Cartography
Geography and demographics
Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study and practice of making maps or globes. Maps have traditionally been made using pen and paper, but the advent and spread of computers has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial quality maps are now made with map making software that falls into one of three main types; CAD, GIS, and specialized map illustration software.
Maps function as visualization tools for spatial data. Spatial data is acquired from measurement and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. The cartographic process rests on the premise that there is an objective reality and that we can make reliable representations of that reality by adding levels of abstraction.
History
Mapmaking involves advanced skills and attitudes, particularly the use of symbols to represent certain geographic phenomena, as well as the ability to visualize the world in an abstract and scaled down form.
Maps have been an integral part of the human story for long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than a written words). From cave/wall partings, ancient maps of Babylon and Greek philosophers, through the Age of Exploration, and on into the 21st century, people have created and used maps as the essential tools to help them define, explain and navigate their way through the world (and beyond). According to some scholars, mapping represented a significant step forward in the intellectual development of human beings and it serves as a record of the advancing knowledge of the human race.
The oldest extant picture that resembles a map was created in the late 7th millennium B.C.E. in Anatolia, modern Turkey. This wall painting represents a plan of an early-civilized city that prospered by trading obsidian. Whoever created this ‘mental map’ may have been encouraged by the fact that houses in Çatal Hűyűk were clustered together and were entered via flat roofs. Therefore, it was normal for the inhabitants to view their city from a bird’s eye view. Having said this, I think that this painting influenced in some way all-later civilizations with their mapmaking endeavours. Today, almost all maps are drawn as if we are looking down from the sky instead of from the more natural horizontal or oblique perspective. Nevertheless, one of the early-survived Hellenic ‘quasi-maps’ of the Minoan civilization on Crete, the so-called “House of the Admiral” c. 1600 B.C.E. is a wall painting representing view of a seaside community in an oblique perspective.
Predecessors of mapping could be also found in Babylonia around the 23rd century B.C.E. An engraved map of the holy city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th-12th centuries B.C.E.) of Babylonian history, was found at Nippur.
The early attempts at maps were severely limited by lack of knowledge of anything other than very local features. Whereas early world maps reflected mostly religious beliefs of the form of the world. For example, the Babylonian World Map — the earliest surviving map of the world (c. 600 B.C.E.) — is very much Mesopotamia-centred, ignoring peoples such as the Persians and Egyptians, who were well known to the Babylonians. The area shown is depicted as a circular shape surrounded by water, which fits the religious image of the world in which the Babylonians believed.
Maps were quite rare in ancient Egypt. The Egyptians seem to have preferred written words to plans. Still, what might have later influenced human mapmaking were the geometrical methods that were used for land measurements, which were stimulated by the need to re-establish the exact boundaries of properties after the annual Nile floods. The most interesting artefact that has survived from this period is the Turin Papyrus, dated c. 1300 B.C.E. It shows the mountains east of the Nile where gold and silver were mined, along with the location of the miners’ shelters, wells, and the road network that linked the region with the mainland. Its originality can be seen in the map’s inscriptions, its precise orientation and the use of colour.
Ancient Greeks were the first people to adopt a scientific approach to mapping. They were excellent observers of natural phenomena. Observations of the sun, the moon, and the curvature of the earth were fundamental to the theoretical thinking of early Greek philosophers, scientists, and geographers. The Greeks’ philosophical conception of the world and their growing knowledge in geography contributed to establishing the concept of mapmaking and to the development of cartographic techniques.
This chapter presents one of the most momentous periods in the history of cartography by illustrating the works of early Greek philosophers who pioneered the concept of mapping. It traces the evolution of Greek ideas concerning the geography of the earth and cartographic techniques of representing natural phenomena in a map form. In addition to an examination of reconstructed maps of the world as conceived by Anaximander of Miletus, Hecataeus, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, and Ptolemy, this paper also assesses the writings of early Greek poets who tried to give a written picture of the known world of the time. This section will hopefully allow the reader to comprehend the stages through which the Greeks developed their geographical ideas and cartographic knowledge; from blurry and obscure notions of Mediterranean mariners — as related by Homer — to more scientific and mathematical approach of Claudius Ptolemy’s geography.
In reviewing the literature of early geography and early conceptions of the earth, all sources lead to Homer, who is considered by many (Strabo, Kish and Dilke) as the founding father of Geography. Regardless of the doubts about Homer’s existence, one thing is certain he never was a mapmaker. The enclosed map (soon), which represents the conjectural view of the Homeric world was never created by him. It is an imaginary reconstruction of the world as Homer described it in his two poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is worth mentioning that each of these writings involves strong geographic symbolism. They can be seen as descriptive pictures of life and warfare in the Bronze Age and the illustrated plans of actual journeys. Thus, each one develops a philosophical view of the world, which makes it possible to show this information in the form of a map. Additional written statements about ancient geography can be found in Hesiod poems, written probably during the 7th century B.C.E.
The first steps in the development of scientific thought in ancient Greece belonged to Ionians from their well-known city of Miletus in Asia Minor. Miletus was favourably placed to absorb aspects of Babylonian science and culture and to profit from the expanding commerce of the Mediterranean.
Thales of Miletus (c. 600 B.C.E.) thought that the earth was a disk supported by water.
Anaximander of Miletus (c. 611–546 B.C.E.) was a pupil of Thales. It has been said that he believed that the earth was a cylindrical form like a stone pillar and suspended in space. The inhabited part of his world was a circular, disk-shaped, and presumably located on the upper surface of the cylinder. Anaximander was the first ancient Greek to draw a map of the known world. It is for this reason that he is considered by many to be the first mapmaker (Dilke). A scarcity of archaeological and written evidence prevents us from giving any assessment of his map. What we can assume is that he portrayed land and sea in a map form. Unfortunately, any definite geographical knowledge that he included in his map is lost. What is certain is that 50 years after Anaximander’s alleged map, Hecataeus of Miletus (550–475 B.C.E.) produced another map that he claimed was an improved version of the map of his illustrious predecessor.
Another interesting figure in that era was Anaximenes of Miletus (6th century B.C.E.), who studied under Anaximander. He rejected the views of his teacher regarding the shape of the earth and instead, he visualized the earth as a rectangular form supported by compressed air. What is interesting here is that his incorrect idea about the shape of the world somehow persisted in the form of how the contemporary maps are presented today. Extend of the current maps are always kind of limited to this rectangular shape (i.e., border of the map [neatline], computer screen, or any document page).
Although, only a very limited portion of the Earth was known to these ancient Greeks, the shape of the Earth was always going to be of fundamental importance in world maps. For example, Pythagoras of Samos (c. 560–480 B.C.E.) first speculated about the notion of a spherical earth with a central fire at its core. He is also credited with the introduction of a model that divides a spherical earth into five zones. One hot, two temperate, and two cold — northern and southern. It seems likely that he illustrated his division in the form of a map, however, no evidence of this has survived to the present.
Whereas a number of previous philosophers assumed the earth to be spherical, Aristotle (384 – 322B.C.E.) is the one to be credited with proving the earth’s sphericity. Those arguments can be summarized as follows:
- The lunar eclipse is always circular.
- Ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon.
- Some stars can only be seen from certain parts of the earth.
It is unclear if he ever produced a map of the world according to his specifications, but if he did, we have yet to find it.
In 288 B.C.E., Aristarchus of Samos was the first to say that the sun was the center of universe (see heliocentric theory). Also Hipparchus (astronomer)
A vital contribution to mapping the reality of the world came with a scientific estimate of the circumference of the earth. This event has been described as the first scientific attempt to give geographical studies a mathematical basis. The man credited for this achievement was Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.E.). He was a devoted geographer who set out to reform and perfect the map of the world. Eratosthenes argued that accurate mapping, even if in two dimensions only, depends upon the establishment of an accurate linear measurements. His great achievement in the field of cartography was the use of new techniques called (A) meridian — his imaginary north/south line — and (B) parallel — his imaginary west/east line. These axis lines were placed over the map of the earth with their origin in the city of Rhodes and divided the world into sectors. Then, Eratosthenes used these earth partitions to reference places on the map. He provided the logical framework of reference for all future maps, which ensures that every city, area, and ocean is drawn in its proper place on the map — one accurately located in relation to the other. Although not as precise as the latter, his earth partitions were the forerunners of parallels and meridians. Eratosthenes’ map of the world was a very striking achievement and may be considered as the first scientific map, a map that laid the basis to produce accurate maps, which were implemented in the work of all later cartographers and geographers.
The accumulated cartographic achievements of the early Greeks and their predecessors that have been presented up to this point culminate with the contribution of the famous Greek scholar named Claudius Ptolemy (90-168 C.E.). This pivotal figure in geography concluded that with the aid of astronomy and mathematics the earth could be mapped very accurately. Ptolemy revolutionized the depiction of the spherical earth on the map by using projection, and suggested precise methods for fixing the position of geographic features on its surface using coordinate system — parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.
His great work Geographia comprises of eight books and by today’s standards, it would be called a geographic atlas. The form of his atlas and the maps themselves are the prototypes of modern mapmaking. And the listing of place-names, with the latitude and longitude of each place to guide the search, is not so different from the system employed by today’s user. Additional standard features on modern maps that are Ptolemaic in origin are: a scale that is used for precise interpretation of phenomena, conventional signs with legends, a table that contains supplemental information about the specific places on the map, and the practice of orienting maps so that North is at the top and East to the right of the map — a universal custom today. But for all his important innovations Ptolemy was not infallible. His most important error was a miscalculation of the circumference of the earth. He believed that Eurasia covered 180° of the globe, which convinced Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic to look for a simpler and faster way to travel to India. Had Columbus known that the true figure was much greater, it is conceivable that he would never have set out on his momentous voyage.
It is undeniable that Ptolemy made a fundamental contribution to the development of cartography and proved to be a decisive influence on accurate mapmaking in the future. His work determined world exploration and dominated mapping of the world for almost 1,400 years — until the scientific achievements of another great mapmaker Gerhardus Mercator (1512-94). He was a Flemish cartographer who in his quest to make the world “look right” on the maps developed new projection (called Mercator projection) using mathematical formulas. From then on, the image of the world that he produced on his map in 1569 becomes a conventional view of the world that we are accustomed
European scientific cartography slept through the Middle Ages, when philosophical thought turned toward religion. Though the field advanced in some ways, such as Roger Bacon's investigations of map projections and the appearance of portolano and then portolan charts for plying the European trade routes, there was little impetus for systematic study or application of cartography. Most world 'maps' of the period were Christian cosmological diagrams not intended as rigorous geographical representations. Typically rectangular or circular, they followed the style of the so-called "T and O map," which represents the earth's single land mass as disk-shaped and surrounded by ocean. Large-scale mapping tended toward diagrammatic as well, since cadastral needs generally were met by descriptions of landmarks rather than by measurements. In contrast, the Chinese during this time were using a rectangular coordinate system suitable for real, if rough, surveying. The Chinese did not produce world maps because their cosmology supplied no dogma describing distant lands outside their experience. Writings suggest that Chinese philosophers believed the earth to be flat. With the exception of a few theologians of minority opinion, notably Lactantius, Christian and Islamic philosophers adhered to the Greek conception of a spherical earth.
The discovery of the Americas by Europeans and the subsequent effort to control and divide those lands necessitated the invention of scientific mapping methods. The trend of globalism that was started with the Age of Exploration would continue during the Renaissance. This would, in turn, eventually lead to the Enlightenment a concern for scientific accuracy and a desire to classify the world would further develop scientific mapmaking.
Those early mapmakers were the first to show to us the potential values of maps for putting things in perspective, both factually and symbolically. Through their maps, they opened the door for future generations, by allowing people to make informative decisions based on their work. For example, one of the differences between the West and the other parts of the world, and one of the reasons for the global spread of western power, is that Europeans recorded their knowledge on maps while others did not. Or, as Peter Whitfield, the author of several books on the history of maps, points out "Men in Seville, Amsterdam or London had access to knowledge of America, Brazil, or India, while the native peoples knew only their own immediate environment" (Whitfield).
Technological changes
In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.
Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant and vernier allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon.
Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.
In the mid to late 20th century advances in electronic technology have led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. See also digital raster graphic.
Map types
In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps.
A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topography of a place, and is typically different from other maps by its use of contour lines showing elevation.
A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin.
Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical choropleth classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data.
Naming conventions
There are several ways to name the places on a map. Early explorers named them in several ways — after themselves, people in their homeland, and the ruler(s) of their countries. Features were also named by appearance, local climate, incidents that happened in the vicinity, and location. Many places along the coast of Brazil were named by Portuguese explorers in the early 1500s after the saint of the day of discovery in the Catholic calendar of saints (so that the detailed timetable of their expeditions can often be recovered from the list of assigned names).
Cartographers also borrowed native names, sometimes by transliterating the written form into the Latin alphabet, but most often by transcribing the sound, or attempting to do so. Often the explorer would address the nearest native, pointing at the landmark in question and speaking in a loud voice; whatever the native said was then written down as its name. The Yucatan Peninsula was named in this way as was Nome, Alaska, according to legend.
External links
- List of maps of all countries
- Online Map Catalogs in North America and Europe Lists some good places to search for online maps
- The fascinating world of maps and mapping Lists all kinds of maps
- Map collections Introductory page to help navigate the online map resources
- A listing of over 5000 websites describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar
- MapRef The Collection of Map Projections and Reference Systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen
- Links for maps Directory for maps and cartography links
- Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography resources.
- OpenStreetMap - A free project mapping the worlds roads using GPS
- FreeMaps.de Free Maps Germany & Europe
- nacis.org North American Cartographic Information Society
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