Classical music
| History of classical music | |
| Medieval | (476 – 1400) |
| Renaissance | (1400 – 1600) |
| Baroque | (1600 – 1760) |
| Classical | (1730 – 1820) |
| Romantic | (1815 – 1910) |
| 20th century classical | (1900 – 2000) |
| Contemporary classical | (1975 – present) |
Definitions
Classical music is a term with three distinct meanings:
- The European tradition of music which is associated with high culture, as distinct from popular or folk forms (including works in this tradition in non-European countries).
- That tradition as well as similar non-European traditions.
- A particular stage in the development of the European art music tradition, centered in the late 18th century.
Introduction
Classical music is a broad, somewhat imprecise term, referring to music produced in, or rooted in the traditions of, Western art, ecclesiastical and concert music, encompassing a broad period from roughly 1000 to the present day. The central norms of this tradition developed throughout this period but reached their heights of complexity and development in the period between 1550 and 1900: what is known as the common practice period. Variety and the differences in moods and emotions were emphasized in classical music yet with unity and logic in the organizational structure. This concept of a general accord and mutual understanding in classical music is an encouragement to overcome human and aesthetic barriers and to create bridges of cooperation and peace through music.
Background of Classical Music
This music evokes classical traditions, focuses on formal styles, invites technical and detailed deconstruction and criticism, and demands focused attention from the listener. It is written down using a formal notation and a work of classical music is usually defined by the notated version, rather than a particular performance of it. This music is associated with, and often compared to, fine art and high culture, sometimes leading to accusations of haughtiness and exclusivity being levelled at its enthusiasts. Nevertheless, many "classical" pieces were the popular music of their time, and have remained popular to this day. The public taste for and appreciation of formal music of this type is often described as having waned through the later part of the 20th century and into the present millennium, particularly in the USA and UK, although it continues to thrive elsewhere in the world.[1] Certainly, this period has seen classical music falling well behind the immense commercial success of popular music.[2]
The term classical music did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to "canonize" the period from Bach to Beethoven as an era in music parallel to the golden age of sculpture, architecture and art of classical antiquity (from which no music has directly survived). The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836. Since that time the term has come in common parlance to mean the opposite of popular music.
Timeline
According to one school of thought, musical works are best understood in the context of their place in musical history; for adherents to this approach, this is essential to full enjoyment of these works. There is a widely accepted system of dividing the history of classical music composition into stylistic periods. According to this system, the major time divisions are:
- Ancient music - the music generally before the year 476, the approximate time of the fall of the Roman Empire. Most of the extant music from this period is from ancient Greece.
- Medieval, generally before 1450. Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian Chant, was the dominant form until about 1100. Polyphonic (multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance.
- Renaissance, about 1450 – 1600, characterized by greater use of instrumentation, multiple melodic lines and by the use of the first bass instruments.
- Baroque, about 1600 – 1750, characterized by the use of complex tonal, rather than modal, counterpoint, and growing popularity of keyboard music (harpsichord and pipe organ).
- Classical, about 1750 – 1820, an important era which established many of the norms of composition, presentation and style. Also, the classical era is marked by the disappearance of the harpsichord and the clavichord in favour of the piano, which from then on would become the predominant instrument for keyboard performance and composition.
- Romantic, 1820 – 1910, a period which codified practice, expanded the role of music in cultural life and created institutions for the teaching, performance and preservation of works of music. Characterized by increased attention to melody and rhythm, as well as expressive and emotional elements, paralleling romanticism in other art forms.
- Impressionist music, 1910-1920, a period in which French composers as well as artists produced art that went against the traditional German ways of art and music. Characterized by arrhythmia, the pentatonic scale, long, flowing phrases and a use of brass instruments as the main parts in creating the texture, rather than stringed instruments.
- Modern, 1905-1985, a period which represented a crisis in the values of classical music and its role within intellectual life, and the extension of theory and technique. Some theorists, such as Arnold Schoenberg in his essay "Brahms the Progressive," insist that Modernism represents a logical progression from 19th century trends in composition; others hold the opposing point of view, that Modernism represents the rejection or negation of the method of Classical composition.
- 20th century, usually used to describe the wide variety of post-Romantic styles composed through the year 1999, which includes late Romantic, Modern and Postmodern styles of composition.
- The term contemporary music is sometimes used to describe music composed in the late 20th century through present day.
- The prefix neo is usually used to describe a 20th century or contemporary composition written in the style of an earlier period, such as classical, romantic, or modern. Stravinsky's Pulcinella, for example, is a neoclassical composition.
The dates are generalizations, since the periods overlapped. Some authorities subdivide the periods further by date or style. However, it should be noted that these categories are somewhat arbitrary; the use of counterpoint and fugue, which is considered characteristic of the baroque era, was continued by Mozart, who is generally classified as typical of the classical period, by Beethoven who is often described as straddling the classical and romantic periods, and Brahms, who is classified as romantic.
This chart shows a selection of the most famous classical composers. For a more complete overview see Graphical timeline for classical composers
Classical music as "music of the classical era"
In music history, a different meaning of the term classical music is often used: it designates music from a period in musical history covering approximately Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach to Beethoven — roughly, 1730 – 1820. When used in this sense, the term is usually capitalized to avoid confusion.
The nature of classical music
Classical music is considered primarily a written musical tradition, preserved in music notation, as opposed to being transmitted orally, by rote, or in recordings of particular performances. While there are differences between particular performances of a classical work, a piece of classical music is generally held to transcend any interpretation of it. The use of musical notation is an effective method for transmitting classical music, since the written music contains the technical instructions for performing the work. The written score, however, does not usually contain explicit instructions as to how to interpret the piece in terms of production or performance, apart from directions for dynamics, tempo and expression (to a certain extent); this is left to the discretion of the performers, who are guided by their personal experience and musical education, their knowledge of the work's idiom, and the accumulated body of historic performance practices. However, improvisation once played an important role in classical music. A remnant of this improvisatory tradition in classical music can be heard in the cadenza, a passage found mostly in concertos and solo works, designed to allow skilled performers to exhibit some of their skill. Traditionally this was improvised by the performer; however more often than not, it is written for (or occasionally by) the performer beforehand.
Classical music concerts often take place in a relatively solemn atmosphere, and the audience is usually expected to stay quiet and still to avoid distracting the concentration of other audience members. The performers often dress formally, a practice which is taken as a gesture of respect for the music and the audience, and performers do not normally engage in direct involvement or casual banter with the audience. Private readings of chamber music may take place at more informal domestic occasions.
Its written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on certain classical works, has led to the expectation that performers will play a work in a way that realizes in detail the original intentions of the composer. Indeed, deviations from the composer's instructions are sometimes condemned as outright ethical lapses. During the 19th century the details that composers put in their scores generally increased. Yet the opposite trend — admiration of performers for new "interpretations" of the composer's work — can be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer for achieving a better realization of the composer's original intent than the composer was able to imagine. Thus, classical music performers often achieve very high reputations for their musicianship, even if they do not compose themselves.
Classical composers often aspire to imbue their music with a very complex relationship between its affective (emotional) content, and the intellectual means by which it is achieved. Many of the most esteemed works of classical music make use of musical development, the process by which a musical germ, idea or motif is repeated in different contexts, or in altered form, so that the mind of the listener consciously or unconsciously compares the different versions. The classical genres of sonata form and fugue employ rigorous forms of musical development. (See also History of sonata form)
Another consequence of the primacy of the composer's written score is that improvisation plays a relatively minor role in classical music, in sharp contrast to traditions like jazz, where improvisation is central. Improvisation in classical music performance was far more common during the Baroque era than in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and recently the performance of such music by modern classical musicians has been enriched by a revival of the old improvisational practices. During the Classical period, Mozart and Beethoven sometimes improvised the cadenzas to their piano concertos (and thereby encouraged others to do so), but they also provided written cadenzas for use by other soloists.
Western Art Music is a term used synonymously with classical music.
Complexity
Classical works often display great musical complexity through the composer's use of development, modulation (changing of keys), variation rather than exact repetition, musical phrases that are not of even length, counterpoint, polyphony and sophisticated harmony.
Also, many long classical works (from 30 minutes to three hours) are built up from a hierarchy of smaller units: namely phrases, periods, sections, and movements. Musical analysis often seeks to distinguish and explain these structural levels.
Emotional content
As with many forms of fine art, classical music often aspires to communicate a transcendent quality of emotion, which expresses something universal about the human condition. While emotional expression is not a property exclusive to classical music, this deeper exploration of emotion arguably allows the best classical music to reach what has been called the "sublime" in art. Many examples often cited in support of this, for instance Beethoven's setting of Friedrich Schiller's poem, Ode to Joy in his 9th symphony, which is often performed at occasions of national liberation or celebration, as in Leonard Bernstein's famously performing the work to mark the tearing down of the Berlin Wall, and the Japanese practice of performing it to observe the New Year.
However, some composers, such as Iannis Xenakis, argue that the emotional effect of music on the listeners is arbitrary and therefore the objective complexity or informational content of the piece is paramount.
Instruments
Classical and popular music are often distinguished by their choice of instruments. The instruments used in common practice classical music were mostly invented before the mid-19th century (often, much earlier), and codified in the 18th and 19th centuries. They consist of the instruments found in an orchestra, together with a few other solo instruments (such as the piano, harpsichord, and organ). Electric instruments such as the electric guitar and electric violin play a prominent role in popular music, but of course play no role in classical music before the twentieth century, and only appear occasionally in the classical music of the 20th and 21st centuries. Both classical and popular musicians have experimented in recent decades with electronic instruments such as the synthesizer, electric and digital techniques such as the use of sampled or computer-generated sounds, and the sounds of instruments from other cultures such as the gamelan.
None of the bass instruments existed until the Renaissance. In Medieval Music, instruments are divided in two categories: loud instruments for use outdoors or in church, and quieter instruments for indoor use.
Many instruments which are associated today with popular music used to have important roles in early classical music, such as bagpipes, vihuelas, hurdy-gurdies and some woodwind instruments. On the other hand, the acoustic guitar, for example, which used to be associated mainly with popular music, has gained prominence in classical music through the 19th and 20th centuries.
Finally, while equal temperament became gradually accepted as the dominant musical temperament during the 19th century, different historical temperaments are often used for music from earlier periods. For instance, music of the English Renaissance is often performed in mean tone temperament.
Durability
One criterion used to distinguish works of the classical musical canon is that of cultural durability. However, this is not a distinguishing mark of all classical music: while works by J. S. Bach (1685 – 1750) continue to be widely performed and highly regarded, music by many of Bach's contemporaries is deemed mediocre, and is rarely performed, even though it is squarely in the "classical" realm. To some extent, the notion of such durability is a self-fulfilling prophecy (and therefore a fallacy), simply by virtue of the fact that classical music is studied and preserved at much higher levels than other music.
Influences between classical and popular music
Classical music has often incorporated elements or even taken material from popular music. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of student drinking songs in his Academic Festival Overture, genres exemplified by Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and the influence of jazz on early- and mid-twentieth century composers including Maurice Ravel, as exemplified by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano. Certain postmodern and postminimalist classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.
There are also many examples of influence flowing the other way, including popular songs based on classical music, the use to which Pachelbel's Canon in popular culture has been put since the 1970s, and the musical crossover phenomenon, where classical musicians have achieved success in the popular music arena (one notable example is the "Hooked on Classics" series of recordings made by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in the early 1980s). In fact, it could be argued that the entire genre of film music could be considered part of this influence as well, since it brings orchestral music to vast audiences of movie-goers who might otherwise never choose to listen to such music (albeit for the most part unconsciously).
Classical music and folk music
Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music (music created by untutored musicians, often from a purely oral tradition). Some have done so with an explicit nationalist ideology, others have simply mined folk music for thematic material. See: European Classical Composers Noted for Use of Folk Music
Commercial uses of classical music
Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (that is, either in advertising or in the soundtracks of movies made for entertainment). In television commercials, several loud, bombastically rhythmic orchestral passages have become clichés, particularly the opening "O Fortuna" of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana; other examples in the same vein are the Dies Irae from the Verdi Requiem, and excerpts of Aaron Copland's "Rodeo."
Similarly, movies often revert to standard, cliched snatches of classical music to represent refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard pieces in this category include Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik and Vivaldi's The Four Seasons.
Classical music in education
Throughout history, parents have often made sure that their children receive classical music training from a young age. Early experience with music provides the basis for more serious study later. It is extremely rare for performers to reach a professional standard on a classical instrument if they did not begin to study it, or at least a similar instrument, from childhood. Some parents pursue music lessons for their children for social reasons or in an effort to instil a useful sense of self-discipline. Some consider that a degree of knowledge of important works of classical music is part of a good general education.
The 1990s marked the emergence in the United States of research papers and popular books on the so-called 'Mozart effect': a temporary, small elevation of scores on certain tests as a result of listening to Mozart. The popularized version of the controversial theory was expressed succinctly by a New York Times music columnist: "researchers have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter." Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the original researchers commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."
Master Composers in the Classical Era
- Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
- Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Burrows, John, Classical music, London; NY: DK Publications, 2005. ISBN 0-756-60958-5
- Fuld, James J.; Lichtenwanger, William, The book of world-famous music: classical, popular and folk, NY: Crown Publishers, 1966. OCLC 855058
- Horowitz, Joseph, Classical music in America: a history of its rise and fall, NY: W.W. Norton, 2005. ISBN 0-393-05717-8
- Lebrecht, Norman, When the Music Stops: Managers, Maestros and the Corporate Murder of Classical Music, Simon & Schuster 1996
- Libbey, Theodore, The NPR Listener's encyclopedia of classical music, NY: Workman Publications, 2006. ISBN 0-761-12072-6
Bibliography
- ↑ Julian Lloyd Webber's speech to the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland stated that "Declining audiences, government cuts, disastrous CD sales, sponsors pulling out of the arts, fewer children learning musical instruments, and a total lack of interest from the general media, unless semi-naked bimbo violinists.....are involved.....It is in stark contrast to music-making in the Far East, where there are still huge numbers of children learning instruments, healthy classical CD sales, media that take a real interest in classical music and, above all, concert halls that are packed with young people as a direct result of that media interest."
- ↑ The economic importance of music in the European Union includes comparison of the number of concerts, venues and musicians employed in classical and popular music
External links
- MDT Mail Order – British retailer of classical CDs and DVDs worldwide. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- Classic Cat – download database for classical music Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ArkivMusic.com – find every classical CD and DVD in print. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- Classical.net – review, database and mailing-list resource Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- Classical Archives – music, artists, composers, MIDI files Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- Musikethos.org – project collecting free, legal MP3s of performances (licensed under CC) and promoting young classical musicians Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- MusicWeb International – CD reviews, composer articles, timelines, concert and book reviews Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- Music and Vision magazine – daily magazine about European classical music, illustrated with photos, sound and video Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- Classical Music Forums and Information – articles, blogs and discussions on classical music Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- Classical music in movies, listed by composer Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- Classy Classical - a personal look at classical music by John Evans and Steve Newman Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- Naxos Glossary of Music Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- All Classical Online Radio - Listen to classical music online. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
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