Difference between revisions of "Sexual abstinence" - New World Encyclopedia

Revision as of 00:50, 21 November 2007

This article focuses on premarital sexual abstinence in the modern context; for the lifelong abstinence of monastics and priests of certain religions see the article on Celibacy.

Sexual abstinence in the modern context refers to the decision to refrain from sexual activity prior to marriage. The traditional religious virtue of chastity combines abstinence before marriage with sexual fidelity to one's spouse within marriage. Reasons for unmarrieds to abstain from sexual activity include religious convictions, to conform to legal injunctions, to prevent undesired pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and to "save oneself" for marriage with the hope of better marital outcomes.

The world's major religions concur in viewing sexual intimacy as proper only within marriage; otherwise it can be destructive to human flourishing. Sexual abstinence prior to marriage and fidelity within marriage are time-honored norms for maintaining strong families. Traditional societies made virginity the norm for unmarrieds; backed by strong community sanctions and even by force of law. However, in the modern West particularly since the sexual revolution of the 1960s, this norm fell by the wayside, replaced by widespread acceptance of casual sex before marriage and even cohabitation in place of marriage. In the current cultural climate, many see sexual abstinence as unnatural, even unhealthy.

In attempting to combat the current climate, social conservatives in the United States have been advocating for abstinence-based sex education, which attempts to uphold the traditional norm. These educators also advocate "secondary virginity," a recommitment to abstinence by teens who previously were sexually active. Some churches promote a "virginity pledge," a commitment to remain sexually abstinent prior to marriage. When supported by medical, psychological, social, and spiritual understanding, such educational efforts have positive impact on the lives of young people.

The norm of premarital abstinence and its decline

Throughout history and in most nations throughout the world, religious teachings have informed social and legal standards. Since adultery has generally been regarded as a sin, and marriage was considered the legitimizer of sexual relations, maintaining virginity prior to marriage, which in early times often took place soon after puberty, was the norm. Yet for many men, prostitution has been tolerated as a sexual outlet, whether openly practiced or conducted discreetly. The Victorian period saw a tightening of sexual mores. The First World War began an upsurge in sexual freedom and indulgence, even as large portions of society retained the traditional moral values of abstinence before marriage.

In the 1960s, the advent of the first oral contraceptive pill and widely available antibiotics suppressed many consequences of promiscuous behavior. This coincided with the "sexual revolution" which celebrated blatant sexuality as an expression of adolescent freedom and self-expression. By the 1970s, abandonment of premarital chastity was no longer taboo in the majority of western societies. Perhaps even the reverse: it became expected, or recommended, that members of both sexes would have experienced a number of sexual partners before marriage. Some cultural groups continued to place a value on the moral purity of an abstainer, but abstinence was caught up in a wider re-evaluation of moral values.

A contributing social trend in industrialized countries has been the delay of marriage to the late 20s and early 30s, as more young people put off marriage to go to college and begin careers. Where traditionally the onset of sexual relations in the teenage years was a cause for early marriage, today early marriage is discouraged. Yet the sexual urges of youth are not as easily delayed, and to keep abstinent until one's 30s is a herculean challenge. Yet studies are questioning the conventional wisdom that early marriages are less stable and of lesser quality than marriages that begin later in life. The early 20s, when romantic feelings are at their peak and the body is most fecund, may be the best time for marriage. The keeping abstinent until then can be a realistic goal.

Today most of the stigmas that discouraged premarital sex have been removed. Even as late as the mid-twentieth century, there was a stigma attached to being a "one-parent family" or producing an illegitimate child—but no longer. The lifting of legal penalties and social stigma regarding illegitimacy has made cohabitation and single motherhood socially acceptable options. Society has not yet reckoned with the social costs of these options, particularly to the children.

Modern abstinence movements

With the increasing problems of unwanted teenage pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases, socially conscious educators began to promote abstinence for teenagers and recommending virginity prior to marriage. Without sexual contact, it is virtually impossible to conceive an unwanted child. By avoiding exposure of the sexual organs to other people, one may also avoid the sexual transmission of many diseases (STDs).

Organizations on the Left such as SIECUS have called abstinence-only programs "fear-based," "designed to control young people’s sexual behavior by instilling fear, shame, and guilt."^[1] Advocates for sexual abstinence dispute this, and claim numerous positive benefits, such as the freedom from teenage pregnancy and the resulting ability to focus on education and preparing for their future. They note that, contrary to the promiscuity norm following the "sexual revolution," preparation for a lifetime of happiness with a single, faithful marriage partner is well served by practicing self-restraint in situations of sexual temptation.^[2]

The effectiveness of abstinence programs for sex education remains a topic of much controversy in the United States. Opponents frequently adopt the line that abstinence education is acceptable only if it is combined with other methods, such as instruction in the use and easy availability of condoms. Proponents reply that to teach about condoms and promote their availability effectively undermines the abstinence norm.

The Case for abstinence

Medical aspects of abstinence

Throughout history, and especially prior to the twentieth century, there have been those who have held that sexual abstinence confers numerous health benefits. For males, lack of abstinence was thought to cause a reduction of vitality. In modern times the argument has been phrased in biological terms, claiming that loss of semen through ejaculation results in a depletion of vital nutrients such as lecithin and phosphorus. Conservation of the semen allegedly allows it to be reabsorbed back into the bloodstream and aid in the healthy development of the body. Before the "sexual revolution" of the 1960s, it was commonly believed by members of the medical profession that numerous mental and physical diseases in men were caused primarily by loss of nutrients through seminal discharge, and that the deliberate conservation of this substance would lead to increased health, vitality, and intellectual prowess. This thought was also applied to masturbation.

However, medical studies have not supported this view. In fact, it has been suggested that frequent ejaculation may be beneficial, such as reducing the risk of prostate cancer.^[3] It has also been suggested that excessive repression of the sexual instinct leads to an increase in the overall level of aggression. ^[4]

Notable celibates

Some notable self-proclaimed celibates in history include:

Swami Vivekananda, the chief disciple of Ramakrishna and one of the most famous and influential spiritual leaders of the philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga
Stevie Smith, poet and novelist, was celibate all her adult life, after sampling and rejecting romance and sex in her youth. She was fiercely critical of those who thought that her life must be emotionally impoverished by not having sexual relationships, emphasizing the depth of her friendships, especially her bond with the aunt with whom she lived.
Nikola Tesla, who developed the system of alternating electrical current that became the worldwide standard, was a self-proclaimed celibate.
Sigmund Freud undertook a strict vow of sexual abstinence from about the age of forty-one, which he maintained up to his death.
Sir Cliff Richard, British rock and roll star, converted to Christianity and became a vocal proponent of the abstinent lifestyle which he adopted.

Notes

↑ Martha E. Kempner, Toward a Sexually Healthy America Retrieved August 9, 2007.
↑ Educating for True Love (International Educational Foundation, 2006 ISBN 1891858070)
↑ Masturbating may protect against prostate cancer New Scientist. Retrieved July 30, 2007.
↑ James W. Prescott, "Body pleasure and the origins of violence," The Bulletin of The Atomic Scientists,(1975): 10-20. Retrieved August 9, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Devine, Tony, Joon Ho Seuk, and Andrew Wilson. 2000. Cultivating Heart and Character: Educating for Life's Most Essential Goals. Chapel Hill, NC: Character Development Publishing. ISBN 1-892056-15-1
Mitchell, F.S. 2006. Celebrating Celibacy. Xulon Press. ISBN 1597818720
Mullaney, Jamie. 2005. Everyone Is NOT Doing It: Abstinence and Personal Identity. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226547574
Napier, Kristine. 1996. The Power of Abstinence. Avon Books. ISBN 0380783711
Stanosz, Paul. 2006. The Struggle for Celibacy: The Culture of Catholic Seminary Life. Herder & Herder. ISBN 0824523814
Stickler, Alphonso. 1995. The Case for Clerical Celibacy: Its Historical Development and Theological Foundations. Ignatius Press. ISBN 0898705339

External links

Chastity in Catholic Encyclopedia Retrieved August 9, 2007.
No New Money for Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage Programs advocacy website Retrieved August 9, 2007.
Pure Love Club advocacy group that encourages sexual abstinence and chastity Retrieved August 9, 2007.
Real Love syndicated columnist and abstinence advocate Retrieved August 9, 2007.
Silver Ring Thing abstinence pledge program Retrieved August 9, 2007.

"Teen sex abstinence study sparks controversy" Shaoni Bhattacharya, NewScientist.com news service, 02 February 2005 Retrieved August 9, 2007.
The True Love Thing to Do abstinence curriculum for teenagers Retrieved August 9, 2007.
True Love Waits Retrieved August 9, 2007.
"Uganda's HIV rate drops, but not from abstinence Sabin Russell, San Francisco Chronicle, 24 February 2005 Retrieved August 9, 2007.
WAIT "Washington AIDS International Teens" Retrieved August 9, 2007.

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[1] Martha E. Kempner, Toward a Sexually Healthy America Retrieved August 9, 2007.

[2] Educating for True Love (International Educational Foundation, 2006 ISBN 1891858070)

[3] Masturbating may protect against prostate cancer New Scientist. Retrieved July 30, 2007.

[4] James W. Prescott, "Body pleasure and the origins of violence," The Bulletin of The Atomic Scientists,(1975): 10-20. Retrieved August 9, 2007.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 The world's major [[religion]]s concur in viewing sexual intimacy as proper only within [[marriage]]; otherwise it can be destructive to human flourishing. Sexual abstinence prior to marriage and fidelity within marriage are time-honored norms for maintaining strong [[family|families]]. Traditional societies made [[virginity]] the norm for unmarrieds; backed by strong community sanctions and even by force of law. However, in the modern West particularly since the [[sexual revolution]] of the 1960s, this norm fell by the wayside, replaced by widespread acceptance of casual sex before marriage and even cohabitation in place of marriage. In the current cultural climate, many see sexual abstinence as unnatural, even unhealthy.
-In attempting to combat the current climate, conservatives in the [[United States]] have been advocating for abstinence-based [[sex education]], which attempts to uphold the traditional norm. Educators also advocate "secondary virginity," a recommitment to abstinence by teens who were previously sexually active. Some churches promote a "virginity pledge," a commitment to remain sexually abstinent prior to marriage. When supported by medical, psychological, social, and spiritual understanding, such educational efforts have positive impact on the lives of young people.
+In attempting to combat the current climate, social conservatives in the [[United States]] have been advocating for abstinence-based [[sex education]], which attempts to uphold the traditional norm. These educators also advocate "secondary virginity," a recommitment to abstinence by teens who previously were sexually active. Some churches promote a "virginity pledge," a commitment to remain sexually abstinent prior to marriage. When supported by medical, psychological, social, and spiritual understanding, such educational efforts have positive impact on the lives of young people.
-==Definition==
+==The norm of premarital abstinence and its decline==
-'''Sexual abstinence''' is defined as abstention from [[human sexuality|sexual intercourse]]. [[Celibacy]] may be used as a synonym for "[[abstinence]]" or "[[chastity]]." A vow of celibacy may be a promise not to enter into [[marriage]] or to engage in sexual intercourse.
+Throughout history and in most nations throughout the world, religious teachings have informed social and legal standards. Since [[adultery]] has generally been regarded as a [[sin]], and [[marriage]] was considered the legitimizer of sexual relations, maintaining [[virginity]] prior to marriage, which in early times often took place soon after [[puberty]], was the norm. Yet for many men, [[prostitution]] has been tolerated as a sexual outlet, whether openly practiced or conducted discreetly. The [[Victorian era|Victorian]] period saw a tightening of sexual [[more]]s. The [[First World War]] began an upsurge in sexual freedom and indulgence, even as large portions of society retained the traditional moral values of abstinence before [[marriage]].
-The word "celibacy" is derived from the [[Latin]] ''celibatus'' meaning "state of being unmarried," which itself came from the Proto-Indo-European roots of ''kaiwelo-libs'' meaning "alone living."<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=celibacy Celibacy.] ''Online Etymology Dictionary''. Retrieved August 5, 2007.</ref>
+In the 1960s, the advent of the first oral [[contraception|contraceptive]] pill and widely available [[antibiotic]]s suppressed many consequences of promiscuous behavior. This coincided with the "sexual revolution" which celebrated blatant sexuality as an expression of adolescent freedom and self-expression. By the 1970s, abandonment of premarital chastity was no longer [[taboo]] in the majority of western societies. Perhaps even the reverse: it became expected, or recommended, that members of both sexes would have experienced a number of sexual partners before marriage. Some cultural groups continued to place a value on the moral [[purity]] of an abstainer, but abstinence was caught up in a wider re-evaluation of [[moral]] values.
-==History==
+A contributing social trend in industrialized countries has been the delay of marriage to the late 20s and early 30s, as more young people put off marriage to go to college and begin careers. Where traditionally the onset of sexual relations in the teenage years was a cause for early marriage, today early marriage is discouraged. Yet the sexual urges of youth are not as easily delayed, and to keep abstinent until one's 30s is a herculean challenge. Yet studies are questioning the conventional wisdom that early marriages are less stable and of lesser quality than marriages that begin later in life. The early 20s, when romantic feelings are at their peak and the body is most fecund, may be the best time for marriage. The keeping abstinent until then can be a realistic goal.
-Much of the history of sexual abstinence is tied to [[religion|religious]] orders. In primitive societies [[shamanism]] was often practiced. Along with their intense experiences and extraordinary calling, shamans were committed to strict purity, which often included sexual abstinence.
-[[Eunuch]]s (castrated males) have had different roles in societies throughout history. The earliest record of intentional [[castration]] comes from the twenty-first century B.C.E. in [[Sumeria]]. Eunuchs have been called on to be courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, religious specialists, government officials, military commanders, and guardians of women or harem servants. In the [[Byzantine]] empire, eunuchs were men who had chosen to be celibate or not procreate rather than those who were physically castrated.
+Today most of the stigmas that discouraged premarital sex have been removed. Even as late as the mid-twentieth century, there was a stigma attached to being a "one-parent family" or producing an [[illegitimacy|illegitimate]] child—but no longer. The lifting of legal penalties and social stigma regarding illegitimacy has made cohabitation and single motherhood socially acceptable options. Society has not yet reckoned with the social costs of these options, particularly to the children.
-Ancient [[Roman empire|Roman]] society exalted the [[Vestal Virgin]]s, who were the high priestesses of [[Vesta]], the goddess of the hearth. The Vestal Virgins were women who chose to become priests around [[puberty]] and dedicated themselves to thirty years of chastity.
+== Modern abstinence movements ==
+With the increasing problems of unwanted teenage [[pregnancy|pregnancies]] and [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, socially conscious educators began to promote abstinence for teenagers and recommending [[virginity]] prior to [[marriage]]. Without sexual contact, it is virtually impossible to conceive an unwanted child. By avoiding exposure of the sexual organs to other people, one may also avoid the sexual transmission of many diseases (STDs).
-The [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] civilization developed two forms of sexual abstinence for men: one was the sacerdotal celibacy of the [[priest]]; the other, the [[asceticism|ascetic]] celibacy of the [[philosophy|philosopher]]. Priests of various cults, such as the followers of [[Isis]], were required to abstain from sexual activity in order to be qualified to practice the sacred rituals. The philosopher [[Pythagoras]] and his followers were devoted to study, and practiced sexual abstinence and [[vegetarianism]]. [[Epictetus]] and others regarded sexual abstinence as important to avoid distractions and allow the mind to focus clearly on the complex task of scholarly inquiry.
-For the general populace in most societies lifelong sexual abstinence was not expected. However, for many societies religious teachings informed social and legal standards. Since [[adultery]] has generally been regarded as a [[sin]], and [[marriage]] was considered the legitimizer of sexual relations, maintaining [[virginity]] prior to marriage, which in early times often took place soon after [[puberty]], was the norm. Yet, [[prostitution]] was a constant, whether openly practiced or conducted discretely, such as by the rich and those who traveled far from home (soldiers, sailors, merchants, and so forth).
-The early [[Victorian era|Victorian]] period saw a tightening of sexual [[more]]s, followed by a strict [[puritanism]] from the late Victorian era to the mid 1900s. The [[First World War]] began a return to sexual freedom and indulgence, but more often than not the appearance of conforming to the earlier moral values of abstinence before [[marriage]] was retained.
-With the conclusion of the [[Second World War]], the societal importance of abstinence declined swiftly. The advent of the first oral [[contraception|contraceptive]] pill and widely available [[antibiotic]]s suppressed many consequences of promiscuous behavior, while social mores were also changing. By the 1970s, abandonment of premarital chastity was no longer [[taboo]] in the majority of western societies. Perhaps even the reverse: it became expected, or recommended, that members of both sexes would have experienced a number of sexual partners before marriage. Some cultural groups continued to place a value on the moral [[purity]] of an abstainer, but abstinence was caught up in a wider re-evaluation of [[moral]] values.
-[[Anthropology|Anthropologists]] and social historians have noted that many cultures such as Victorian Britain or the rural areas in the modern United States, which formally place a high value on abstinence until marriage, actually have a large amount of premarital sexual activity. This activity, however, may take a form in which there is no actual [[sexual intercourse]], thus preserving a state known as "technical virginity."
-In some cultures, those who infringe the rules regarding chastity may be ostracized. Social re-acceptance can sometimes be regained by marriage between the two. In the West, even as late as the mid-twentieth century, there was a stigma attached to being a "one-parent family" and an [[illegitimacy|illegitimate]] child could be legitimized by the marriage of the parents. This latter situation remains the case in many Western countries, though the lifting of legal penalties and social stigma regarding illegitimacy has rendered this irrelevant to social acceptance.
-==Types==
-Reasons for sexual abstinence are varied:
-* Religious beliefs ([[Sexual abstinence#Religious_celibacy|religious celibacy]])
-* To avoid the risk of [[venereal disease]] and to prevent its spread
-* To focus energies on other matters, like social issues
-* To avoid contributing to [[Overpopulation|overpopulation]]
-* To cultivate a relationship according to an ideal of [[chastity]]
-* An inability to obtain a willing sexual partner ("involuntary celibacy")
-* A distaste or lack of appetite for sex ([[asexuality]])
-* To avoid persecution (such as prosecution for [[homosexuality|homosexual]] relations under [[sodomy]] laws)
-===Religious celibacy===
-Clerical or sacerdotal celibacy is a requirement for [[priest]]s of some [[religion]]s. In this understanding, the priest is in the position of mediator between [[God]] (or [[Heaven]]) and the people, and purity is required to fulfill this function. Since sexual power, or [[love]] of a woman, rivals the power of spirit and love for God, sexual abstinence is required for the office of priest.
-In many religions some groups of people are expected to practice sexual abstinence — to abstain from sex completely, and remain unmarried. These groups include [[monk]]s, [[nun]]s, and [[priest]]s in various sects of [[Christianity]]. [[monasticism|Monastic]] orders of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] traditions also require sexual abstinence. In these cases, however, the purpose is not to be a conduit to heaven, but rather for individual spiritual growth; sexual power is considered a distraction and obstruction to attainment of the highest levels of spiritual maturity.
-Sexual abstinence is also proclaimed by some religions as an ideal for laypeople, for the unmarried, or for [[homosexuality|homosexuals]]. [[Chastity]] is a [[virtue]] expected of the faithful of many religions, including [[Christian]]s and [[Muslim]]s. This usually includes abstinence from sex for the unmarried, and faithfulness to a [[marriage]] partner. From the Roman Catholic perspective everyone is called to chastity be they married, single, or in a religious order. Chastity is a function of one's respect for the dignity of another especially in a sexual context. Sex with one's spouse is not against chastity so long as both remain open to having children — [[contraception|contraceptives]] violate true chastity.
-====Buddhism====
-In [[Buddhism]], according to the celibate, the main goal of living is to eliminate (or at least decrease) [[Tanha|desire]]. Desire is seen as one of the main causes of [[suffering]], both in the world and in the [[mind]] or heart. A commonly-used metaphor sees desire, especially sexual desire, to be like drinking [[saline water|salty water]]: the more one consumes, the greater the desire - and the worse one's (mental) state of health becomes.
-In [[Buddhism]], attachment to impermanent things is regarded as one of the major causes of suffering. Sex is arguably the strongest attachment to impermanent things that human beings have. Therefore in Buddhism celibacy has been regarded as essential to obtaining [[Nirvana]] (liberation from suffering):
-<blockquote>If a man should go naked... feed on potherbs, wild rice, or Nivara
-seeds...wear coarse hempen cloth, or carry out any other [ascetic] prac-
-tices... yet the state of blissful attainment in conduct, in heart, in
-intellect, have not been practiced by him, realized by him, then he is far
-from shramanaship, far from brahminship. But from the time, O Kassapa,
-when a monk has cultivated the heart of love that knows no anger, that
-knows no ill will—from the time when, by the destruction of the deadly
-intoxications, he dwells in that emancipation of heart, that emancipation
-of mind, that is free from those intoxications, and that he, while yet in
-this visible world, has come to realize and know—from that time, O
-Kassapa, is it that the monk is called a shramana, is called a brahmin! (
-Digha Nikaya i.167, Kassapasihanada Sutta)</blockquote>
-====Christianity====
-The [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] Church requires that its priests be celibate. This is so that they can devote themselves completely to the care of Christ's Flock (Matthew 19:12). The Church has not required sexual abstinence of all ecclesiastics at all times in history (it was not required of the majority of ecclesiastics in the early Church, and in modern times certain converts are permitted to be married when receiving [[Holy Orders]]). The Catholic Church's practice of clerical celibacy among priests and bishops of the [[Latin Rite]] and bishops of all rites, Eastern and Western, was confirmed by the [[Second Vatican Council]] and reaffirmed by [[Pope Paul VI]] in his encyclical letter, [[Sacerdotalis Caelibatus]], June 24, 1967.
+Organizations on the Left such as [[SIECUS]] have called abstinence-only programs "fear-based," "designed to control young people’s sexual behavior by instilling fear, shame, and guilt."<ref>Martha E. Kempner, [http://www.siecus.org/pubs/tsha_scaredchaste.pdf Toward a Sexually Healthy America] Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref> Advocates for sexual abstinence dispute this, and claim numerous positive benefits, such as the freedom from teenage pregnancy and the resulting ability to focus on [[education]] and preparing for their future. They note that, contrary to the promiscuity [[norm]] following the "sexual revolution," preparation for a lifetime of happiness with a single, faithful marriage partner is well served by practicing self-restraint in situations of sexual temptation.<ref>''Educating for True Love'' (International Educational Foundation, 2006 ISBN 1891858070)</ref>
-Clerical celibacy was an important point of disagreement during the [[Reformation]]. Reformers argued that requiring a vow of sexual abstinence from a priest was contrary to biblical teaching (1 Tim 4:1-5, Heb 13:4, 1 Cor 9:5), a degradation of [[marriage]], and a reason for the widespread sexual misconduct within the clergy at the time of the Reformation (discussed by [[John Calvin]] in his ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' IV,12,23-28).<ref> [http://www.vor.org/rbdisk/calvin/ci_html/4_12.htm#4.12.23 Of the discipline of the Church, and its principal use in censures and excommunication.] (Calvin's Institutes Books). Retrieved July 30, 2007.</ref>
+The effectiveness of abstinence programs for [[sex education]] remains a topic of much controversy in the [[United States]]. Opponents frequently adopt the line that abstinence education is acceptable only if it is combined with other methods, such as instruction in the use and easy availability of condoms. Proponents reply that to teach about condoms and promote their availability effectively undermines the abstinence norm.
-Catholics understand celibacy to be a reflection of life in [[Heaven]], and a source of detachment from the material world, which aids in one's relationship with [[God]]. Catholic [[priest]]s are called to be espoused to the Church itself, and espoused to God, without overwhelming commitments interfering with the relationship. The [[Apostle Paul]] explained this argument for sexual abstinence:
+==The Case for abstinence==
-<blockquote>But I would have you to be without solicitude. He that is without a wife is solicitous for the things that belong to the Lord, how he may please God. But he that is with a wife, is solicitous for the things of the world, how he may please his wife: and he is divided. And the unmarried woman and the virgin thinketh on the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and spirit. But she that is married thinketh on the things of this world how she may please her husband. And this I speak for your profit, not to cast a snare upon you, but for that which is decent and which may give you power to attend upon the Lord without impediment. (I Corinthians 7:7-8;32-35)
-</blockquote>
-Yet, Catholics understand celibacy to be the calling of some, but not all.
-====Hinduism====
-In [[Hindu]] culture, sexual abstinence is observed when the young child leads a student life. A Hindu renunciate may take the vow of sexual abstinence at any age when they have understood that living for material/sensual pleasures will never bring the perfect [[happiness]] that their [[soul]] desires. Thus their life becomes centered on surrender to [[Guru]] and [[God]] with the firm hope of God realization and the perfect Divine Happiness. The Hindu tradition of [[Brahmacharya]] places great emphasis on abstinence as a way of harnessing the energy of body and mind towards the goal of spiritual realization. In males, the [[semen]] (Veerja) is considered sacred and its preservation (except when used for procreation) and conversion into higher life energy ([[Ojas]]) is considered essential for the development of enhanced intellectual and spiritual capacities.
-In Hinduism, there is a difference between monks and priests. Historically, monks take vows of [[poverty]] and sexual abstinence and are exempt from most public ceremonies and focus instead on [[prayer]] and [[meditation]], focusing on the contemplative side of the Hindu tradition. Priests on the other hand do not have to be celibate and are responsible for the public ceremonies in the Hindu faith. However, the public roles between monks and priests have started to change and now some monks function within the social structure in needy areas of society.
-====Islam====
-[[Islam]] forbids intercourse outside of [[marriage]], however maintaining sexual abstinence as an act of piety is strongly discouraged, and marriage for all who are able is strongly encouraged. Similar to Judaism, abstinence is practiced during the time of a woman's [[menstruation]]. Abstinence from sexual intercourse is also practiced during the dawn to dusk fasts of [[Ramadan]] or other fasting days.
-====Judaism====
-[[Judaism]] forbids intercourse outside [[marriage]] (which is termed ''zenuth'' or promiscuity), but has no ideal of abstinence for particular clerical groups. In fact, it is practically expected of men in religious functions (such as [[rabbi]]s) to be married. Abstinence is practiced while a woman is [[menstruation|menstruating]] and the week after cessation of flow (the law of ''[[niddah]]''), as well as a set period after [[childbirth]].
-===Premarital chastity ===
-Many religious and ethical systems proscribe sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse of that person, including most denominational variations of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]], as have, historically, many legal systems and societal norms. In such contexts, sexual abstinence is prescribed for unmarried individuals for the purpose of [[chastity]]. "Chastity" is sometimes used synonymously with sexual abstinence, but the mechanisms of chastity are typically different for persons who assume different societal roles. For example, in most cultural, ethical, and religious contexts, sexual intercourse within [[monogamy|monogamous]] [[marriage]] is not considered to be opposed to chastity.
-Among Catholics and members of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS church also known as Mormons), homosexuals are expected to remain celibate. Those who identify as homosexual may not be able to become Catholic priests, however, even if they maintain sexual abstinence.
-===Ascetism===
-Lifelong (or at least long-term) sexual abstinence, often associated with religious [[ascetism]], is distinguished from abstinence before [[marriage]]. Abstinence is often viewed as an admirable act of self-control over the natural desire to have sex. The display of the strength of character allows the abstainer to set an example for those not able to contain their "base urges." At other times abstinence has been seen as a great social ill practiced by those who refuse to engage with the material and physical world. Some groups that propose sexual abstinence consider it an essential means to reach a particular intellectual or spiritual condition, or that sexual abstinence allows one to achieve a required self-control or a self-consciousness.<ref>[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=979394 The Hermeneutics of Sexual Order] ''Social Science Research Network''. Retrieved July 30, 2007.</ref>
-In some religions, including some branches of Christianity, sexual abstinence is required for those joining [[monasticism|monastic]] orders. The [[Shakers]] impose sexual abstinence as a requirement for all members. However, they may adopt a child if they wish, which is one way to maintain the population. Another way they could expand their community's population is to allow converts to join the Shaker society.
-While there have been cultures which achieved total sexual abstinence, such as [[castration cult]]s, most did not survive for a substantial period of time due to their lack of [[reproduction]].
 == Medical aspects of abstinence ==
@@ Line 109: / Line 35: @@
 However, medical studies have not supported this view. In fact, it has been suggested that frequent ejaculation may be beneficial, such as reducing the risk of [[prostate cancer]].<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn3942 Masturbating may protect against prostate cancer] ''New Scientist''. Retrieved July 30, 2007.</ref> It has also been suggested that excessive repression of the sexual instinct leads to an increase in the overall level of [[aggression]]. <ref>James W. Prescott, [http://www.violence.de/prescott/bulletin/article.html "Body pleasure and the origins of violence,"] ''The Bulletin of The Atomic Scientists'',(1975): 10-20. Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref>
-== Modern abstinence movements ==
-With the increasing problems of unwanted teenage [[pregnancy|pregnancies]] and [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, socially conscious educators began to promote abstinence for teenagers and recommending [[virginity]] prior to [[marriage]]. Without sexual contact, it is virtually impossible to conceive an unwanted child. By avoiding exposure of the sexual organs to other people, one may also avoid the sexual transmission of many diseases (STDs).
-However, many STDs can also be transmitted non-sexually, and it has been noted that many do not consider oral sex or similar acts to violate abstinence. Many of these acts can transmit STDs. One study found that 55 percent of college students claiming abstinence had indeed performed oral sex.<ref name="Understanding Abstinence">Cynthia Dailard, [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/tgr/06/5/gr060504.html Understanding 'Abstinence': Implications for Individuals, Programs and Policies] ''The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy.'' 6, No. 5, (2003). Retrieved August 11, 2007.</ref>
-Organizations such as [[SIECUS]] have called abstinence-only programs "fear-based," "designed to control young people’s sexual behavior by instilling fear, shame, and guilt."<ref>Martha E. Kempner, [http://www.siecus.org/pubs/tsha_scaredchaste.pdf Toward a Sexually Healthy America] Retrieved August 9, 2007.</ref> Author [[Judith Levine]] has argued that there might be a natural tendency of abstinence educators to escalate their messages: "Like advertising, which must continually jack up its seduction just to stay visible as other advertising proliferates, abstinence education had to make sex scarier and scarier and, at the same time, chastity sweeter."<ref> Judith Levine, ''Harmful to Minors: The Perils of Protecting Children from Sex'' (Thunder's Mouth Press, 2003 ISBN 1560255161). </ref>
-Advocates for sexual abstinence claim other, positive benefits, such as the freedom from teenage pregnancy and the resulting ability to focus on [[education]] and preparing for their future. It has also been noted that, contrary to the promiscuity [[norm]] following the "sexual revolution," preparation for a lifetime of happiness with a single, faithful marriage partner is well served by practicing self-restraint in situations of sexual temptation.<ref>''Educating for True Love'' (International Educational Foundation, 2006 ISBN 1891858070)</ref>
-The effectiveness of abstinence programs and movements remains debated, but in spite of these criticisms, abstinence has become the de facto focus of [[sex education]] in the [[United States]]. Opponents frequently adopt the line that abstinence education is acceptable only if it is combined with other methods, such as instruction in the use and easy availability of condoms. Most nations of [[Western Europe]] use more comprehensive measures, and in sharp contrast to the heated discussion in the US, abstinence is hardly discussed as an educational measure.
 ==Notable celibates==