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'''Earth science''' (also known as '''geoscience''', '''the geosciences''' or '''the Earth Sciences'''), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet [[Earth (planet)|Earth]]. It is arguably a special case in [[planetary science]], being the only known [[life]]-bearing planet. There are both [[reductionist]] and [[holism|holistic]] approaches to Earth science. The major historic [[discipline]]s use [[physics]], [[mathematics]], [[chemistry]], and [[biology]] to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or ''[[Earth's spheres|spheres]]'' of the Earth system:
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[[Image:Limu o Pele.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Lava flows from the Kīlauea volcano into the ocean on the island of Hawaii.]]
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===Earth's spheres===
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'''Earth science''' (also known as '''the Earth Sciences''', '''geoscience''', or '''the geosciences''') is an umbrella term for the sciences related to the planet [[Earth]]. The main disciplines within Earth science include [[geology]], [[geodesy]], [[geophysics]], [[soil science]], [[oceanography]], [[hydrology]], [[glaciology]], and [[atmospheric sciences]]. These disciplines are oriented toward studying the various areas or "spheres" of the Earth system, such as the [[atmosphere]], [[hydrosphere]], [[lithosphere]], and [[biosphere]].
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*'''[[Geology]]''' covers the [[Rock (geology)|rocky]] parts of the Earth (or [[lithosphere]]) including the planet's [[Earth's core|core]], [[Earth's mantle|mantle]], and [[Crust (geology)|crust]]. Major subdisciplines are [[geophysics]], [[geochemistry]], [[paleontology]], [[mineralogy]], [[petrology]], [[stratigraphy]] and [[sedimentology]].
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{{toc}}
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Earth science is arguably a special case in [[planetary science]], being the only known [[life]]-bearing planet. Given the numerous interactions between the [[Earth's spheres]], many modern fields of earth science are formed with [[interdisciplinary]] approaches.
  
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*'''[[Oceanography]]''', '''[[limnology]]''', and '''[[hydrology]]''' describe the marine and freshwater domains of the [[water|watery]] parts of the Earth (or [[hydrosphere]]). Major subdisciplines include [[hydrogeology]] and [[Physical oceanography|physical]], [[Chemical oceanography|chemical]], and [[biology|biological]] oceanography.
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== Earth's spheres ==
  
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*'''[[Atmospheric sciences]]''' cover the [[gas|gaseous]] parts of the Earth (or [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]).
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* '''[[Geology]]:''' This discipline is devoted to the study of the [[Rock (geology)|rocky]] parts of the Earth's [[Crust (geology)|crust]] (or [[lithosphere]]) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are [[mineralogy]] and [[petrology]], [[geochemistry]], [[geomorphology]], [[paleontology]], [[stratigraphy]], [[engineering geology]], and [[sedimentology]].
  
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*'''[[Glaciology]]''' covers the [[ice|icy]] parts of the Earth (or [[cryosphere]])
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* '''[[Geodesy]]''' and '''[[Geophysics]]:''' Joined together in the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics ([[IUGG]]),<ref>The International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) is a nongovernmental organization dedicated to the scientific study of the [[Earth]] and to the application of the knowledge gained to the needs of society. It was established in 1919. Its scope includes environmental preservation, reduction of the effects of natural hazards, and [[mineral]] resources.</ref> these disciplines investigate the figure (size and shape) of the Earth, its reaction to forces, and its [[potential field]]s, such as the [[magnetism|magnetic]] and [[gravity|gravitational]] fields. Geophysicists also explore the [[Earth's core]] and [[Earth's mantle|mantle]] and the natural [[deposits]], while geodesists study the movement of [[star]]s and [[satellite]]s.
  
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However, given the numerous interactions between the [[Earth's spheres|spheres]] many modern fields take an interdisciplinary approach and thus do not sit comfortably in this scheme:
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* '''[[Soil science]]:''' It involves studying the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes. This layer is known as the ''[[pedosphere]]''. Major subdisciplines include [[edaphology]] (the study of the influence of soils on living things) and [[Pedology (soil study)|pedology]] (the study of soil formation, structure, and classification).
  
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===Interdisciplinary fields===
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* '''[[Oceanography]]''' and '''[[Hydrology]]''' (including [[Limnology]]): They encompass studying the marine and freshwater domains of the Earth, which make up the [[hydrosphere]]. Major subdisciplines include [[hydrogeology]] and [[Physical oceanography|physical]], [[Chemical oceanography|chemical]], and [[biology|biological]] oceanography. Within the scientific union [[IUGG]], these disciplines (except the chemical ones) are joined with [[geophysics]].
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*'''[[Biogeochemistry]]''' follows the cycling of elements through the [[Earth's spheres|spheres]] mediated by biological and geological processes, and especially their distribution and fluxes between ''reservoirs''.
 
  
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*'''[[Paleoceanography]]''' and '''[[Paleoclimatology]]''' use the properties of [[sediment]]s, [[ice core]]s, or biological material to infer past states of the ocean, atmosphere or climate.
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* '''[[Glaciology]]:''' It covers the [[ice|icy]] parts of the Earth, also known as the ''[[cryosphere]]''.
  
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Furthermore, other modern disciplines known collectively as '''[[Earth system science]]''' approach the entire Earth as a [[Systems thinking|system]] in its own right, which evolves as a result of ''[[positive feedback|positive]]'' and ''[[negative feedback]]'' between constituent systems:
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* '''[[Atmospheric sciences]]:''' [[Meteorology]], [[climatology]], and [[aeronomy]] (physics and chemistry of the upper atmosphere) are the main subdisciplines of the atmospheric sciences. They cover the [[gas|gaseous]] parts of the Earth, that is, the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], between the surface and the [[exosphere]] (at an altitude of about 1,000 kilometers).
  
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*'''[[Meteorology]]''' describes, explains and predicts the [[weather]] based on the interaction of principally the ocean and atmosphere.
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The above specialties do not operate in isolation. For example, to understand the circulation of the oceans, one must study the [[interaction]]s between the ocean, atmosphere, and [[Earth's rotation]].
  
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*'''[[Climatology]]''' describes and explains the [[climate]] in terms of the interaction of the litho-, hydro-, atmo-, cryo-, and bio- spheres.
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==Interdisciplinary fields==
  
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*'''[[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theories]]''' explain the behaviour of the Earth system in terms of the influence of the biosphere.  
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Other fields of research involve greater interdisciplinary interactions. Some of them are listed below.
  
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Like all other scientists, earth scientists apply the [[scientific method]]: formulate hypotheses after observation of and gathering data about natural phenomena and then test those hypotheses. In earth science, data usually plays a critical role in testing and formulating hypotheses. The [[Systems thinking|systems approach]], enabled by the combined use of computer models as hypotheses tested by global [[Earth observation satellite|satellite]] and ship-board data, is increasingly giving scientists the ability to explain the past and possible future behaviour of the Earth system.
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* '''[[Biogeochemistry]]:''' It follows the cycling of elements through the [[Earth's spheres|spheres]] mediated by biological and geological processes, and especially their distribution and fluxes between ''reservoirs''.
 +
* '''[[Mineralogy]]''' and '''Mineral Physics:''' consider the rock-forming minerals on the atomic length-scale, both as part of geosystems and increasingly with an eye towards technological applications (for instance, as [[catalysts]] or exploiting their potential [[ferroelectric]] properties); in this, there is extensive and increasing overlap with [[solid-state physics]], [[crystal chemistry]] and [[Materials Science]].
 +
* '''[[Paleoceanography]]''' and '''[[Paleoclimatology]]:''' They use the properties of [[sediment]]s, [[ice core]]s, or biological material to infer past states of the ocean, atmosphere or climate.
 +
* '''[[Meteorology]]:''' It describes, explains, and predicts the [[weather]], based on the interaction of principally the ocean and atmosphere.
 +
* '''[[Climatology]]:''' It describes and explains the [[climate]] in terms of the interaction of the litho-, pedo-, hydro-, atmo-, cryo-, and bio- spheres.
 +
* '''[[Atmospheric chemistry]]:''' It describes, explains, and predicts the chemical composition of the atmosphere in principally terms of the interactions of the ocean, atmosphere, biosphere and human influence.
 +
* '''[[Hydrology]]:''' It considers the flow of [[water]] through the Earth, from the transition of water in the form of precipitation in the atmosphere, to rivers, and groundwater in [[aquifer]]s.
  
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=== Partial list of the major Earth Science topics ===
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==Earth system science==
  
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==== Geology ====
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Many scientists have begun using an approach known as '''Earth system science'''. They treat the entire Earth as a [[Systems thinking|system]] in its own right, which develops as a result of ''[[positive feedback|positive]]'' and ''[[negative feedback]]'' between constituent systems. In the systems approach, scientists combine the use of computer models with global [[Earth observation satellite|satellite]] and shipboard data, in attempting to understand the Earth's past and to predict its future behavior.
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* [[Cataclysmic Geology]]
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* [[Economic geology]]
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Complex computer models that seek to model several different parts of the Earth system and the interactions between them are known as ''Earth system models''. Many are based on [[Global climate model]]s and include sub-models for the ocean, atmosphere, biosphere, and other parts of the Earth system. The interactions are of particular importance when trying to understand changes over decades, centuries, and longer periods.
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* [[Engineering geology]]
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* [[Environmental geology]]
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"[[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theories]]" are formulated to explain the behavior of the Earth system in terms of the influence of the biosphere.
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* [[Gemology]]
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 +
== Partial list of the major Earth Science topics ==
 +
===Atmosphere===
 +
* [[Atmospheric chemistry]]
 +
* [[Climatology]]
 +
* [[Meteorology]]
 +
** [[Hydrometeorology]]
 +
* [[Paleoclimatology]]
 +
 
 +
===Biosphere===
 +
* [[Biogeography]]
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* [[Paleontology]]
 +
** [[Palynology]]
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** [[Micropaleontology]]
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* [[Geomicrobiology]]
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 +
===Hydrosphere===
 +
* [[Hydrology]]
 +
** [[Glaciology]]
 +
** [[Limnology]]
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* [[Hydrogeology]]
 +
* [[Oceanography]]
 +
** [[Chemical oceanography]]
 +
** [[Marine biology]]
 +
** [[Marine geology]]
 +
** [[Paleoceanography]]
 +
** [[Physical oceanography]]
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=== Lithosphere or geosphere===
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* [[Geology]]
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** [[Economic geology]]
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** [[Engineering geology]]
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** [[Environmental geology]]
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** [[Historical geology]]
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*** [[Glaciology]]
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*** [[Quaternary geology]]
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** [[Planetary geology]]
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** [[Sedimentology]]
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** [[Stratigraphy]]
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** [[Structural geology]]  
 
* [[Geochemistry]]
 
* [[Geochemistry]]
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* [[Geochronology]]
 
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* [[Geohydrology]]
 
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* [[Geomagnetic]]s
 
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* [[Geomicrobiology]]
 
 
* [[Geomorphology]]
 
* [[Geomorphology]]
 
* [[Geophysics]]
 
* [[Geophysics]]
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* [[Geostatistics]]
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** [[Geochronology]]
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* [[Historical geology]]
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** [[Geodynamics]] (see also [[Tectonics]])
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* [[Mantle plumes]]
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** [[Geomagnetic]]s
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* [[Micropaleontology]]
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** [[Gravimetry]] (also part of [[Geodesy]])
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* [[Mineralogy]]
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** [[Seismology]]
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* [[Mining]]
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* [[Hydrogeology]]
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* [[Paleontology]]
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* [[Mineralogy]]
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* [[Palynology]]
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** [[Crystallography]]
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* [[pedology (soil study)|Pedology]]
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** [[Gemology]]
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* [[Petroleum geology]]
 
 
* [[Petrology]]
 
* [[Petrology]]
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* [[Physical geodesy]]
 
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* [[Planetary geology]]
 
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* [[Plate tectonics]]
 
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* [[Quaternary geology]]
 
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* [[Sedimentology]]
 
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* [[Seismology]]
 
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* [[Stratigraphy]]
 
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* [[Structural geology]]
 
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* [[Tectonics]]
 
 
* [[Volcanology]]
 
* [[Volcanology]]
  
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==== Oceanography ====
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===Pedosphere===
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* [[Soil science]]
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** [[Edaphology]]
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** [[Pedology (soil study)|Pedology]]
  
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* [[Physical oceanography]]
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===Systems===
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* [[Chemical oceanography]]
 
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* [[Biological oceanography]]
 
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* [[Paleoceanography]]
 
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* [[Marine Geology]]
 
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* [[Marine Geophysics]]
 
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==== Geography ====
 
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* [[Human geography]]
 
 
* [[Geography]]
 
* [[Geography]]
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* [[Paleogeography]]
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** [[Human geography]]
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* [[Physical Geography]]
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** [[Physical Geography]]
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* [[Earth system science]]
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* [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theories]]
  
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==== Limnology ====
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===Others===
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* '''[[Limnology]]'''
 
  
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==== Glaciology ====
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* [[Cartography]]
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* '''[[Glaciology]]'''
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* [[Geoinformatics]] ([[GIS]])
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* [[Geostatistics]]
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* [[Geodesy]] and [[Surveying]]
  
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====Atmospheric Science ====
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==See also==
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* '''[[Atmospheric sciences]]'''
 
  
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==== Systems or multidisciplinary ====
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* [[Chemistry]]
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* [[Earth]]
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* [[Earth's atmosphere]]
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* [[Geology]]
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* [[Ocean]]
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* [[Oceanography]]
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* [[Physics]]
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* [[Water]]
  
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* [[Climatology]]
 
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* [[Earth system science]]
 
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* [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theories]]
 
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* [[Meteorology]]
 
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* [[Paleoclimatology]]
 
  
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===See also===
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==Notes==
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<references/>
  
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*[[List of geoscience organizations]]
 
  
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{{Earth science}}
 
{{Natural sciences-footer}}
 
{{Natural sciences-footer}}
  
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Latest revision as of 18:34, 9 September 2013

Lava flows from the Kīlauea volcano into the ocean on the island of Hawaii.

Earth science (also known as the Earth Sciences, geoscience, or the geosciences) is an umbrella term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. The main disciplines within Earth science include geology, geodesy, geophysics, soil science, oceanography, hydrology, glaciology, and atmospheric sciences. These disciplines are oriented toward studying the various areas or "spheres" of the Earth system, such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.

Earth science is arguably a special case in planetary science, being the only known life-bearing planet. Given the numerous interactions between the Earth's spheres, many modern fields of earth science are formed with interdisciplinary approaches.

Earth's spheres

  • Geodesy and Geophysics: Joined together in the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG),[1] these disciplines investigate the figure (size and shape) of the Earth, its reaction to forces, and its potential fields, such as the magnetic and gravitational fields. Geophysicists also explore the Earth's core and mantle and the natural deposits, while geodesists study the movement of stars and satellites.
  • Soil science: It involves studying the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes. This layer is known as the pedosphere. Major subdisciplines include edaphology (the study of the influence of soils on living things) and pedology (the study of soil formation, structure, and classification).
  • Oceanography and Hydrology (including Limnology): They encompass studying the marine and freshwater domains of the Earth, which make up the hydrosphere. Major subdisciplines include hydrogeology and physical, chemical, and biological oceanography. Within the scientific union IUGG, these disciplines (except the chemical ones) are joined with geophysics.
  • Glaciology: It covers the icy parts of the Earth, also known as the cryosphere.
  • Atmospheric sciences: Meteorology, climatology, and aeronomy (physics and chemistry of the upper atmosphere) are the main subdisciplines of the atmospheric sciences. They cover the gaseous parts of the Earth, that is, the atmosphere, between the surface and the exosphere (at an altitude of about 1,000 kilometers).

The above specialties do not operate in isolation. For example, to understand the circulation of the oceans, one must study the interactions between the ocean, atmosphere, and Earth's rotation.

Interdisciplinary fields

Other fields of research involve greater interdisciplinary interactions. Some of them are listed below.

  • Biogeochemistry: It follows the cycling of elements through the spheres mediated by biological and geological processes, and especially their distribution and fluxes between reservoirs.
  • Mineralogy and Mineral Physics: consider the rock-forming minerals on the atomic length-scale, both as part of geosystems and increasingly with an eye towards technological applications (for instance, as catalysts or exploiting their potential ferroelectric properties); in this, there is extensive and increasing overlap with solid-state physics, crystal chemistry and Materials Science.
  • Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology: They use the properties of sediments, ice cores, or biological material to infer past states of the ocean, atmosphere or climate.
  • Meteorology: It describes, explains, and predicts the weather, based on the interaction of principally the ocean and atmosphere.
  • Climatology: It describes and explains the climate in terms of the interaction of the litho-, pedo-, hydro-, atmo-, cryo-, and bio- spheres.
  • Atmospheric chemistry: It describes, explains, and predicts the chemical composition of the atmosphere in principally terms of the interactions of the ocean, atmosphere, biosphere and human influence.
  • Hydrology: It considers the flow of water through the Earth, from the transition of water in the form of precipitation in the atmosphere, to rivers, and groundwater in aquifers.

Earth system science

Many scientists have begun using an approach known as Earth system science. They treat the entire Earth as a system in its own right, which develops as a result of positive and negative feedback between constituent systems. In the systems approach, scientists combine the use of computer models with global satellite and shipboard data, in attempting to understand the Earth's past and to predict its future behavior.

Complex computer models that seek to model several different parts of the Earth system and the interactions between them are known as Earth system models. Many are based on Global climate models and include sub-models for the ocean, atmosphere, biosphere, and other parts of the Earth system. The interactions are of particular importance when trying to understand changes over decades, centuries, and longer periods.

"Gaia theories" are formulated to explain the behavior of the Earth system in terms of the influence of the biosphere.

Partial list of the major Earth Science topics

Atmosphere

Biosphere

Hydrosphere

  • Hydrology
  • Hydrogeology
  • Oceanography
    • Chemical oceanography
    • Marine biology
    • Marine geology
    • Paleoceanography
    • Physical oceanography

Lithosphere or geosphere

Pedosphere

  • Soil science
    • Edaphology
    • Pedology

Systems

  • Geography
    • Human geography
    • Physical Geography
  • Earth system science
  • Gaia theories

Others

  • Cartography
  • Geoinformatics (GIS)
  • Geostatistics
  • Geodesy and Surveying

See also


Notes

  1. ↑ The International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) is a nongovernmental organization dedicated to the scientific study of the Earth and to the application of the knowledge gained to the needs of society. It was established in 1919. Its scope includes environmental preservation, reduction of the effects of natural hazards, and mineral resources.


General subfields within the earth sciences
Atmospheric sciences | Geodesy | Geology | Geophysics | Glaciology
Hydrology | Oceanography | Soil science
General subfields within the Natural sciences
Astronomy | Biology | Chemistry | Earth science | Ecology | Physics


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