Difference between revisions of "Biblical Inerrancy" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Biblical inerrancy''' is the doctrinal position <ref>http://www.dts.edu/about/doctrinalstatement/</ref> that in its original form, the [[Bible]] is totally without error, and free from all contradiction; "referring to the complete accuracy of Scripture, including the historical and scientific parts."
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[[Image:The Evangelist Matthew Inspired by an Angel.jpg|thumb|200px|Rembrandt's version of an angel whispering into the ear of the Evangelist Matthew]]
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'''Biblical inerrancy''' is the doctrinal position that in its original form, the [[Bible]] is totally without error, and free from all contradiction; referring to the complete accuracy of Scripture, including the historical and scientific parts. Inerrancy is distinguished from [[biblical infallibility]] (or limited inerrancy), which holds that the Bible is inerrant on issues of faith and practice but not history or science.
  
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Inerrancy is distinguished from [[Biblical infallibility]] (or limited inerrancy), which holds that the Bible is inerrant on issues of faith and practice but not history or science.
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Those adhering to biblical inerrancy usually admit the possibility of errors in translation of [[sacred text]]. A famous quote from [[St. Augustine]] declares, "It is not allowable to say, 'The author of this book is mistaken;' but either the manuscript is faulty, or the translation is wrong, or you have not understood.”
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{{toc}}
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Inerrancy has come under strong criticism in the modern era. Although several Protestant groups do adhere to it, the [[Catholic Church]] no longer strictly upholds the doctrine. Many contemporary Christians, while holding to basic moral and theological truths of the [[Bible]], cannot in good conscience accept its primitive cosmological outlook, or—on close reading—the the troubling ethical attitudes of some its writers.
  
 
==Inerrancy in context==
 
==Inerrancy in context==
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[[File:Paul in prison by Rembrandt.jpg|thumb|200px|Saint Paul, the supposed author of 2 Timothy, said that "all scripture is God-breathed." However, the New Testament had not yet been written in Paul's day.]]
 
Many denominations believe that the [[Bible]] is [[biblical inspiration|inspired]] by [[God]], who through the human authors is the divine author of the Bible.  
 
Many denominations believe that the [[Bible]] is [[biblical inspiration|inspired]] by [[God]], who through the human authors is the divine author of the Bible.  
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This is expressed in the following Bible passage:
 
 
<blockquote>
 
<blockquote>
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All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, [[2 Timothy]] 3:16 [[NIV]]
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This is expressed in the following Bible passage: "All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness [[2 Timothy]] 3:16 [[NIV]]).</blockquote>
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</blockquote>
 
  
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Many who believe in the ''Inspiration'' of scripture teach that it is ''[[biblical infallibility|infallible]].'' Those who subscribe to infallibility believe that what the scriptures say regarding matters of faith and Christian practice are wholly useful and true. Some denominations that teach infallibility hold that the historical or scientific details, which may be irrelevant to matters of faith and Christian practice, may contain errors. Those who believe in inerrancy hold that the scientific, geographic, and historic details and of the scriptural texts in their original manuscripts are completely true and without error.  
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Although the author here refers to the [[Hebrew Scripture]] and not the Christian [[New Testament]], which had not been compiled or completely written at the time of [[2 Timothy]]'s writing, most Christians take this saying to apply to the New Testament canon, which came to be accepted in the early fourth century C.E.
  
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Many religions include texts other than the Bible under various categorizations of inspiration. For example, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (Mormons) consider the teachings of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] and [[The Book of Mormon]] along with the Bible as being the "word of God," but recognize translation issues.  
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Many who believe in the ''inspiration'' of scripture teach that it is ''[[biblical infallibility|infallible]].'' However, those who accept the infallibility of scripture hold that its historical or scientific details, which may be irrelevant to matters of faith and Christian practice, may contain errors. Those who believe in ''inerrancy,'' however, hold that the scientific, geographic, and historic details of the scriptural texts in their original manuscripts are completely true and without error. On the other hand, a number of contemporary Christians have come to question even the doctrine of infallibility, holding that the biblical writers were indeed inspired at time by God, but that they also express their own, all too human attitudes. In this view, it is ultimately up to the individual conscience to decide what parts of the Bible are truly inspired and accurate, and what parts are the expression of human fallibility. Indeed, much of biblical scholarship in the last two centuries has taken the position that the Bible must be studied in its historical context as a human work, and not only as a sacred scripture which must not be questioned or contradicted by historical or scientific facts.
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On the other hand, the Roman Catholic Church considers some teachings of the Church, such as solemn definitions issued by an [[Ecumenical council]] or the [[Pope]], to be infallible in the sense that they are preserved from error. However, the Roman Catholic doctrine of [[Papal Infallibility]] is limited in application and is subject to contingencies. Since the doctrine was formally defined at the [[first Vatican Council]] in 1870, it has been invoked once, in 1950.
 
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==Basis of belief==
 
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The theological basis of the belief, in its simplest form, is that as [[God]] is perfect, the [[Bible]], as the word of God, must also be perfect, thus, free from error.  
 
  
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The theological basis of the belief of inerrancy, in its simplest form, is that as [[God]] is perfect, the [[Bible]], as the word of God, must also be perfect, thus, free from error.
 
Proponents of biblical inerrancy also teach that God used the "distinctive personalities and literary styles of the writers" of scripture but that God's inspiration guided them to flawlessly project his message through their own language and personality.
 
Proponents of biblical inerrancy also teach that God used the "distinctive personalities and literary styles of the writers" of scripture but that God's inspiration guided them to flawlessly project his message through their own language and personality.
  
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Infallibility and inerrancy refer to the original texts of the Bible. And while conservative scholars acknowledge the potential for human error in transmission and translation, modern translations are considered to "faithfully represent the originals".<ref>http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/chicago.htm</ref>
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Infallibility and inerrancy refer to the original texts of the Bible. And while conservative scholars acknowledge the potential for human error in transmission and translation, modern translations are considered to "faithfully represent the originals".<ref>[http://www.bible-researcher.com/chicago1.html Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy with Exposition] ''Bible Research''. Retrieved September 26, 2018.</ref>
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In their text on the subject, Geisler & Nix (1986) claim that scriptural inerrancy is established by a number of observations and processes, which include:
 
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:*  the historical accuracy of the Bible
 
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:*  the Bible's claims of its own inerrancy
 
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:*  church history and tradition
 
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:*  one's individual experience with God
 
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"Prima Facie" refers to evidence and claims from the Bible itself. "The Witness of the Spirit" is cited as proof to the person to whom God speaks. The "Transforming Ability" of scripture is cited as yet another supernatural proof to an individual. The "Unity of the Scripture" despite its myriad of authors, cultures, and topics, the "Historicity of the Bible" and how the [[Biblical archaeology|archaeological]] record is interpreted to confirm the Bible, the "Testimony of Christ," "fulfilled prophecies," "apparent indestructibility" of the scriptures, and the "integrity of its authors" are all commonly taught as ways reliability is established.<ref name="inerrancy">{{cite book
 
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|last=Geisler & Nix
 
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|publisher=Moody Press, Chicago
 
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|year=1986
 
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|title=A General Introduction to the Bible
 
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|isbn= ISBN 0-8024-2916-5
 
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}}</ref>
 
  
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== Textual tradition of the New Testament ==
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In their text on the subject, Geisler and Nix (1986) claim that scriptural inerrancy is established by a number of observations and processes,<ref>Norman Geisler and William E. Nix, ''A General Introduction to the Bible'' (Moody Publishers, 1986, ISBN 0802429165).</ref> which include:
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There are over 5,600 Greek [[manuscript]]s containing all or part of the [[New Testament]]. Most of these manuscripts date to the [[Middle Ages]]. The first complete copy of the New Testament, the [[Codex Sinaiticus]], dates to the [[fourth century]]. The earliest fragment of a New Testament book is the [[Rylands Library Papyrus P52]] which dates to the mid-[[second century]] and is the size of a business card. Very early manuscripts are rare.
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* The historical accuracy of the Bible
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* The Bible's claims of its own inerrancy
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No two manuscripts are identical, except in the smallest fragments, and the many manuscripts which preserve New Testament texts differ among themselves in many respects, with some estimates of 200,000 to 300,000 differences among the various manuscripts. According to Ehrman,
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* Church history and tradition
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* One's individual experience with God
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<blockquote>Most changes are careless errors that are easily recognized and corrected. Christian scribes often made mistakes simply because they were tired or inattentive or, sometimes, inept. Indeed, the single most common mistake in our manuscripts involves "orthography," significant for little more than showing that scribes in antiquity could spell no better than most of us can today. In addition, we have numerous manuscripts in which scribes have left out entire words, verses, or even pages of a book, presumably by accident. Sometimes scribes rearranged the words on the page, for example, by leaving out a word and then reinserting it later in the sentence.</blockquote>  
 
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Some familiar examples of Gospel passages thought to have been added by later interpolators include the [[Pericope Adulteræ]] (John 7:53 - 8:11), the [[Comma Johanneum]] (1 John 5:7–8), and the longer ending in [[Mark 16]] (Mark 16:9-20).
 
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For hundreds of years, biblical and textual scholars have examined the manuscripts extensively. Since the eighteenth century, they have employed the techniques of [[textual criticism]] to reconstruct how the extant manuscripts of the New Testament texts might have descended, and to recover earlier recensions of the texts. Many inerrantists believe that the authorial recensions of New Testament texts are not only accessible, but accurately represented by modern translation. Though some inerrantists often prefer the traditional texts used in their churches to modern attempts of reconstruction, arguing that the [[Holy Spirit]] is just as active in the preservation of the scriptures as he was in their creation. These inerrantists are found particularly in non-Protestant churches, but also a few Protestant groups hold such views.
 
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The books that are included and excluded from the Bible are the result of a long historical process, which was only finalised during the reign of [[Constantine]], when finally certain books were included and others excluded as [[Apocrypha]] from the Biblical canon. For a position of Biblical inerrancy to be accepted, those holding this view must also believe that the separation of Canon from Apocrypha was also divinely inspired (for example Catholics accept 1 & 2 [[Maccabees]] within the Canon, Protestants exclude it).
 
  
 
==Major religious views on the Bible==
 
==Major religious views on the Bible==
 
===Roman Catholics===
 
===Roman Catholics===
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[[Roman Catholic Church]] teaching holds that the resurrection of [[Jesus]] affirms his divinity, that Jesus in turn appointed the [[Pope]] and the body of [[Bishop]]s led by the Pope, guided by the [[Holy Spirit]], to offer guidance on questions of faith and morals. Catholics believe this guidance has allowed the teachings of Jesus and the Apostles, in [[Sacred Tradition]] and Sacred Scripture (the Bible), to be preserved and passed down to the present day. Speaking from the claimed authority granted to him by Christ, Pope [[Pius XII]], in his encyclical [[Divino Afflante Spiritu]] denounced those who held that the inerrancy was restricted to matters of faith and morals:
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[[Image:Gutenberg Bible.jpg|thumb|250px|A copy of the [[Gutenberg Bible]], in the Latin Vulgate]]
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<blockquote>The sacred [[Council of Trent]] ordained by solemn decree that "the entire books with all their parts, as they have been [[Wiktionary:wont|wont]] to be read in the Catholic Church and are contained in the old vulgate Latin edition, are to be held sacred and canonical." [...] When, subsequently, some Catholic writers, in spite of this solemn definition of Catholic doctrine, by which such divine authority is claimed for the "entire books with all their parts" as to secure freedom from any error whatsoever, ventured to restrict the truth of Sacred Scripture solely to matters of faith and morals, and to regard other matters, whether in the domain of physical science or history, as "[[Wiktionary:obiter dictum|obiter dicta]]" and - as they contended - in no wise connected with faith, Our Predecessor of immortal memory, Leo XIII in the Encyclical Letter [[Providentissimus Deus]] justly and rightly condemned these errors.
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[[Roman Catholic Church]] teaching on the question of inerrancy has evolved considerably in the last century. Speaking from the claimed authority granted to him by Christ, Pope [[Pius XII]], in his encyclical ''[[Divino Afflante Spiritu]],'' denounced those who held that the inerrancy was restricted to matters of faith and morals. He reaffirmed the decision of the Council of Trent that the Vulgate Latin edition of the Bible is both sacred and canonical and stated that these "entire books with all their parts" are free "from any error whatsoever." He officially criticized those Catholic writers who wished to restrict the authority of scripture "to matters of faith and morals" as being "in error."
  
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The Roman Catholic position on the Bible is further clarified in [[Dei Verbum]], one of the principal documents of the [[Second Vatican Council]]. This document states the Catholic belief that all scripture is sacred and reliable because the biblical authors were inspired by God. However, the human dimension of the Bible is also acknowledged as well as the importance of proper interpretation. Careful attention must be paid to the actual meaning intended by the authors, in order to render a correct interpretation. Genre, modes of expression, historical circumstances, poetic liberty, and church tradition are all factors that must be considered by Catholics when examining scripture. The Roman Catholic Church holds that the authority to declare correct interpretation rests ultimately with the church through its [[magisterium]].  This teaching is reiterated in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]].
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However, ''[[Dei Verbum]]'', one of the principal documents of the [[Second Vatican Council]] hedges somewhat on this issue. This document states the Catholic belief that all scripture is sacred and reliable because the biblical authors were inspired by God. However, the human dimension of the Bible is also acknowledged as well as the importance of proper interpretation. Careful attention must be paid to the actual meaning intended by the authors, in order to render a correct interpretation. Genre, modes of expression, historical circumstances, poetic liberty, and church tradition are all factors that must be considered by Catholics when examining scripture.
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The Roman Catholic Church further holds that the authority to declare correct interpretation rests ultimately with the Church.
  
 
===Eastern Orthodox Christians===
 
===Eastern Orthodox Christians===
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The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] also believes in unwritten tradition and the written scriptures, but it has rarely sought to clarify the relationship between them. Contemporary Eastern Orthodox theologians debate whether these are separate deposits of knowledge or different ways of understanding a single dogmatic reality. Father [[Georges Florovsky]], for example, asserted that tradition is no more than "Scripture rightly understood." Because the Eastern Orthodox Church emphasizes the authority of councils, which belong to all the bishops, it stresses the canonical uses more than inspiration of scripture.  
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Because the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] emphasizes the authority of councils, which belong to all the bishops, it stresses the canonical uses more than inspiration of scripture. The Eastern Orthodox Church thus believes in unwritten tradition and the written scriptures. Contemporary Eastern Orthodox theologians debate whether these are separate deposits of knowledge or different ways of understanding a single dogmatic reality.  
  
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Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, most Eastern Orthodox theologians also recognize that a final seal of authenticity or ecumenicity is that the body of the church receives the councils. Since the acceptance of the Septuagint and New Testament by leading regional bishops of the second century was based on those texts' faithfulness to the same apostolic teaching to which the church traditions are also faithful. The Eastern Orthodox Church emphasizes that the scriptures can only be understood according to a normative rule of faith (the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]], in short) and way of life that has continued from Christ and the Apostles to this day, and beyond.
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The Eastern Orthodox Church also emphasizes that the scriptures can only be understood according to a normative rule of faith (the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]]) and the way of life that has continued from Christ to this day.
  
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===Protestant views===
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===Conservative Protestant views===
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==== The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy ====
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In 1978, a large gathering of American [[Protestant]] churches, including representatives of the Conservative, [[Reformed Church in America|Reformed]] and [[Presbyterian]], [[Lutheran]], and [[Baptist]] denominations, adopted the ''[[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]]''. The Chicago Statement does not imply that any particular traditional translation of the Bible is without error. Instead, it gives primacy to seeking the intention of the author of each original text, and commits itself to receiving the statement as fact depending on whether it can be determined or assumed that the author meant to communicate a statement of fact.  Of course, knowing the intent of the original authors is impossible.
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In 1978, a large gathering of American [[Protestant]] churches, including representatives of the Conservative, [[Reformed Church in America|Reformed]] and [[Presbyterian]], [[Lutheran]], and [[Baptist]] denominations, adopted the [[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]]. The Chicago Statement does not imply that any particular traditional translation of the Bible is without error. Instead, it gives primacy to seeking the intention of the author of each original text, and commits itself to receiving the statement as fact depending on whether it can be determined or assumed that the author meant to communicate a statement of fact.  Of course, knowing the intent of the original authors is impossible.
 
  
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Acknowledging that there are many kinds of literature in the Bible besides statements of fact, the Statement nevertheless reasserts the authenticity of the Bible ''in toto'' as the word of God. Advocates of the Chicago Statement are worried that accepting one error in the Bible leads one down a slippery slope that ends in rejecting that the Bible has any value greater than some other book. ''"The authority of Scripture is inescapably impaired if this total divine inerrancy is in any way limited or disregarded, or made relative to a view of truth contrary to the Bible's own; and such lapses bring serious loss to both the individual and the church."''
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[[Image:Frontpiece Cambridge.jpg|thumb|Title page of the King James Version]]
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Acknowledging that there are many kinds of literature in the Bible besides statements of fact, the Statement nevertheless reasserts the authenticity of the Bible ''in toto'' as the word of God. Advocates of the Chicago Statement are worried that accepting one error in the Bible leads one down a slippery slope that ends in rejecting that the Bible has any value greater than some other book" <blockquote>"The authority of Scripture is inescapably impaired if this total divine inerrancy is in any way limited or disregarded, or made relative to a view of truth contrary to the Bible's own; and such lapses bring serious loss to both the individual and the church."<ref> [http://www.alliancenet.org/the-chicago-statement-on-biblical-inerrancy The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy] Alliance of Confessing Evangelicals. Retrieved September 26, 2018.</ref></blockquote>
  
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====Evangelicals====
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However, this view is not accepted as normative by many mainline denominations, including many churches and ministers who adopted the Statement.
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[[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] churches, unlike Eastern and Roman churches, reject that there is an infallible authoritative tradition that is held over, or on a par with, scripture. Some Evangelicals hold that the Bible confirms its own authority, pointing out that [[Jesus]] frequently quotes scripture as his final "court of appeal".<ref>See for example Matthew 4:4,6 & 10; 21:13; Mark 9:12</ref> The reasoning is that if the Bible is assumed to be inerrant and the only form of God's word, then that implies that the Bible is fully reliable.  Tradition on the other hand is seen to be subject to human memory, and may have many versions of the same events/truths, some of which may be contradictory.
 
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Evangelical churches which hold to Biblical inerrancy will often make a prominent, unambiguous statement supporting this in a list of their beliefs.
 
  
 
====King James Only====
 
====King James Only====
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Another belief, [[King James Only]], holds that the translators of the [[King James Version]] English Bible were guided by God, and that the KJV thus is to be taken as the authoritative English Bible. However, those who hold this opinion do not extend it to the KJV translation into English of the [[Biblical apocrypha|Apocryphal]] books, which were produced along with the rest of the Authorized Version. Modern translations differ from the KJV on numerous points, sometimes resulting from access to different early texts, largely as a result of work in the field of [[Textual Criticism]]. Upholders of the KJV nevertheless hold that the [[Protestant]] canon of KJV is itself an inspired text and therefore remains authoritative. The King James Only movement asserts that the KJV is the ''sole'' [[English language|English]] translation free from error.  
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Another belief, [[King James Only]], holds that the translators of the ''[[King James Version]]'' English Bible were guided by God, and that the KJV is to be taken as the authoritative English Bible. Modern translations differ from the KJV on numerous points, sometimes resulting from access to different early texts, largely as a result of work in the field of [[Textual Criticism]]. Upholders of the KJV-Only view nevertheless hold that the [[Protestant]] canon of the KJV is itself an inspired text and therefore remains authoritative. The King James Only movement asserts that the KJV is the ''sole'' [[English language|English]] translation free from error.  
  
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====Textus Receptus (non-English speaking cultures)====
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====Textus Receptus====
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Similar to the King James Only view is the view that [[King James Only#Similar Movements in Non-English Speaking Countries|translations must be derived from]] the [[Textus Receptus]] in order to be considered inerrant. As the King James Version is an English translation, this leaves speakers of other languages in a difficult position, hence the belief in the Textus Receptus as the inerrant source text for translations to modern languages. For example, in Spanish-speaking cultures the commonly accepted "KJV-equivalent" is the [[Reina-Valera]] 1909 revision (with different groups accepting in addition to the 1909 or in its place the revisions of 1862 or 1960).
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Similar to the King James Only view is the view that translations must be derived from the ''[[Textus Receptus]]''—the name given to the printed Greek texts of the New Testament used by both [[Martin Luther]] and the KJV translators—in order to be considered inerrant. For example, in Spanish-speaking cultures the commonly accepted "KJV-equivalent" is the [[Reina-Valera]] 1909 revision (with different groups accepting it in addition to the 1909, or in its place the revisions of 1862 or 1960).
  
 
====Wesleyan and Methodist view of scripture====
 
====Wesleyan and Methodist view of scripture====
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The [[John Wesley|Wesleyan]] and [[Methodist]] Christian tradition affirms that the Bible is authoritative on matters concerning faith and practice. The [[United Methodist Church]] does not use the word "inerrant" to describe the Bible, but it does believe that the Bible is God's Word, and as such, is the primary authority for faith and practice.
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The [[John Wesley|Wesleyan]] and [[Methodist]] Christian tradition affirms that the Bible is authoritative on matters concerning faith and practice but does not use the word "inerrant" to describe the Bible. What is of central importance for the Wesleyan Christian tradition is the Bible as a tool which God uses to promote salvation. According to this tradition, the Bible does not itself effect salvation; God initiates salvation and proper creaturely responses consummate salvation. One may be in danger of [[bibliolatry]] if one claims that the Bible secures salvation.
  
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What is of central importance for the Wesleyan Christian tradition is the Bible as a tool which God uses to promote salvation. According to this tradition, the Bible does not itself effect salvation; God initiates salvation and proper creaturely responses consummate salvation. One may be in danger of [[bibliolatry]] if one claims that the Bible secures salvation.
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====Lutheran views====
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The larger [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada]] do not officially hold to biblical inerrancy.
  
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With this focus on salvation, Wesleyans need not make claims about inerrancy in the original autographs, subsequent translations, or particular interpretations. And yet Wesleyans affirm the Bible to be principally authoritative for faith and practice, and the Bible is often a principle means for God to promote salvation in the world.
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The [[Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod]], the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]], the [[Lutheran Church--Canada]], the [[Evangelical Lutheran Synod]], and many other smaller Lutheran bodies do hold to scriptural inerrancy, though for the most part Lutherans do not consider themselves to be "fundamentalists."
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====Lutheran views====
 
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The [[Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod]], the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]], the [[Lutheran Church - Canada]], the [[Evangelical Lutheran Synod]], and many other smaller Lutheran bodies hold to Scriptural inerrancy, though for the most part Lutherans do not consider themselves to be "fundamentalists." The larger [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada]] do not officially hold to biblical inerrancy, though there are those within the ELCA and ELCIC who are Inerrantists.
 
  
 
==Criticisms of biblical inerrancy==
 
==Criticisms of biblical inerrancy==
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Proponents of biblical inerrancy often prefer the translations of {{bibleverse|2|Timothy|3:16|9}} that render it as "all scripture is given by inspiration of God,," and they interpret this to mean that the whole Bible is inerrant. However, critics of this doctrine think that the Bible makes no direct claim to be inerrant or infallible. The same sentence can be translated "Every inspired scripture is also useful...," with equal validity, nor does the verse define the [[Biblical canon]]. In context, this passage refers only to the Old Testament writings understood to be scripture at the time it was written.   
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Proponents of biblical inerrancy refer to {{bibleverse|2|Timothy|3:16|9}}—"all scripture is given by inspiration of God"—as evidence that the whole Bible is inerrant. However, critics of this doctrine think that the Bible makes no direct claim to be inerrant or infallible. Indeed, in context, this passage refers only to the [[Old Testament]] writings understood to be scripture at the time it was written.   
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The idea that the Bible contains no mistakes is mainly justified by appeal to prooftexts that refer to its divine inspiration. However, this argument has been criticized as circular reasoning, because these statements only have to be accepted as true if the Bible is already thought to be inerrant. None of these texts say that because a text is inspired, it is therefore always correct in its historical or moral statements.
 
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===Meaning of "Word of God"===
 
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Much debate over the kind of authority that should be accorded biblical texts centres on what is meant by the "Word of God." The term can refer to Christ Himself as well as to the proclamation of his ministry as [[kerygma]]. However, biblical inerrancy differs from this orthodoxy in viewing the Word of God to mean the entire text of the Bible when interpreted didactally as God's teaching. The idea of the Bible itself as Word of God, as being itself God's revelation, is criticized in [[Neo-Orthodoxy]]. Here the Bible is seen as a unique witness to the people and deeds that do make up the Word of God. However, it is a wholly human witness. All books of the Bible were written by human persons. Thus, whether the Bible is in whole or in part, [[Exodus]] claims of the [[Ethical Decalogue]] and [[Ritual Decalogue]] that these are God's word. However, critics argue that the Bible can still be construed as the "Word of [[God]]" in the sense that these authors' statements may have been representative of, and perhaps even directly influenced by, God's own knowledge.
 
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There is only one instance in the Bible where the phrase "The Word Of God" refers to something "written."  The reference is to the "[[Decalogue]]" which many Christian denominations consider "passed away." However, most of the other references are to reported speech which is preserved in the Bible. The New Testament also contains a number of statements which refer to passages from the Old Testament as God's words, for instance Romans 3:2 (which says that the Jews have been "entrusted with the very words of God"), or the book of Hebrews, which often prefaces Old Testament quotations with words such as "God says." The bible also contains words spoken by human beings ''to'' God, such as the prayers and songs of the Psalter.
 
  
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That these are God's words addressed to us was at the root of a lively mediaeval controversy. The idea of the word of God is more that God is encountered in scripture, than that every line of scripture is a statement made by God.
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The idea that the Bible contains no mistakes is mainly justified by appeal to proof-texts that refer to its divine inspiration. However, this argument has been criticized as circular reasoning, because these statements only have to be accepted as true if the Bible is already thought to be inerrant. Moreover, no biblical text says that because a text is inspired, it is therefore always correct in its historical or even its moral statements.  
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The phrase "The Word Of God" is never applied to our modern Bible, within the Bible itself. Supporters of inerrancy argues that that is simply because the Bible canon was not closed.
 
  
 
===Falsifiability===
 
===Falsifiability===
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Biblical inerrancy has also been criticized on the grounds that many statements about [[history]] or [[science]] that are found in Scripture may be demonstrated to be untenable. Inerrancy is argued to be a [[Modus tollens| falsifiable]] proposition: if the Bible is found to contain any mistakes or [[Internal consistency of the Bible|contradictions]], the proposition has been refuted. Opinion is divided over which parts of the Bible are trustworthy in the light of these considerations. Radical theologians answer that the Bible contains at least two divergent views of the nature of God: a bloody tribal deity or a loving father. The choice of which viewpoint to value can be based on that which is found to be intellectually coherent and morally challenging, and this is given priority over other teaching found in books of the Bible.
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Biblical inerrancy has also been criticized on the grounds that many statements about [[history]] or [[science]] that are found in Scripture may be demonstrated to be untenable. Inerrancy is argued to be a [[Modus tollens|falsifiable]] proposition: If the Bible is found to contain any mistakes or [[Internal consistency of the Bible|contradictions]], the proposition has been refuted. Opinion is divided over which parts of the Bible are trustworthy in the light of these considerations. Critical theologians answer that the Bible contains at least two divergent views of the nature of God: A bloody tribal deity and a loving father. The choice of which viewpoint to value can be based on that which is found to be intellectually coherent and morally challenging, and this is given priority over other teachings found in books of the Bible.
  
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===Mythical cosmology, a Stumbling-Block===
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===Mythical cosmology, a stumbling-block===
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The Bible encapsulates a different world-view from the one shared by most people who live in the world now. In the gospels there are [[demon]]s and possessed people: there is a heaven where God sits and an underworld, whither go the dead. Evidence suggests that the cosmology of the Bible assumed that the Earth was flat and that the sun traveled around the Earth, and that the Earth was created in six days within the last 10,000 years.
+
[[File:Cavallino St. John the Evangelist.jpg|thumb|200px|The ideal of dozens of biblical writers, such as the Apostle John, each writing under the inspiration of the [[Holy Spirit]] to produce a perfectly inerrant collection of scriptures no longer finds credibility among many modern readers of scripture.]]
  
−
Christian fundamentalists who advance the doctrine of inerrancy use the supernatural as a means of explanation for miraculous stories from the Bible. An example is the story of Jonah. Jonah 1:15-17 tells how on making a voyage to Tarshish, a storm threatened the survival of the boat, and to calm the storm the sailors-
+
The Bible encapsulates a different world-view from the one shared by most people who live in the world now. In the gospels there are [[demon]]s and possessed people: There is a heaven where God sits and an underworld, where go the dead. Evidence suggests that the cosmology of the Bible assumed that the Earth was flat and that the sun traveled around the Earth, and that the Earth was created in six days within the last 10,000 years.
  
−
''".. took Jonah and threw him overboard, and the raging sea grew calm. At this the men greatly feared the Lord, and they offered a sacrifice to the Lord and made vows to him''.
+
Christian fundamentalists who advance the doctrine of inerrancy use the supernatural as a means of explanation for miraculous stories from the Bible. An example is the story of [[Jonah]]. Jonah 1:15-17 tells how on making a voyage to Tarshish, a storm threatened the survival of the boat, and to calm the storm the sailors:
  
−
''But the Lord prepared a great fish to swallow Jonah, and Jonah was inside the fish three days and three nights.''"
+
<blockquote>… took Jonah and threw him overboard, and the raging sea grew calm. At this the men greatly feared the Lord, and they offered a sacrifice to the Lord and made vows to him. But the Lord prepared a great fish to swallow Jonah, and Jonah was inside the fish three days and three nights.</blockquote>
  
−
[[Bernard Ramm]] explained the miracle of Jonah's sojourn within the great fish or whale as an act of special creation.<ref>Ramm "The Christian View of Science and Scripture." Paternoster Press 1955, 1964</ref>. James Barr severely critized this '''extreme supernaturalim'' :<blockquote>
+
[[Bernard Ramm]] explained the miracle of Jonah's sojourn within the great fish or whale as an act of special creation.<ref>Bernard Ramm, ''The Christian View of Science and Scripture'' (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1954, ISBN 978-0802814296).</ref> Critics of this view sarcastically ask whether it had a primitive form of air-conditioning for the well-being of the [[prophet]] and a writing-desk with inkpot and pen so that the prophet could compose the prayer which is recorded in Jonah 2. Inerrancy means believing that this mythological cosmology and such stories are 100 percent truthful.<ref>Ian Plimer, ''Telling Lies for God: Reason vs Creationism'' (Random House, 1994).</ref>
  
−
From the wording of the KJ text, "Now the Lord had prepared a great fish," Ramm extracts this imaginative account of a specially created sea-creature, different from all other fishes or whales. No doubt it had a primitive form of air-conditioning for the well-being of the prophet. Perhaps it contained a writing-desk with inkpot and pen, similar to those actually found at Qumran, so that the prophet could indite on the spot the prayer which he recited (Jonah 2). These are not exaggerations for comic effect: in sober truth there is absolutely nothing to control speculation once the extreme supernaturalism of Ramm is accepted. There is no means of saying what is more or less probable, what is justifiable and what is not. The only limitaton is that such a supernaturalist speculation should have some scrap of biblical evidence to hang on to.
+
Even more disturbing to some readers are the moral implications of accepting the biblical claim that God commanded the the slaughter of women and children (Numbers 31:17), and even the [[genocide]] of rival ethnic groups (1 Samuel 15:3).
−
</blockquote>
 
  
−
Inerrancy means believing that this mythological cosmology and such stories are 100% truthful.<ref>Plimer, Ian (1994) "Telling Lies for God: Reason vs Creationism" (Random House)</ref><ref>Spong, John Shelby (1992), "Rescuing the Bible from Fundamentalism: A Bishop Rethinks the Meaning of Scripture" (Harper)</ref> Rudolf Bultmann thought that modern people could not do this in good conscience, and that this understanding of scripture could become a stumbling-block to faith.<ref>Rudolf Bultmann, 'Jesus Christ and Mythology' SCM 1960</ref> Bultmann considered the Gospel a proclamation of the will of God; Jesus demands that the whole human person be obedient to God: and that obstacles or stumbling-blocks to real faith are found in the selfish will rather than the understanding of a person.
+
The leading twentieth century biblical scholar and theologian [[Rudolf Bultmann]] thought that modern people could not accept such propositions in good conscience, and that this understanding of scripture literally could become a stumbling-block to faith.<ref>Rudolf Bultmann, ''Jesus Christ and Mythology'' (Pearson, 1981, ISBN 978-0023055706).</ref> For Bultmann and his followers, the answer was the demythologization of the Christian message, together with a critical approach to biblical studies.
−
 
 
−
===Translation===
 
−
One point that has been argued is that, even if the text were guaranteed inerrant in its original language, this no longer holds true after translation, because there is no such thing as a perfect translation. The original texts were primarily written in Hebrew and Greek with translations in several ancient languages - [[Hebrew]], [[Koine Greek]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], and [[Syriac]] - which few are now familiar with. Translators from one language to another are often faced with several ways in which a phrase may be translated, particularly in the case of poetic passages, and the language into which the Bible is being translated is constantly evolving and changing. Mistaken translations of the Bible are occasionally proposed or ''discovered''. For instance, scholars write<ref>New Jerusalem Bible, note g, page 1201.</ref> that an early messianic prophecy<ref>Isaiah 7:14</ref> did not require that the Messiah's mother be a virgin, only young. It has been proposed that the [[Gospels]]' description of the Virgin Mary<ref>Matthew 1:23</ref> were manufactured to fit with a prophecy they themselves read in a mistranslated version.
 
−
 
 
−
Some biblical passages are conventionally treated as verse, and others as different kinds of prose: this has not always been the case. Some of the prose contains many linguistic forms that indicate poetry. The two forms have a certain mutual overlap. Inerrancy as a doctrine itself provides no clear hermeneutic for discovering how the literal communications found in prose can be distinguished from the symbolic and metaphorical elements of poetry.
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
−
{{reflist}}
+
<references/>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Boone, Kathleen C. ''The Bible Tells Them So: The Discourse of Protestant Fundamentalism'', State University of New York Press, 1989. ISBN 0-88706-895-2
+
* Boone, Kathleen C. ''The Bible Tells Them So: The Discourse of Protestant Fundamentalism''. State University of New York Press, 1989. ISBN 0887068952
−
*Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew'', Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-518249-9
+
* Bultmann, Rudolf. ''Jesus Christ and Mythology''. Pearson, 1981. ISBN 978-0023055706
−
*Geisler, Norman, & Nix, William E. Nix. ''A General Introduction to the Bible'', Moody Publishers, 1986). ISBN 0-8024-2916-5
+
* Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew''. Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0195182499
−
*Lightner, Robert P. ''Biblical Case for Total Inerrancy'', Kregel Academic & Proficiency, 1997. ISBN 978-0825431104
+
* Geisler, Norman, and William E. Nix. ''A General Introduction to the Bible''. Moody Publishers, 1986. ISBN 0802429165
 +
* Lightner, Robert P. ''A Biblical Case for Total Inerrancy''. Kregel Academic & Professional, 1997. ISBN 978-0825431104
 +
* Plimer, Ian. ''Telling Lies for God: Reason vs Creationism''. Random House Australia, 1994. ISBN
 +
978-0091828523
 +
* Ramm, Bernard. ''The Christian View of Science and Scripture''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1954. ISBN 978-0802814296
 +
* Spong, John Shelby. ''Rescuing the Bible from Fundamentalism: A Bishop Rethinks the Meaning of Scripture.'' HarperOne, 1992. ISBN 978-0060675189
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*[http://homepage.mac.com/shanerosenthal/reformationink/bbwauthority.htm The Authority and Inspiration of the Scriptures] by [[B. B. Warfield]]
+
All links retrieved October 1, 2023.  
−
*[http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/crj_recentperspectives/crj_recentperspectives.htm Recent Perspectives on the Reliability of the Gospels] by Gary R. Habermas
+
 
−
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html Dei Verbum] Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation (1965)
+
*[http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/crj_recentperspectives/crj_recentperspectives.htm Recent Perspectives on the Reliability of the Gospels] by Gary R. Habermas.
−
*[http://www.quodlibet.net/perry-inerrancy.shtml Dissolving the Inerrancy Debate (a postmodern view)]
+
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html Dei Verbum] Pope Paul VI, November 18, 1965.
  
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
{{Credit|154596932}}
 
{{Credit|154596932}}

Latest revision as of 03:41, 1 October 2023


Rembrandt's version of an angel whispering into the ear of the Evangelist Matthew

Biblical inerrancy is the doctrinal position that in its original form, the Bible is totally without error, and free from all contradiction; referring to the complete accuracy of Scripture, including the historical and scientific parts. Inerrancy is distinguished from biblical infallibility (or limited inerrancy), which holds that the Bible is inerrant on issues of faith and practice but not history or science.

Those adhering to biblical inerrancy usually admit the possibility of errors in translation of sacred text. A famous quote from St. Augustine declares, "It is not allowable to say, 'The author of this book is mistaken;' but either the manuscript is faulty, or the translation is wrong, or you have not understood.”

Inerrancy has come under strong criticism in the modern era. Although several Protestant groups do adhere to it, the Catholic Church no longer strictly upholds the doctrine. Many contemporary Christians, while holding to basic moral and theological truths of the Bible, cannot in good conscience accept its primitive cosmological outlook, or—on close reading—the the troubling ethical attitudes of some its writers.

Inerrancy in context

Saint Paul, the supposed author of 2 Timothy, said that "all scripture is God-breathed." However, the New Testament had not yet been written in Paul's day.

Many denominations believe that the Bible is inspired by God, who through the human authors is the divine author of the Bible.

This is expressed in the following Bible passage: "All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness 2 Timothy 3:16 NIV).

Although the author here refers to the Hebrew Scripture and not the Christian New Testament, which had not been compiled or completely written at the time of 2 Timothy's writing, most Christians take this saying to apply to the New Testament canon, which came to be accepted in the early fourth century C.E.

Many who believe in the inspiration of scripture teach that it is infallible. However, those who accept the infallibility of scripture hold that its historical or scientific details, which may be irrelevant to matters of faith and Christian practice, may contain errors. Those who believe in inerrancy, however, hold that the scientific, geographic, and historic details of the scriptural texts in their original manuscripts are completely true and without error. On the other hand, a number of contemporary Christians have come to question even the doctrine of infallibility, holding that the biblical writers were indeed inspired at time by God, but that they also express their own, all too human attitudes. In this view, it is ultimately up to the individual conscience to decide what parts of the Bible are truly inspired and accurate, and what parts are the expression of human fallibility. Indeed, much of biblical scholarship in the last two centuries has taken the position that the Bible must be studied in its historical context as a human work, and not only as a sacred scripture which must not be questioned or contradicted by historical or scientific facts.

The theological basis of the belief of inerrancy, in its simplest form, is that as God is perfect, the Bible, as the word of God, must also be perfect, thus, free from error. Proponents of biblical inerrancy also teach that God used the "distinctive personalities and literary styles of the writers" of scripture but that God's inspiration guided them to flawlessly project his message through their own language and personality.

Infallibility and inerrancy refer to the original texts of the Bible. And while conservative scholars acknowledge the potential for human error in transmission and translation, modern translations are considered to "faithfully represent the originals".[1]

In their text on the subject, Geisler and Nix (1986) claim that scriptural inerrancy is established by a number of observations and processes,[2] which include:

  • The historical accuracy of the Bible
  • The Bible's claims of its own inerrancy
  • Church history and tradition
  • One's individual experience with God

Major religious views on the Bible

Roman Catholics

A copy of the Gutenberg Bible, in the Latin Vulgate

Roman Catholic Church teaching on the question of inerrancy has evolved considerably in the last century. Speaking from the claimed authority granted to him by Christ, Pope Pius XII, in his encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu, denounced those who held that the inerrancy was restricted to matters of faith and morals. He reaffirmed the decision of the Council of Trent that the Vulgate Latin edition of the Bible is both sacred and canonical and stated that these "entire books with all their parts" are free "from any error whatsoever." He officially criticized those Catholic writers who wished to restrict the authority of scripture "to matters of faith and morals" as being "in error."

However, Dei Verbum, one of the principal documents of the Second Vatican Council hedges somewhat on this issue. This document states the Catholic belief that all scripture is sacred and reliable because the biblical authors were inspired by God. However, the human dimension of the Bible is also acknowledged as well as the importance of proper interpretation. Careful attention must be paid to the actual meaning intended by the authors, in order to render a correct interpretation. Genre, modes of expression, historical circumstances, poetic liberty, and church tradition are all factors that must be considered by Catholics when examining scripture.

The Roman Catholic Church further holds that the authority to declare correct interpretation rests ultimately with the Church.

Eastern Orthodox Christians

Because the Eastern Orthodox Church emphasizes the authority of councils, which belong to all the bishops, it stresses the canonical uses more than inspiration of scripture. The Eastern Orthodox Church thus believes in unwritten tradition and the written scriptures. Contemporary Eastern Orthodox theologians debate whether these are separate deposits of knowledge or different ways of understanding a single dogmatic reality.

The Eastern Orthodox Church also emphasizes that the scriptures can only be understood according to a normative rule of faith (the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed) and the way of life that has continued from Christ to this day.

Conservative Protestant views

In 1978, a large gathering of American Protestant churches, including representatives of the Conservative, Reformed and Presbyterian, Lutheran, and Baptist denominations, adopted the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy. The Chicago Statement does not imply that any particular traditional translation of the Bible is without error. Instead, it gives primacy to seeking the intention of the author of each original text, and commits itself to receiving the statement as fact depending on whether it can be determined or assumed that the author meant to communicate a statement of fact. Of course, knowing the intent of the original authors is impossible.

Title page of the King James Version

Acknowledging that there are many kinds of literature in the Bible besides statements of fact, the Statement nevertheless reasserts the authenticity of the Bible in toto as the word of God. Advocates of the Chicago Statement are worried that accepting one error in the Bible leads one down a slippery slope that ends in rejecting that the Bible has any value greater than some other book"

"The authority of Scripture is inescapably impaired if this total divine inerrancy is in any way limited or disregarded, or made relative to a view of truth contrary to the Bible's own; and such lapses bring serious loss to both the individual and the church."[3]

However, this view is not accepted as normative by many mainline denominations, including many churches and ministers who adopted the Statement.

King James Only

Another belief, King James Only, holds that the translators of the King James Version English Bible were guided by God, and that the KJV is to be taken as the authoritative English Bible. Modern translations differ from the KJV on numerous points, sometimes resulting from access to different early texts, largely as a result of work in the field of Textual Criticism. Upholders of the KJV-Only view nevertheless hold that the Protestant canon of the KJV is itself an inspired text and therefore remains authoritative. The King James Only movement asserts that the KJV is the sole English translation free from error.

Textus Receptus

Similar to the King James Only view is the view that translations must be derived from the Textus Receptus—the name given to the printed Greek texts of the New Testament used by both Martin Luther and the KJV translators—in order to be considered inerrant. For example, in Spanish-speaking cultures the commonly accepted "KJV-equivalent" is the Reina-Valera 1909 revision (with different groups accepting it in addition to the 1909, or in its place the revisions of 1862 or 1960).

Wesleyan and Methodist view of scripture

The Wesleyan and Methodist Christian tradition affirms that the Bible is authoritative on matters concerning faith and practice but does not use the word "inerrant" to describe the Bible. What is of central importance for the Wesleyan Christian tradition is the Bible as a tool which God uses to promote salvation. According to this tradition, the Bible does not itself effect salvation; God initiates salvation and proper creaturely responses consummate salvation. One may be in danger of bibliolatry if one claims that the Bible secures salvation.

Lutheran views

The larger Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada do not officially hold to biblical inerrancy.

The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, the Lutheran Church—Canada, the Evangelical Lutheran Synod, and many other smaller Lutheran bodies do hold to scriptural inerrancy, though for the most part Lutherans do not consider themselves to be "fundamentalists."

Criticisms of biblical inerrancy

Proponents of biblical inerrancy refer to 2 Timothy 3:16—"all scripture is given by inspiration of God"—as evidence that the whole Bible is inerrant. However, critics of this doctrine think that the Bible makes no direct claim to be inerrant or infallible. Indeed, in context, this passage refers only to the Old Testament writings understood to be scripture at the time it was written.

The idea that the Bible contains no mistakes is mainly justified by appeal to proof-texts that refer to its divine inspiration. However, this argument has been criticized as circular reasoning, because these statements only have to be accepted as true if the Bible is already thought to be inerrant. Moreover, no biblical text says that because a text is inspired, it is therefore always correct in its historical or even its moral statements.

Falsifiability

Biblical inerrancy has also been criticized on the grounds that many statements about history or science that are found in Scripture may be demonstrated to be untenable. Inerrancy is argued to be a falsifiable proposition: If the Bible is found to contain any mistakes or contradictions, the proposition has been refuted. Opinion is divided over which parts of the Bible are trustworthy in the light of these considerations. Critical theologians answer that the Bible contains at least two divergent views of the nature of God: A bloody tribal deity and a loving father. The choice of which viewpoint to value can be based on that which is found to be intellectually coherent and morally challenging, and this is given priority over other teachings found in books of the Bible.

Mythical cosmology, a stumbling-block

The ideal of dozens of biblical writers, such as the Apostle John, each writing under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit to produce a perfectly inerrant collection of scriptures no longer finds credibility among many modern readers of scripture.

The Bible encapsulates a different world-view from the one shared by most people who live in the world now. In the gospels there are demons and possessed people: There is a heaven where God sits and an underworld, where go the dead. Evidence suggests that the cosmology of the Bible assumed that the Earth was flat and that the sun traveled around the Earth, and that the Earth was created in six days within the last 10,000 years.

Christian fundamentalists who advance the doctrine of inerrancy use the supernatural as a means of explanation for miraculous stories from the Bible. An example is the story of Jonah. Jonah 1:15-17 tells how on making a voyage to Tarshish, a storm threatened the survival of the boat, and to calm the storm the sailors:

… took Jonah and threw him overboard, and the raging sea grew calm. At this the men greatly feared the Lord, and they offered a sacrifice to the Lord and made vows to him. But the Lord prepared a great fish to swallow Jonah, and Jonah was inside the fish three days and three nights.

Bernard Ramm explained the miracle of Jonah's sojourn within the great fish or whale as an act of special creation.[4] Critics of this view sarcastically ask whether it had a primitive form of air-conditioning for the well-being of the prophet and a writing-desk with inkpot and pen so that the prophet could compose the prayer which is recorded in Jonah 2. Inerrancy means believing that this mythological cosmology and such stories are 100 percent truthful.[5]

Even more disturbing to some readers are the moral implications of accepting the biblical claim that God commanded the the slaughter of women and children (Numbers 31:17), and even the genocide of rival ethnic groups (1 Samuel 15:3).

The leading twentieth century biblical scholar and theologian Rudolf Bultmann thought that modern people could not accept such propositions in good conscience, and that this understanding of scripture literally could become a stumbling-block to faith.[6] For Bultmann and his followers, the answer was the demythologization of the Christian message, together with a critical approach to biblical studies.

Notes

  1. ↑ Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy with Exposition Bible Research. Retrieved September 26, 2018.
  2. ↑ Norman Geisler and William E. Nix, A General Introduction to the Bible (Moody Publishers, 1986, ISBN 0802429165).
  3. ↑ The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy Alliance of Confessing Evangelicals. Retrieved September 26, 2018.
  4. ↑ Bernard Ramm, The Christian View of Science and Scripture (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1954, ISBN 978-0802814296).
  5. ↑ Ian Plimer, Telling Lies for God: Reason vs Creationism (Random House, 1994).
  6. ↑ Rudolf Bultmann, Jesus Christ and Mythology (Pearson, 1981, ISBN 978-0023055706).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Boone, Kathleen C. The Bible Tells Them So: The Discourse of Protestant Fundamentalism. State University of New York Press, 1989. ISBN 0887068952
  • Bultmann, Rudolf. Jesus Christ and Mythology. Pearson, 1981. ISBN 978-0023055706
  • Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0195182499
  • Geisler, Norman, and William E. Nix. A General Introduction to the Bible. Moody Publishers, 1986. ISBN 0802429165
  • Lightner, Robert P. A Biblical Case for Total Inerrancy. Kregel Academic & Professional, 1997. ISBN 978-0825431104
  • Plimer, Ian. Telling Lies for God: Reason vs Creationism. Random House Australia, 1994. ISBN

978-0091828523

  • Ramm, Bernard. The Christian View of Science and Scripture. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1954. ISBN 978-0802814296
  • Spong, John Shelby. Rescuing the Bible from Fundamentalism: A Bishop Rethinks the Meaning of Scripture. HarperOne, 1992. ISBN 978-0060675189

External links

All links retrieved October 1, 2023.

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