Dwight D. Eisenhower

Dwight David Eisenhower, 34th President of the USA

Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was an American soldier and politician. As a Republican he was elected the 34th President of the United States (1953–1961). During World War II he served as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe with the rank of General of the Army, and in 1949 he became the first supreme commander of NATO.

Early life and family

Eisenhower with his wife Mamie on the steps of St. Mary's University of San Antonio, Texas, in 1916.

Eisenhower was born in Denison, Texas, the third of seven sons born to David Jacob Eisenhower and Ida Elizabeth Stover, and their only child born in Texas. He was named David Dwight and was called Dwight. Later, the order of his given names was switched (according to the staff at the Eisenhower Library and Museum, the name switch occurred upon Eisenhower's matriculation at West Point). The Eisenhower family is of German descent (Eisenhauer) and came from Germanic Forbach, Lorraine region of France but had lived in America since the 18th century. The family moved to Abilene, Kansas, in 1892. Eisenhower graduated from Abilene High School in 1909.

Eisenhower married Mamie Geneva Doud (1896–1979), of Denver, Colorado, on July 1, 1916. They had two children, Doud Dwight Eisenhower (1917–1921), whose tragic death in childhood haunted the couple, and John Sheldon David Doud Eisenhower (born 1922). John Eisenhower served in the United States Army, then became an author and served as U.S. Ambassador to Belgium. John's son, David Eisenhower, after whom Camp David is named, married Richard Nixon's daughter Julie in 1968.

Early military career

Eisenhower enrolled at the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York, in June 1911 (according to the tour guide for Eisenhower Birthplace State Park, his parents were pacifists but did not object to his entering West Point; they were strong proponents of education and saw this as a means for Eisenhower to gain such).

Eisenhower was a strong athlete, but his football career came to an end after he injured his knee attempting to tackle Jim Thorpe.

Eisenhower graduated in 1915. He served with the infantry until 1918 at various camps in Texas and Georgia. During World War I, Eisenhower became the #3 leader of the new tank corps and rose to Lieutenant Colonel in the National Army. He spent the war training tank crews in Pennsylvania and never saw combat. (In his whole career he never was in field combat.) After the war Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of Captain (and was promoted to Major the next day) before assuming duties at Camp Meade, Maryland, where he remained until 1922. His interest in tank warfare was strengthened by many conversations with George Patton and other senior tank leaders; however their ideas on tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors.

Eisenhower became executive officer to General Fox Conner in the Panama Canal Zone, where he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Karl von Clausewitz's On War). He reported Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking. In 1925-26, he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and then served as a battalion commander at Fort Benning, Georgia, until 1927.

File:EisenhowersatMalecon.jpg

The Eisenhowers by the Malecón in Manila, The Philippines.

During the late 1920s and early 1930s Eisenhower's career in the peacetime Army stagnated; many of his friends resigned for high paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission, directed by General John J. Pershing, then to the Army War College, and then served as executive officer to General George V. Moseley, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to 1933. He then served as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff, until 1935, when he accompanied MacArthur to The Philippines, where he served as assistant military advisor to the Philippine government. This assignment would prove valuable preparation for handling the egos of Winston Churchill, Patton and Bernard Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel in 1936 after sixteen years as a Major.

Eisenhower returned to the U.S. in 1939 and held a series of staff positions in Washington, D.C., California, and Texas. In June 1941, he was appointed Chief of Staff to General Walter Krueger, Commander of the 3rd Army, at Fort Sam Houston, Texas. He was promoted to Brigadier-General in September 1941. Although his administrative abilities had been noticed, on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II he had never held an active command and was far from being considered as a potential commander of major operations.

World War II

After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division, General Leonard T. Gerow, and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Then he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of Operations Division under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall. It was his close association with Marshall which finally brought Eisenhower to senior command positions. Marshall recognized his great organizational and administrative abilities.

In 1942, Eisenhower was appointed Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA) and was based in London. In November, he was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied (Expeditionary) Force of the North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters A(E)FHQ. The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British 8th Army, commanded by General Bernard Montgomery. The 8th Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to be commander of NATOUSA. After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower remained in command of the renamed Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), keeping the operational title and continued in command of NATOUSA redesignated MTOUSA. In this position he oversaw the invasion of Sicily and the invasion of the Italian mainland.

In December 1943, it was announced that Eisenhower would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. In January 1944, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. In these positions he was charged with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of western Europe and the invasion of Germany. A month after the Normandy D-Day on June 6 1944, the invasion of southern France took place, and control of the forces which took part in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. From then until the end of the War in Europe on May 8 1945, Eisenhower through SHAEF had supreme command of all operational Allied forces², and through his command of ETOUSA, administrative command of all U.S. forces, on the Western Front north of the Alps.

As recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He dealt skillfully with difficult subordinates such as Omar Bradley and George Patton and allies such as Winston Churchill, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle. He had fundamental disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He negotiated with Soviet Marshal Zhukov, and such was the confidence that President Franklin D. Roosevelt had in him, he sometimes worked directly with Stalin.

Eisenhower was offered the Medal of Honor for his leadership in the European Theater but refused it, saying that it should be reserved for bravery and valor.

It was never a certainty that Overlord would succeed. The tenuousness surrounding the entire decision including the timing and the location of the Normandy invasion might be summarized by a short speech that Eisenhower wrote in advance, in case he might need it. In it, he took full responsibility for catastrophic failure, should that be the final result. Long after the successful landings on D-Day and the BBC broadcast of Eisenhower's brief speech concerning them, the never-used second speech was found in a shirt pocket by an aide. It read:

"Our landings have failed and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt it is mine alone."

Following the German unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower was appointed Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone, based in Frankfurt-am-Main. Germany was divided into four Occupation Zones, one each for the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. In addition, upon full discovery of the death camps that were part of the Final Solution of the Holocaust, he ordered camera crews to comprehensively document evidence of the atrocity so as to prevent any doubt of its occurrence. He made the controversial decision to reclassify German prisoners of war (POWs) in U.S. custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs). As DEFs, they could be compelled to serve as unpaid conscript labor. An unknown number may have died in custody as a consequence of malnutrition, exposure to the elements, and lack of medical care (see Eisenhower and German POWs). Eisenhower was an early supporter of the Morgenthau Plan. In November 1945 he approved the distribution of one thousand free copies of Morgenthau's book Germany is our problem, which promoted and described the plan in detail, to American military officials in occupied Germany.

Eisenhower served as Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army from 1945-48. In December 1950, he was named Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service on May 31, 1952, upon entering politics. He wrote Crusade in Europe, widely regarded as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs. During this period Eisenhower served as president of Columbia University from 1948 until 1953, though he was on leave from the university while he served as NATO commander.

After his many wartime successes, General Eisenhower returned to the U.S. a great hero. Not long after his return, a "Draft Eisenhower" movement in the Republican party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of isolationist Senator Robert A. Taft. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination but came to an agreement that Taft would stay out of foreign affairs while Eisenhower followed a conservative domestic policy. Eisenhower's campaign was a crusade against the Truman administration's policies regarding "Korea, Communism and Corruption." Eisenhower promised to go to Korea himself and end the war and maintain both a strong NATO abroad against Communism and a corruption-free frugal administration at home. He and his running mate Richard Nixon easily defeated Adlai Stevenson in a landslide, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years. He was the only general to serve as President in the 20th century.

Presidency 1953-1961

File:Eisenhowernshc.jpg

The bronze statue of Eisenhower that stands in the rotunda.

Foreign Policy

On November 29, 1952 U.S. President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower fulfilled a campaign promise by travelling to Korea to find out what could be done to end the conflict. With the UN's acceptance of India's proposal for a Korean armistice, a cease-fire was established on July 27, 1953. No peace treaty has been signed to date.

With the death of Stalin there was talk of some sort of détente with the Soviet Union. Eisenhower brought Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to tour the U.S. in 1959, but a planned reciprocal visit was canceled by the Soviets after they shot down an American spy plane (the U2 Incident). In 1954, the French implored Eisenhower to send the U.S. Navy to rescue Vietnam. Eisenhower refused. He acquiesced in the division of Vietnam into a Communist North and a South informally allied with the United States and sent a few hundred advisors.

Interstate Highway System

One of Eisenhower's lesser known but most important acts as president was championing the construction of the modern day Interstate Highway System, modeled after the Autobahns of Germany Americans had seen in Germany. Eisenhower viewed the highway system as essential to American safety during the Cold War; a means of quickly moving thousands of people out of cities or troops across the country was key in an era of nuclear paranoia and Soviet Union blitzkrieg invasion scenarios imagined by military strategists. It is a popular urban legend that Eisenhower required the Interstate Highway System to have one out of every five miles straight in case an airplane needed to make an emergency landing, or in case the highway needed to become an impromptu U.S. Air Force airport. This is not true; the closest to reality this ever came was a plan to build landing strips beside highways, but the "one in five" plan was never part of the original Interstate Highway System. (For a more in depth discussion, see [1].) Today, the American Interstate highway system is the largest and most extensive in the world and allows for the average American to proceed across large distances in half the time as without such a system.

Dynamic Conservatism

Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower preached a doctrine of Dynamic Conservatism. Although he maintained a rigorously conservative economic policy, his social policies were fairly liberal. While he worked to reduce the size of government, contain inflation, and lower taxes, he simultaneously created the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, and joined congress in raising minimum wage from 75 cents to $1 per hour and extended benefits of Social Security to 10 million more Americans. His cabinet consisted of many corporate executives and some labor leaders, called by one journalist "Eight millionaires and a plumber." As a result, Eisenhower was extremely popular, winning his second term with 457 of the 530 votes in the Electoral College, and 57.6% of the popular vote.

Eisenhower Doctrine

After the Suez Crisis, the United States became the protector of most Western interests in the Middle East. As a result, Eisenhower felt the need to announce that the United States, in relation to the Middle East, would be "prepared to use armed force...[to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism." This was one of Eisenhower's contributions to the Cold War, in which many third-world countries were used as backdrops for friction between the United States and Soviet Union. In July 1958, the U.S. sent 14,000 Marines to Lebanon to put down a rebellion against a pro-Western government.

Little Rock

The Little Rock Central High crisis of 1957 occured during the Eisenhower administration. Eisenhower placed the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and sent Army troops to escort nine black students into the all-white school; this incident did not occur without violence, and Eisenhower and Arkansas governor Orval Faubus engaged in tense arguments during this tumultous period in history.

States admitted to the Union

• Alaska – January 3, 1959
• Hawaii – August 21, 1959

Retirement and death

Eisenhower with President Kennedy on retreat in 1962.

On January 17 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised speech from the Oval Office. In his farewell speech to the nation, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War saying: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together."

Once Eisenhower left office his reputation declined, and he was seen as having been a "do-nothing" President. This was partly because of the contrast between Eisenhower and his young activist successor, John F. Kennedy, but also because of his reluctance to support the civil rights movement or to stop McCarthyism. Such omissions were held against him during the liberal climate of the 1960s and 1970s. Eisenhower's reputation has risen since that time because of his non-partisan nature, his wartime leadership, his action in Arkansas, his being the last President to balance the budget (before the second Bill Clinton term), and an increasing appreciation of how difficult it is today to maintain a prolonged peace. In recent surveys of historians, Eisenhower often is ranked in the top 10 among all U.S. Presidents.

Eisenhower is purported to have said that his September 1953 appointment of California Governor Earl Warren as Chief Justice of the United States was "the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made." Some sources place this act on Eisenhower's own list of "My Top Five Lifetime Mistakes." Eisenhower disagreed vigorously with several of Warren's decisions, such as Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, in which segregated ("separate but equal") schools were ruled to be unconstitutional. Eisenhower often was slightly unenthusiastic when faced with civil rights. Some claim that because he failed to immediately praise the Brown case, culturally sensitive Southerners were encouraged to object, although he later signed many significant civil rights bills.

Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The Gettysburg farm is a National Historic Site [2]. In retirement, he did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the 1964 Republican convention and appeared with Barry Goldwater in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg.

Eisenhower leaving the White House after a visit with President Johnson in 1967.

Because of legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower resigned his permanent commission as General of the Army before entering the office of President of the United States. Upon completion of his Presidential term, his commission on the retired list was reactivated and Eisenhower again was commissioned a five-star general in the United States Army.

Eisenhower died at 12:25 p.m. on March 28 1969, at Walter Reed Army Hospital in Washington D.C., of Congestive heart failure at the age of 78. He lies alongside his wife and their first child, who died in childhood, in a small chapel called the Place of Meditation, at the Eisenhower Presidential Library, located in Abilene. His state funeral was unique because it was presided over by Richard Nixon, who was Vice President under Eisenhower and was serving as President of the United States.

Legacy

Eisenhower's picture was on the dollar coin from 1971 to 1979. Nearly 700 million of the copper-nickel clad coins were minted for general circulation, and far smaller numbers of uncirculated and proof issues (in both copper-nickel and 40% silver varieties) were produced for collectors. He reappeared on a commemorative silver dollar issued in 1990, celebrating the 100th anniversary of his birth. Furthermore, he is remembered for ending the Korean War and avoiding military intervention in Vietnam. USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, the second Nimitz-class supercarrier, was named in his honor.

In 1971, the Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage, California was named after him.

In 1983, The Eisenhower Institute was founded in Washington, D.C., as a policy institute to advance Eisenhower's intellectual and leadership legacies.

In 1999, the United States Congress created the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, which is in the planning stages of creating an enduring national memorial in Washington, D.C., across the street from the National Air and Space Museum on the National Mall.

Religion

When Eisenhower was 5, his parents became followers of the Watch Tower Society, whose members later took the name Jehovah's Witnesses. The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915. He and his brothers also stopped associating regularly after 1915. He enjoyed a close relationship with his mother throughout her lifetime. In later years, Eisenhower became a communicant in the Presbyterian church in 1953; in his retirement years, he was a member of the Gettysburg Presbyterian Church.

Trivia

• Eisenhower was involved with testing motorcycles coast to coast for the U.S. military.
• Eisenhower was an avid bridge player. Charles Goren said of his game, "Ike breaks 90 at golf — at bridge you could say he breaks 80."
• At the end of his second term in 1961 he was the oldest President to serve, at 70 years and 98 days—a record later broken by Ronald Reagan.
• Eisenhower was the first President affected by the 22nd Amendment, which limited presidential terms.
• Eisenhower was the second Republican president to serve two full terms; the first was Ulysses S. Grant.
• In 1945, General Eisenhower was the first American made an honorary member of the British Order of Merit. Eisenhower is one of very few Americans made an honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath.
• Eisenhower has been portrayed by several actors, including Tom Selleck in the 2004 television program Ike: Countdown to D-Day which depicts the 90 days leading up to the D-Day Invasion. On June 6 of that year, Eisenhower's grandson, David, along with Roosevelt's grandson, David, and Arabella Churchill, granddaughter of British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, appeared on MSNBC during the network's coverage of the 60th anniversary of D-Day and talked about the roles their grandfathers played during the allied invasion.
• Eisenhower enjoyed cooking as a hobby throughout his life, with particular emphasis on outdoor cooking. During his time as President, he even cooked food on the White House roof. A picture of this exists in the National Archives.
• During the war, rumors that Eisenhower had had an affair with his young driver, Kay Summersby caused strain in his marriage. In Truman's 1973 biography "Plain Speaking" Truman reportedly said that Eisenhower had planned to divorce Mamie and marry Kay, but was ordered not to by General George Marshall.

Awards and decorations

United States

• Army Distinguished Service Medal with four oak leaf clusters
• Navy Distinguished Service Medal
• Legion of Merit
• World War I Victory Medal
• European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with one silver and four bronze service stars
• American Campaign Medal
• American Defense Service Medal with "Foreign Service" clasp
• World War II Victory Medal
• Mexican Border Service Medal
• Army of Occupation Medal with "Germany" clasp

International Awards

• British Order of the Bath
• British Order of Merit
• British African Star
• Belgian Order of Léopold
• Belgian Croix de Guerre
• French Legion of Honor
• French Croix de Guerre
• French Liberation Medal
• Luxembourg War Cross
• Luxembourg Medal of Merit
• Czechoslovakian Order of the White Lion
• Czechoslovakian Golden Star of Victory
• Danish Order of the Elephant
• Moroccan Order of Ouissan Alaouite
• Netherlands Grand Cross of the Order of the Lion
• Soviet Order of Victory
• Soviet Order of Suvorov
• Polish Virtuti Militari
• Polish Cross of Grunwald
• Polish Rastituta Chevalier
• Argentinian Great Cross of the Order of the Liberator
• Brazilian Grand Cross Order of Military Merit
• Brazilian Grand Cross Order of Aeronautical Merit
• Brazilian National Order of the Southern Cross
• Brazil War Medal
• Brazil Campaign Medal
• Chief Commander of the Chilean Order of Merit
• Chinese Grand Cordon of the Order of Yun Hui
• Chinese Grand Cordon of the Order of Yun Fei
• Ecuadorian Star of Abdon Calderon
• Egyptian Grand Cordon of the Order of Ismal
• Ethiopian Order of Solomon
• Greek Order of George I with Swords
• Guatemalan Cross of Military Merit
• Haitian Great Cross of the Order of Honor and Merit
• Grand Cross of the Italian Military Order
• Order of Mexican Military Merit
• Mexican Aztec Eagle
• Medal of Mexican Civic Merit
• Norwegian Order of St. Olaf
• Tunisian Grand Cordon of the Nishan Iftikar

In addition, Eisenhower's name was given to a variety of streets, avenues, etc., in cities around the world, including Paris, France.

Quotations

Stamp issued by the USPS in 1969 commemorating Dwight D. Eisenhower

Kinship among nations is not determined in such measurements as proximity of size and age. Rather we should turn to those inner things—call them what you will—I mean those intangibles that are the real treasures free men possess.

To preserve his freedom of worship, his equality before law, his liberty to speak and act as he sees fit, subject only to provisions that he trespass not upon similar rights of others—a Londoner will fight. So will a citizen of Abilene.

When we consider these things, then the valley of the Thames draws closer to the farms of Kansas and the plains of Texas.
—Dwight D. Eisenhower's London Guild Hall Address, June 12 1945.

From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city, every village, and every rural schoolhouse, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty.
—Dwight D. Eisenhower when signing into law the phrase "One nation under God" into the Pledge of Allegiance.

Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies in the final sense, a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed. This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of its scientists, the hopes of its children. This is not a way of life at all in any true sense. Under the clouds of war, it is humanity hanging on a cross of iron.
— Dwight Eisenhower, April 16, 1953

I like to believe that people in the long run are going to do more to promote peace than our governments. Indeed, I think that people want peace so much that one of these days governments had better get out of the way and let them have it.
— Dwight D. Eisenhower

In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist.
— Dwight D. Eisenhower, Farewell Address January 17, 1961

Should any political party attempt to abolish social security, unemployment insurance, and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group, of course, that believes you can do these things. Among them are H. L. Hunt (you possibly know his background), a few other Texas oil millionaires, and an occasional politician or business man from other areas. Their number is negligible and they are stupid.
— Dwight D. Eisenhower in a letter to his brother Edgar, November 8, 1954<;ref>Snopes page</ref>

I voiced to him (Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson) my grave misgivings, first on the basis of my belief that Japan was already defeated and that dropping the bomb was completely unnecessary, and secondly because I thought that our country should avoid shocking world opinion by the use of a weapon whose employment was, I thought, no longer mandatory as a measure to save American lives.
— Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1945

Peace and Justice are two sides of the same coin.
— Dwight D. Eisenhower

Media

Eisenhower video montage File:Eisenhower video montage.ogg Collection of video clips of the president. (7.5 MB, ogg/Theora format). Problems seeing the videos? Media help.

See also

• U.S. presidential election, 1952
• U.S. presidential election, 1956
• History of the United States (1945–1964)
• Military-industrial complex, a term coined by Eisenhower
• Why We Fight, a 2005 documentary focusing on the ramifications of said complex
• Atoms for Peace, a speech to the UN General Assembly in December, 1953
• People to People Student Ambassador Program
• Mount Eisenhower
• Kay Summersby
• Eisenhower Presidential Center
• Eisenhower National Historic Site
• Eisenhower and German POWs

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Secondary sources

• Albertson, Dean. ed. Eisenhower as President. New York : Hill and Wang, 1963

• Alexander, Charles C. Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1961. Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1975 ISBN 0253328403

• Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890-1952. New York : Simon & Schuster, 1983 ISBN 0671440691

• Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower. The President. New York : Simon & Schuster, 1984 ISBN 0671499017

• Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier and President. New York : Simon & Schuster; Touchstone edition, 1991 ISBN 0671747584 One volume version. Standard biography.

• Bowie, Robert Richardson and Immerman, Richard H. Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy. New York : Oxford University Press, 1998 ISBN 0195062647

• Damms, Richard V. The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953-1961. Longman, 2002 ISBN 0582368189

• David Paul Theodore, ed. Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins Press, 1954. 5 vols.

• D'Este, Carlo. Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life. New York : Henry Holt & Co., 2002 ISBN 0805056866 Military biography to 1945

• Divine, Robert A. Eisenhower and the Cold War New York : Oxford University Press, 1981 ISBN 0195028244

• Eisenhower, David Eisenhower at War 1943-1945 New York : Wings Books : Distributed by Outlet Book Co., 1991 ISBN 0517065010 detailed study by his grandson

• Greenstein, Fred I. The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader Baltimore, Md. : Johns Hopkins University Press, c1994 ISBN 0801849012

• Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption", Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997.

• Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy New York: Macmillan, 1962

• Krieg, Joann P. ed. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman New York : Greenwood Press, 1987 ISBN 0313259550 24 essays by scholars

• McAuliffe, Mary S. "Eisenhower, the President", Journal of American History 68 (1981): pp.625-632

• Medhurst, Martin J. Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993 ISBN 0313261407

• Olson, James S. Historical Dictionary of the 1950s Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000 ISBN 0313306192

• Pach, Chester J. and Richardson, Elmo Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, c1991 ISBN 0700604375 standard scholarly survey

• Parmet, Herbert S. Eisenhower and the American Crusades New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, c1999 ISBN 0765804379 Scholarly biography of post 1945 years.

• Pogue, Forrest C. The Supreme Command Center of Military History, United States Army, 1989 ASIN B00072KFGA official Army history of SHAEF

• Sixsmith, E.K.G. Eisenhower as military commanderNY : Da Capo Press, 1990, 1972 ISBN 0306803690

• Weigley, Russell Frank Eisenhower's Lieutenants. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981 ISBN 0253133335 Ike's dealing with his key generals in WW2

Primary sources

• Boyle, Peter G., ed. The Churchill-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953-1955 Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, c1990 ISBN 0807819107
• Eisenhower, Dwight D. Crusade in Europe Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997 ISBN 080185668X his war memoirs
• Eisenhower, Dwight D. The White House years 2 vol., Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1963-65. "Mandate for change, 1953-1956" (v. 1) "Waging peace, 1956-1961" (v. 2)
• Eisenhower Papers 21 volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940-61.

External links

• Eisenhower Chronology World History Database
• The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum
• Eisenhower Home and Tomb
• Armigerous American Presidents Series
• White House biography
• Eisenhower Tapes @ University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs (Oval Office recordings)
• First Inaugural Address
• Second Inaugural Address
• Audio clips of Eisenhower's speeches
• Farewell Address, Wikisource
• Essay: Why the Eisenhower administration embraced nuclear weapons (PDF)
• The Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission
• The Presidential Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower (Searchable Online)

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

• Dwight D. Eisenhower  ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

• History of "Dwight D. Eisenhower"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.