Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism (or Mazdaism) refers to the religion developed from the teachings of the Persian prophet Zarathushtra (~10th century B.C.E.), who is commonly known in the West as Zoroaster. Zoroastrians most commonly refer to themselves as Zartoshti ("Zoroastrians"), Mazdayasni ("Wisdom-Worshippers") and Behdini ("Followers of the Good Religion"). In India, they are known as Parsis ("People from Pars," which refers to the Persian heritage of the group).

Due to its great antiquity, Zoroastrianism was tremendously influential, as it was the first religion to believe in angels, a day of judgment, a Satan figure, and an ongoing battle between forces of light and darkness in the cosmos. These ideas later influenced the development of Judaism (and, by extension, Christianity and Islam). The tendency of the Abrahamic traditions to use of light as a symbol of goodness is partially derived from Zoroastrian rituals associated with reverence for fire and purity. Likewise, the concept of the Halo, still commonly associated with saints and holy figures in art today, first originated in Zoroastrianism. However, the Zoroastrians most explicitly recognized in the Western world are the Magi, whose visit to the infant Jesus is described in the Christian New Testament.

At one time, Zoroastrianism was the most powerful religion in the world but today it is on the decline, at least partially due to its insistance on intermarriage within its shrinking number of followers. Regardless, the religion is still practiced in India, Iran and other Middle Eastern countries.

Zoroaster

Relatively little is known about the Prophet Zarathushtra . According to internal and external histories, Zarathushtra lived in Persia sometime between the 18th and the 6th centuries B.C.E. This margin of error is significant, because if he lived in 1300 B.C.E. or earlier (prior to the Pharaoh Akhenaten), Zarathushtra would be the earliest monotheist known in any religion, discounting the older oral tradition written down in the Torah and Old Testament. However, due to a lack of corroborating evidence, most scholars agree that Zarathushtra lived roughly around 1000 B.C.E.

According to tradition, Zarathushtra was the son of Pourushaspa and Dugdhova, and was spiritually precocious since birth. At the tender age of six, he was placed under the tutelage of a wise teacher. This led to many attempts upon his life, ochestrated by enemies who recognised his potential as a religious leader. When Zarathushtra turned fifteen, he felt he had gained sufficient spiritual understanding and discipline, and he voluntarily dedicated himself to religion. At twenty, Zarathushtra left his guardian's house for the solitude of a mountain cave, where he devoted himself to meditation and understanding, and attempted to craft a set of religious precepts that differed from the prevalent ritualistic polytheism that was common in Persia at the time. In the Gathas, a series of deeply personal hymns, Zarathushtra expresses discontent with Vedic (and other polythestic) rituals. It was also at this time that he struggled with the problem of humankind's relationship with the divine and the cosmos:

This I ask Thee, tell me truly, Ahura. Who upholds the earth beneath and the firmament from falling? Who the waters and the plants? Who yoked swiftness to winds and clouds? Who is, O Mazda, creator of Good Thought? (44.4)

This I ask Thee, tell me truly, Ahura. What artist made light and darkness? What artist made sleep and waking? Who made morning, noon, and night, that call the understanding man to his duty? (44.5)

After seven years in the cave, Zarathushtra concluded he had accomplished complete devotion to Ahura Mazda and felt the time was ripe to teach the masses about his newly divined monotheism. At this point, the teaching of Zarathushtra as a prophet began. However, Zarathushtra's first attempt at reaching the masses was no success and his teachings were highly ridiculed. Eventually, even his family and servants distanced themselves from him, and evil powers plotted to silence him. By order of King Vishtaspa, he was eventually placed in a prison, though, through his faith, he was able to miraculously escape. After fleeing the prison, he cured the horse of King Vishtaspa, which convinced the monarch to convert to Zoroastrianism along with his wife and caused many in the kingdom to follow suit. The circustances of Zoroaster's death are unknown, as the original biographical texts have all been lost.

History

Early History of Zoroastrianism

As accounts of religious life in ancient Persia are limited and conflicting, it is difficult to describe ancient Zoroastrianism in detail. However, it is clear that the original teachings of Zarathushtra were modified significantly by the first generations of the prophet's disciples, which eventually lead to an acceptance of the very polytheism and ritualism that Zarasthushra had originally opposed. The Avesta illustrates the fact that post-Zarathrushta Zoroastrianism incorporated older beliefs and traditions from Iranian religious traditions, while simultaneously synthesizing the new ideas Zarathrushtra developed in the Gathas. Some of these "archaic survivals" (to use E. B. Tylor's term) include such elements as animal sacrifice and the ritual of haoma, which was introduced by Avestan priests and the western priestly tribe known as the Magi.

It was at this point in their history that the Zoroastrian pantheon was more definitively codified, especially concerning their good and evil deities. Most of the violent and aggressive elements of Indo-Aryan tradition were done away with or else relegated to the daivas (evil spirits). In this way, the Zoroastrian Persians clearly parted ways from their Indic bretheren, as the new cosmology portrayed the classic Indo-Iranian gods and rituals as evil and demonic.

Zoroastrianism in the Early Persian Empire

The itinerant Western priests (the Magi) ensured the transmission of Zoroaster's teachings (and their Avestan modifications) during the Achaemenidan Empire (648–330 B.C.E.). Further, their travels through this (largely peacable) kingdom provided an oppurtunity for Zoroastrian beliefs to enter dialogue with other Near Eastern traditions. During this period, the Zoroastrian tendency to synthesize deities and ceremonies continued, which created some eclecticism within the tradition. However, such eclecticism was necessary, as it created a pliable religious underpinning for the Achamedian empire, allowing it to universally appeal to the many varied cultures of which it consisted.

At this time, the Magi also modified the doctrine of dualism. While Ahura Mazda reigned supreme in Zoroaster's original formulation, the Magi no longer considered Ahura Mazda to be the transcendent principle, seeing him instead as one of two morally-opposed supreme spirits. This variation led to the formation of Zurvanism, which attempted to reconcile the original dualism of Zoroastrianism with elements of the Babylonian and Mesopotamian religion. Here, the time-god Zurvan was endowed with supreme authority over the universe, and Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu were seen as his two sons.

During the Seleucid period (330–150 B.C.E.), many Zoroastrian ideas began to spread outside the Iranian world (namely among Judeo-Christians and Buddhists). Also, the Seleucian era was characterized by the great influence Greek culture bore upon the Zoroastrian tradition. In the subsequent period, under the Parthians (150 B.C.E.– 226 C.E.) these influences were rejected, largely due to resentment over the break in the tradition that occured when Alexander the Great overtook the Achaemenid Empire in 330 B.C.E. According to later traditions, many Zoroastrian sacred texts were lost in this invasion. It was also during the Parthian period that Mithraism, a Zoroastrian-derived faith focused on the Aryan god of the sun, Mitra, began to become popular within the Roman Empire.

During the reign of the Sassanid Empire (226–650 C.E.), the Zoroastrian tradition was reorganized and reformulated, as priests codified and canonized various aspects of the tradition that had survived the breaks caused by the Hellenistic influences. During this period, Zoroastrianism became less universalistic and more localized within Iran, justifying the position of the crown, clergy, and warriors at the top of the state hierarchy^[1], while also maintaining nationalistic sentiment among the entirety of the Iranian people. A number of Zoroastrian mythological figures and dynasties became implicated in wordly progress toward frashokereti (an eschatological cleansing), mostly because of their place in Iranian history rather than their religious significance. Zoroastrians aggressively promoted their religion, often building new temples immediately upon capturing Roman territory. In some cases, the Zoroastrian Sassanids even persecuted Christians and Manichaeans.

Zoroastrianism under Muslim Rule

In 637, the Sassanid dynasty was conquered by Muslim Arabs. Zoroastrianism, which was once the dominant religion in a region stretching from Anatolia to the Persian Gulf and Central Asia, did not have a powerful foreign champion (as did Christianity did in the Byzantine Empire), so it steadily lost influence and adherents in Iran under Islamic persecution. However, even after Arab conquest, Zoroastrianism maintained its nationalistic ideology. Surviving Zoroastrian communities looked back upon Iran's imperial era with a certain measure of sentimentality. This led to a number of attempted revolts against their Muslim overlords, which consistently failed and caused Muslims to vehemently repress those who upheld Zoroastrian beliefs. Further, Muslims were also suspicious the significance of fire within Zoroastrian religion, as they considered it a form of idolatry. As a result, many Zoroastrians were prohibited from practicing their religion and were forced to convert to Islam.

Zoroastrianism in India

Faced with such adversity, Zoroastrians fled to India in large numbers in the tenth century, where they would come to be known as Parsis. Here they were offered refuge by Jadav Rana, a Hindu king of Sanjan (the modern-day state of Gujarat) on condition that they abstain from missionary activities and marry only in their community. This was readily accepted by the Parsi people, who were already wary of proselytization, as it likely would have lead to a plethora of converts from lower-caste Hindus.

In India, the Parsi have come to be seen as something of a caste themselves, since membership in the group is linked to lineage. As a result, Parsis have not only been able to survive, but they have also thrived when compared to their Iranian counterparts, wielding much social, political, and economic influence in India throughout history (and even in modern times, due to their favoured position under the British imperialists). Furthermore, Parsi communities in India have been in continual dialogue with other religious traditions such as Hinduism, Islam and Christianity, as well as other movements such as spiritualism and astrology, which has led to numerous interpretations of Zoroastrian doctrine by the Parsi people. Other Parsis have maintained a more conservative approach to the ancient Zoroastrian traditions. The tolerant religious climate of India has even led some Hindus to syncretize elements of Parsi religion into their religion.

The first time Indian and Iranian Zoroastrians resumed communication was in the late sixteenth century, where, through the exchange of texts (rivayat), they speculated upon numerous doctrinal and liturgical questions. These exchanges prompted new understandings of the tradition in both (estranged) branches.

Scriptures

Faravahar (or Ferohar), the Assyrian-derived depiction of the human soul before birth and after death.

The Holy Book of Zoroastrianism is called the Avesta. It, like many cotemporaneous texts, was composed orally and was learned from memory for centuries until it was finally transcribed in Sassanian Times. The Avesta is divided into numerous sections, including the Yasna, the Yashts, the Vendidad, and the Visparad, though these divisions are themselves subject to debate.

The Yasna concerns acts of worship and contains the Gathas (the Hymns), the only texts that are definitively attributed to the Prophet Zarathushtra himself. These hymns express the ambivalent emotions of the prophet, which oscillate between anguish and joy. In this section, Zarathushtra expresses discontent with the "unseemly lechery" of Iranian ritualism, causing him to postulate numerous original religious concepts as alternatives. However, in formulating his religious system, he still includes aspects of these preexisting religious beliefs and practices, and does not call for their complete supplantation. These original sayings are then extended and deepened through the (often hymnal) commentary found in the remainder of the Yasna. In all, this text (and the doctrinal position it propounds) represents the focal point of the liturgical rituals practiced by Zoroastrian priests.

Also contained in the Avesta are the Yashts, a collection of hymns dedicated to the worship of various deities, and the Vendidad, a ritual code for dealing with malevolent deities. The Visparad, a supplement to the Yasna, contains hymns and instructions for liturgical ceremonies (including exorcisms) and also includes cosmological, historical and eschatological material. Finally, the Avesta also contains fragments of numerous other texts, which are made up of both religious literature and works on medicine, astronomy, botany and philosophy.

Another significant groups of Zoroastrian texts are the Pahlavi books, which originated in ninth century CE Persia. Like the the Avesta, the Pahlavi books are also comprised of numerous writings. Most notable are the Zand, which provides an interpretation of and commentary upon the Avestan texts; the Bundahishn, which explains such matters as the creation, composition and destruction of the physical world; and the Shkand-gumanig Wizar, which critiques the Islamic, Judaic, Christian and Manichean religious traditions that would have been prevalent in the surrounding geographic region.

Principal Concepts and Beliefs

Ahura Mazda and Other Deities

The Prophet Zarathushtra set his teachings apart from contemporary Iranian traditions by advocating strict monotheism, insisting that worship be dedicated solely to Ahura Mazda ("Wise Lord"). In the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is described as the the creator of everything that can and cannot be seen, representing all that is Eternal and Pure. Ahura Mazda serves as the keeper of asha (truth) (see below), maintaining a position similar to that of the Vedic god Varuna, who maintained the rta (moral order).

Although the supremacy of Ahura Mazda suggests a monotheistic worldview, later Zoroastrianism also includes some polytheistic elements. Most notably, their cosmology was extended to include several other deities, including the two Mainyus and demonic creatures called daivas, all of which are thought to exist beneath Ahura Mazda. The Spenta Mainyu ("Holy Spirit") and the Angra Mainyu ("Evil Spirit") are described as the progeny of the supreme Ahura Mazda, which accounts for the existence of good and evil in the physical world. Spenta Mainyu is thought to be hypostatically indistinguishable from Ahura Mazda and is conceived of as an augmenting force for the latter's power, one which aids in the continual cosmic creative process and leads toward the eventual purification of the world. Conversely, Angra Mainyu is the antithesis of Spenta Mainyu, and attempts to undermine humanity's understanding of truth. The Mainyus are engaged in a constant battle, though the power of Ahura Mazda will ultimately allow the Holy Spirit to triumph. The daivas, meanwhile, are demonic beings whose sole purpose is to corrupt the moral law: as they were created, the Evil Spirit compelled them and they "ran to join Wrath, and together with it they have afflicted the world and humanity" (Yasna 30.5-6).

Later Zoroastrian thought also postulates the existence of angelic beings called the Amesha Spentas, who are seen as emanations of Ahura Mazda. While the Wise Lord is seen to dwell within each of these beings, they all retain their own individual natures and lives. Each of them is believed to be a personified attribute of Ahura Mazda, though modern scholars of religion theorize that they mey be reconceptualizations of pre-Zoroastrian deities. Six of the most important Amesha Spentas are Vohu Manah ("Good Mind"), Asha Vahistah ("Truth"), Khshatra Vairya ("Good Dominion"), Spenta Armaiti ("Devotion"), Haurvatat ("Wholeness and Health"), and Ameretat ("Immortality"). These beings, through their characterizations, suggest the qualities one must cultivate if they wish to best enjoy the fruits of salvation.

Additionally, the Gathas describe a "lord of prayer" named Sraosha. In later Zoroastrian tradition, he is seen as a protector of humanity against the malevolent forces of death, and as a judge of the souls of the departed. Later Zoroastrianism also introduced numerous other divine or superhuman beings, usually old deities from the Indo-Aryan pantheon, which became yazatas or "ones worthy of worship." These later deities include Arevadi Sure Anahita (a goddess corresponding to the Hindu Sarasvati), Hvare Khshaeta (god of the sun); Mah (god of the moon), Mithra (who works with Sraosha to judge souls after their deaths) and numerous fravashis (spirits of dead souls who are deemed worthy of worship).

In all cases, Ahura Mazda was and is viewed as having supremacy over all other gods, thus, post-Gathic Zoroastrianism can be labelled as a form of henotheism or monarchic monotheism.

Ethical Dualism

It is this persistent conflict between the forces of good and evil that distinguishes Zoroastrianism from monotheistic frameworks that recognize only one power as supreme. Unlike other faiths, Zoroastrianism is not theologically content with accepting the idea that the evil forces in the universe are simply another aspect of the supreme being's creations. Mardanfarrokh, a Zoroastrian theologian in the 9th century CE, noted that God's perfection would be mitigated if evil were to come from him along with everything else. According to Mardanfarrokh, only human choice can determine the intensity of evil within the world, a teaching which removes responsibility for evil from Ahura Mazda and renders the system truly dualistic. Good and evil, rather than deriving from the same source in Ahura Mazda, are separated on the grounds of moral choice, an idea which has lead scholars to refer to Zoroastrianism as "ethical dualism", in that all decisions made by human beings follow either the good path of the Wise Lord or the evil path of Angra Mainyu. The nature of the two opposing spirits of good and evil results from the choice they made between asha ("truth") and druj ("lie"). Spenta Mainyu chose asha, and Angra Mainyu chose druj, and now each human must choose one of these paths for themselves. No force in the Heavens and Earth has the power to force a person to do evil, and the rewards, punishments, happiness and grief an individual receive depends on how he or she lives his or her life. As the aggregate of human decisions steers humanity away from evil, the Ahuric creation is enhanced and the world as we know it, replete with evil, will dissolve away. Thus, Zoroastrian dualism affirms the freedom and importance of human choice in the metaphysic structure of the universe.

Cosmology, Eschatology and Soteriology

Zoroastrian cosmology is also dualistic. Everything in existence has a dual nature, comprised of a spiritual aspect, called menog, and the material aspect, called getig, where the spiritual state is the ontological precedent of material existence. Pahlavi literature suggests that only evil spirits are capable of transmuting the menog to the getig. In this way, material existence is considered to be inherently contaminated by the circumstances of its creation.

However, this system avoids falling into spiritual pessimism because of its faith that the world of spirit will ultimately triumph. However, this eschatological endpoint can only come about through a process of evolution: as the balance between good and evil evolves on an individual scale within humans, it also progresses on a cosmic scale. The choice of good urges creation towards its renewal, where humanity and the physical world will be fully perfected by menog, an event referred to as frashokereti.

The eschaton itself will be marked by fire, which is considered to be the offspring of Ahura Mazda and the paramount instrument of asha (the energy of the creator is represented in Zoroastrianism by fire and also by the sun, since both are enduring, radiant, pure and life sustaining). A river of molten lava will seperate good people from the evil. In the Gathas, Zarathushtra claims that the order of creation will be refurbished at the end of time when the Saoshyant (a messianic saviour or "bringer of benefit") returns to the physical world. All those who are on the "good" side of the lava river will benefit from the Saoshyant's return. This lays the foundation for later Zoroastrian eschatology, as well as the foundation for saviour archetypes in other messianic traditions such as Judaism and Christianity. It should be noted that alternate legends of the endtimes exist in the Zoroastrian tradition, including one which states that there will actually be three saviours, Ukhshyatereta, Ukhshyatnemah, and Astvatereta, sons of Zoroaster who will appear at different times through history.

Zoroastrian cosmology is also highly original in its speculations concerning the afterlife. It is written in the Avesta that the soul can ascend to heaven by proceeding through a three-step succession of celestial bodies which are linked to certain actions. Through good thoughts, they can attain the stars, through good words, they can attain the moon, and through good deeds, they can attain the sun. In order to undergo this journey, the soul must first cross the Chinvat bridge, or "the bridge of seperation". Souls judged to be just by Mithra or Sraosha are allowed to cross and meet their daena, an image of their own self, who is disguised as a nubile teenage girl. Evil souls, meanwhile, meet with their daena in the form of a haggardly old woman and then plummet to hell. An intermediate, limbo-like area (Hamistagan) also exists for those whose benevolent and malevolent acts in life are equally weighted.

Moral Precepts

Zoroastrian morality is summed up in a simple phrase: "Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds." Following this phrase, one can become an ashavan, or a follower of asha. Asha is an idea put forth by Zoroaster that is understood as "truth", "order" or "righteousness."^[2] This asha is emanated by Ahura Mazda, which can then be cultivated through loving devotion to the Wise Lord. As their eschatological schema stresses the freedom to choose right from wrong, the tradition describes five tools that Ahura Mazda provided in order to assist the human decision-making process. They are Good Mind, Desire, Conscience, Insight, and Wisdom. Good Mind refers to the application of our mind's abilities (cultivated through the teachings of Zarathushtra) to the task of choosing what is good and right. The second faculty, Desire, extends this idea, referring to the conscious yearning to receive truth of Zarathushtra's message and become an ashavan. Cultivation of this faculty sets in motion the process of discerning good from evil. The third faculty, Conscience, enables human beings to accept or reject the revelation of Ahura Mazda, and also to work with the Wise Lord in order to initiate frashokereti. Closely related is Insight, the divine inspiration granted by Ahura Mazda to all those who choose to seek the truth as ashavans. Finally, Wisdom is the highest faculty. It involves a completely perfect understanding of the cosmos, on that is parallel with that of Ahura Mazda. The relationship between these five faculties corresponds to the sequence of cosmological creation, beginning with intellectual activity of the physical mind and culminating in a post-apocalyptic, one-pointed unification of physicality and materiality.

Prayer

Prayer has always been fundamental to the Zoroastrian faith. The Ahuna Vairya, a prayer attributed to Zoroaster himself, venerates both the oneness and supremacy of Ahura Mazda and the importance of moral choice, making it one of the most important in the tradition. It is the first prayer that young or initiate Zoroastrians learn and has actually been described as having talismanic powers, thus making it useful for warding off evil spirits.

Ashem Vohu, another hymn thought to be authored by Zarathushtra, is also of great importance, as it provides a short meditation upon the concept of asha. The hymn asserts that "Truth is best (of all that is) good", allowing it to harmonize effectively with the Ahuna Vairya.

Closely related to these two prayers is the Yenhe Hatam, which, while not attributed to Zarathushtra, still has immense prescriptive value for the Zoroastrian ritual. The prayer suggests that all beings of pure menog are worthy of worship, along with those who reach getig, since both types of beings are true ashavans.

In addition to these prayers, incantations (in the form of mantras) are also frequently used to address Ahura Mazda, as they are considered to endow their reciter with magical powers. In modern times, dedicated Zoroastrians divide their days into five prayer periods, marking the importance of prayer in the tradition.

Rituals

Zoroastrianism, despite its initial effort to avoid ritualism, eventually incorporated many of the practices that its founder had critiqued. Some of these practices will be briefly explored below.

Yasna

The paramount Zoroastrian liturgy, called Yasna, involves the sacrifice of a beverage called haoma in front of a fire. Like the Vedic beverage soma, Iranian haoma allows one temporary immortality through intoxication. The sacrifice of the haoma can only be performed during a sunrise, which represents asha's power to dispell darkness and evil. Fire is the object of the priest's address during the Yasna ceremony, which typically honours a specified deity, though praise is directed to all menog beings during the course of the ceremony. The Yasna serves the purpose of purifying the world by bridging the gap between menog and getig worlds so that they might come into union, therefore keeping alive the possibility of frashokereti.

Naojot

Naojot, the Zoroastrian initiation rite, involves a child between seven and fifteen who has been judged as able to accept the responsiblities of Zoroastrian life. After a purifying ritual bath (Nahn), the child is given a thin, white shirt called a sadre and girded with a wool cord called a Kushti. The Kushti is wrapped around the body three times to remind the child of the three most important moral injunctions: good thoughts, good deeds, and good words. During the ceremony, the child is asked to recite prayers from the Avesta, which they must study in preparation, and only after they have professed their faith will they be given their new clothing. The importance of this ceremony is reverberated throughout the rest of the Zoroastrian's life; five times a day, they will untie and retie the Kusti in order to remind them of their faith.

Bareshnum i-no Shab

Bareshnum i-no Shab is a fastidious purification rite that must be undertaken before any ordinand can become either a Zoroastrian priest or a corpse-bearer. The ritual is extremely elaborate, consisting of three ceremonial baths and numerous ritual offerings over the course of a nine-night retreat. Throughout the retreat, the candidate spends time meditating and reciting prayers. Any candidate underoges this ritual twice before his first ordination, which allows him to perform lesser ceremonies (Navar) and once before the second ordination, which allows him to perform higher, inner ceremonies (Martah). At one point, Bareshnum i-no Shab was necessary of all Zoroastrians, and, even now, most devout Zoroastrians undergo the rite at least once in their lifetimes.

Zohr i atash

Zohr i atash refers to the primary Zoroastrian funerary rites. After a corpse has been washed and dressed, it is taken by corpse bearers to the dahkma ("Tower of Silence"), a massive, circular funerary tower on elevated ground. Here, dead bodies are exposed to the sun and flesh-eating birds, which strip them of their flesh. It is here that the Zohr i atash proper occurs, involving the pouring of animal fat upon a fire, representing the ancient animal sacrifices that were used to appease Druj i Nasu, the corpse demon. Further, this ritual is seen to assist the soul on its heavenly journey, which begins on the fourth days after death. After this ceremony, the corpse is thrown into a well and covered with lime and phosphorus. As could be expected, these observances are particularly difficult to follow for Zoroastrians who live outside the India and Iran.

Festivals

Zoroastrians follow a solar calendar, consisting of 12 months of thirty days each. Each of the 30 days in a month are used for the acknowledgement of a particular deity, and in addition, twelve of these deities also have their own months dedicated to them. This 360-day year is rounded out with an additional five days, called Gatha Days, where people remember their beloved friends and relatives. Zoroastrians celebrate the days of Zarathushtra's birth and death and also the six Ghambars, special days of obligation in honour of the seasons. Another key event is the feast of "all souls" called Hamaspathmaedaya, where offerings of sandalwood and flowers are made to deceased family members. Finally, the New Year's celebration (Navroze) is of particular significance to Zoroastrians, which they commemorate by reciting the entirety of the Gathas and by honoring the dear departed. This is celebrated at three different times of the year by three different groups of Zoroatrians based on historical disagreement over the calendar.

Zoroastrianism in Modernity

Statistics and Distribution

Today, small but thriving Zoroastrian communities are found in India, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan, and throughout a worldwide diaspora. Until 2002 the worldwide population figures for Zoroastrians had been estimated at anywhere between 180,000 and 250,000. This total is much higher according to Most recent publications including many major encyclopedias and world alamanacs which number the worldwide population at 2 to 3.5 million. Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely, though Muslim proselytization and centuries of subsequent oppression suggest their numbers have significantly dwindled, typically estimated to be around 45,000. However, since 2002 estimates have been sharply increased. India's 2001 Census found 69,601 Parsi Zoroastrians, in Pakistan they number 5000, mostly living in Karachi. North America is thought to be home to 18,000-25,000 Zoroastrians of both Parsi and Iranian background.

The fire temple for Zoroastrians of Iran in the city Yazd

Zoroastrians in Iran have, like other religious minorities, survived centuries of persecution at the hands of the Muslim majority. Despite the fact that Zoroastrians in Iran are still persecuted by that nation's theocratic rulers, communities exist in the territories of Tehran, as well as in Yazd and Kerman. In these locales, many still speak an Iranian language distinct from Persian which they call Dari. This language is also referred to as Gabri, a derogatory term derived from the word for an unbeliever in Islam. Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, Yazdi or Kermani. There is a growing interest in their ancient Zoroastrian heritage among Iranians and other Central Asian peoples, and many people in these countries now consider themselves Zoroastrians. In fact, at the instigation of the government of Tajikistan, UNESCO declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3000th Anniversary of Zoroastrian Culture," sponsoring special events throughout the world. Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 and subsequent U.S.-led intervention in the Middle East, Zoroastrians of Iraq and Afghanistan have been receiving less persecution than before, and have also been less reticent about identifying themselves as Zoroastrian.

Parsis in India have, in contrast, enjoyed relative tolerance. While the communities there are socioeconomically diverse, Parsis have gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of (especially Indian) society. Also in contrast to Zoroastrianism in the Middle East The Indian Parsees however, are reducing in number because they are having less children and are rejected from the community when Parsis marry a non-Parsi. Small but fast growing Zoroastrian communities exist in major urban areas in the United States, Canada, England, Australia, and other countries.

Contemporary Concepts

The major concepts which have developed in modern day Zoroastrianism promote a strong sense of social justice, since respect of everything on Earth and in the world is central to the religion. Zoroastrianism outwardly condemns any oppression toward human beings. Since laziness and sloth in the face of such adversities are frowned upon, Zoroastrians work hard at promoting charity within their communities. Charity is regarded as a good deed, thus, many Zoroastrians part with a small percentage of their income or possessions in order to help the destitute. This concern for repressed people has most likely been influenced by the history of persecution Zoroastrianism was forced to endure at the hands of Alexander the Great and the Muslims crusaders.

Further, Zoroastrianism affirms the equality of all humans regardless of race or religion. This includes men and women, who are considered to be equal in all manners within society. Traditionally, Zoroastrian women were limited to roles of wife, homemaker and mother, and subject to even more stringent purification rites than men as a result of physiological functions such as menstruation and childbirth. However, modern Zoroastrian has hearkened back to the original egalitarian message of Zarashtushtra's revelation. Since the arrival of Western educational influences in the nineteenth century, both Parsi and Iranian Zoroastrian communities have seen women assert themselves in the intellectual sphere. Currently, more and more women are entering the liturgical and scholarly traditions of Zoroastrianism which have been limited to men throughout history.

The creation of a just society also extends to the ecological sphere, due to the immense importance of nature to the practice of Zoroastrianism. Many important Zoroastrian annual festivals are conducted in honour of nature such as the Ghambars, which celebrate the arrival of each of the seasons. Care for the planet is necessary of all who wish to become ashavans, and the betterment of the environment is seen as a precursor for the refurbishment of earth that will take place at frashokereti. Enviromental awareness includes a strong condemnation of cruelty against animals, such as animal sacrifices.

Another debate which has been highly contested within contemporary Zoroastrian is that of Inter-religious marriages as the sole means for propagating the faith as they stand against the alternative of open proseltization. Throughout history, Zoroastrians typically have not proselytized. In the Parsi traditions, for example, it is typically thought that the only way to become a Zoroastrian is to be born within a Zoroastrian family. As in many other religious traditions, Zoroastrians are strongly encouraged to marry others of the same faith. However, in India, as a result of historical need not to proselytize, there have emerged "rules" that say that women (and their children) who marry followers of other religions are no longer considered Zoroastrians (although men and their children are). These rules are not officially recognised by the clergy as they go against one of the main principles of Zoroastrianism, equality amongst sexes. While some Iranian Zoroastrians agree with the position that one can only become Zoroastrian by way of birth, a significant portion do not. In Iran, because of prevailing discrimination, inter-faith marriage is officially discouraged by the government. With the globalization of modern society and the dwindling number of Zoroastrians, these rules are being enforced increasingly less often, especially in the diaspora. Conversion is also becoming more popular in the western world, where in recent years Zoroastrianism has seen an influx of converts who have based their new beliefs solely upon the Gathas.

Significance

The significance of Zoroastrianism cannot be underestimated, as it has provided numerous concepts which have become foundational in other religions. Some scholars believe the entire eschatology of Judaism, originated in Zoroastrianism, and was transferred to Judaism during the Babylonian captivity. Further, Zoroastrian could have provided a template for Biblical figures who displaced henotheism with monotheism, since Zoroaster's writings may predate the monotheistic declarations of Abraham and Isaiah. Zoroastrianism has also been proposed as the source of some of the most important aspects of Judaic religious thinking which emerged after the Babylonian captivity, including the belief in a perfected future state, the importance of of rewards and punishments, the soul's immortality, and a final Judgment were the world is reordered. These concepts went on to have an immense influence on Christianity, as well. Moreover, because Zoroastrianism is thought to have emerged from a common Indo-Iranian culture that preceded Vedic Hinduism, scholars also use evidence from Zoroastrian texts to reconstruct the unreformed earlier stage of Indo-Iranian beliefs, and therefore to characterise the original Proto-Indo-European religion. The reverberations of Zarathushtra's concepts in the aforementioned faiths suggest Zoroastrianism's possible formative links to both Western Abrahamic and Eastern dharmic religious traditions. This possibility, in concert with the modern Zoroastrian maxims which promote social and environmental justice, allows for the conclusion that Zoroastrian has much to offer our understanding of both historical and contemporary humanity.

See also

• Book of Arda Viraf
• Mazdakism
• Manichaeism
• Zoroastrian calendar
• Zoroastrian music
• Zurvanism

Notes

1. ^  Many scholars consider this strict hierarchization of society to be a remnant of the caste system, which the Zoroastrian Persians inherited from the Aryan predecessors.
2. ^ The concept of asha is comparable to the Vedic idea of rta (which would later develop into the prevalent notion of dharma).

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Boyce, Mary. Textual sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. ISBN 0226069303
• Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge, 1979. ISBN 0710001215
• Clark, Peter. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith. Portland, OR: Sussex Academic Press, 1998. ISBN 1898723788
• King, Charles William. The Gnostics and Their Remains. London: David Nutt, 1877.
• "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents." <http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Zoroastrianism> [Accessed 20 July 2006]
• Malandra, William W. An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion — Readings from the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscripitons. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8166-1114-9
• Nigosian, S.A. The Zoroastrian Faith: Traditions & Modern Research. Montreal-Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press, 1993. ISBN 0773511334
• Zaehner, Robert C. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. Great Britain : Phoenix Press, 1961. ISBN 1-84212-165-0.
• "Zoroastrianism." Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mercia Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. p. 579-591.

External links

• Avesta.org contains much on the faith
• Zoroastrianism - was the religion of the Persian Empire the first monotheism? (from the BBC Radio4 show In Our Time)
• A wealth of Parsi / Zoroastrian Resources and Websites
• Zarathustrian Assembly

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