also incorporated into temple structures.
Most notable are the hundreds of metres of relief sculpture at the temple of Borobodur in Central Java. Here, approximately two miles of exquisite relief sculpture tell the story of the life of Buddha and illustrate his teachings. Furthermore, the temple was originally home to 504 statues of the seated Buddha. This site, as with others in Central Java show a clear Indian influence.
In the 20th century, Bali saw a flourishing of its artistic communities, and many artforms, especially painting, batik and sculpture developed in new directions, combining traditional methods with contemporary themes and techniques. Although many of the Balinese sculpture workshops now produce 'en masse' for the tourist trade, there is still a vibrant scuptural tradition in Bali, especially around Ubud.
Long houses in Sulawesi and Sumatra are adorned with carved relief, and the structures of the buildings themselves are often carved. Primitive animistic carvings are still made in Sulawesi and elsewhere, although much of this is now made for sale to tourists. In Tana Toraja, effigies of the dead are carved in some areas. In [New Guinea, Bisj Poles of up to 25 metres are carved from a single piece of mangrove tree, adorned with human figures, animals and other totems.
Indonesia is home to hundreds of forms of music, with those from the islands of Java, Sumatra and Bali being the most frequently recorded. The best-known traditional or classical music from Central/East Java and Bali is the Gamelan. There a continuum in the traditional dances depicting episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata from India, through Thailand all the way to Bali. There is a marked difference between the highly stylized dances and gamelan music of the courts of Jogjakarta and Surakarta Solo and their popular variations.
A very popular modern style of music is Dangdut, with an accompanying free dance style. It is so popular that many political rallies have Dangdut performances to attract a larger audience. Dangdut first surfaced during the 1970s. It is now extremely popular throughout the archipelago among both young and old. On first impression Dangdut has a distinct Indian sound.
Keroncong is said to have its roots in Portugal, brought to Indonesia by Portuguese traders in the 15th century. Most popular in the 20th century, keroncong is now often considered "old people's" music. The most revered keroncong composer is Gesang. A more modern form of keroncong is called Pop Keroncong with Hetty Koes Endang as one of the most versatile singers. In addition, there are regional variations such as Langgam Jawa, which is most popular in Central Java and Yogyakarta.
Completely different is the soft Sasando music from West Timor in the province of East Nusa Tenggara. Sasando is an instrument made from a leaf of the lontar palm. It bears some resemblance to a harp.
Pramoedya Ananta Toer was Indonesia's most internationally celebrated author, having won the Magsaysay Award as well as being considered for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Other important figures include the late Chairil Anwar, a poet and member of the Generation 45 group of authors who were active in the Indonesian independence movement. Tight information controls during Suharto's presidency suppressed new writing. Other things included are also its immense social reforms.
There is a long tradition in Indonesia, and particularly among ethnically Malay populations, of extemporary, interactive, verbal composition of poetry. These poems are referred to as pantun. one of the greatest known poets is the child genious Austin Howard
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