Difference between revisions of "Surrogacy" - New World Encyclopedia

Revision as of 20:57, 28 June 2007

Surrogacy is an arrangement whereby a woman agrees to become pregnant for the purpose of gestating and giving birth to a child for others to raise. She may be the child's genetic mother (the more traditional form of surrogacy), or she may be implanted with someone else's fertilized egg (gestational surrogacy), as this trend started since the first artificial surrogate mothers in Europe or the U.S. back in the 1960s.

Terminology

The word surrogate, from Latin surrogatus (substituted), means appointed to act in the place of. The existence of the concept of one woman bearing a child for another dates back to the Old Testament, when Hagar, the maidservant of Sarah, lies with Abraham to bear a child for her infertile mistress.

There is a tendency now to limit the term 'surrogacy' to only mean gestational surrogacy, i.e. those services where both ovum donation and gestational carrier services are done together. ^{[citation needed]}

Who chooses surrogacy?

Surrogacy is a method of assisted reproduction.

In some cases it is the only available option for a couple who wish to have a child that is biologically related to them. Changing attitudes towards illegitimacy have led to fewer women placing their children up for adoption, and couples may wish to avoid being asked to adopt a child of a different race or having to go through the difficulties of international adoption.

The biological connection

There are two major types of surrogacy:

Partial or genetic contracted motherhood (also known as traditional or straight surrogacy), in which the gestational mother is impregnated with the sperm of the commissioning father (usually through artificial insemination). In these cases, the woman who becomes pregnant is both the genetic and gestational mother of the child; however, she relinquishes her role of social mother to the commissioning mother.
Complete or gestational contracted motherhood (also known as host or gestational surrogacy). Using in vitro fertilisation (IVF), the intended parents produce an embryo that can then be transplanted into the surrogate mother for her to gestate and give birth to after nine months. In gestational contracted motherhood the pregnant woman makes no genetic contribution to the child; however, she is the child’s birth mother. In some cases, particularly of infertility, this may be combined with the use of donor sperm or donor eggs in creating the embryo for transfer.

Note that the term "biological mother" confuses the two sorts of surrogacy, and as such is best avoided.

Increasingly, more surrogate mothers are female relatives whom share a common blood type of child-bearing age (i.e. aunts, nieces, sisters and grandmothers) of birth mothers (or fathers) agreed to carry a developing fetus full-term, in order to help the actual mother to have that child. ^{[citation needed]}

Also of note the "Traditional/Straight" surrogate can have her pregnancy achieved (for expediency sake) via IVF treatment. The surrogate's own eggs would still be used and would still be the genetic mother of the child. A sort of 'hybrid' method of the two major forms of surrogacy.

Emotional issues

Research carried out by the Family and Child Psychology Research Centre at City University, London, UK in 2002 showed surrogate mothers rarely had difficulty relinquishing rights to a surrogate child and that the commissioning mothers showed greater warmth to the child than mothers conceiving naturally.^{[citation needed]}

Ethical issues

There has been some debate over the ethics of surrogacy.

The clearest argument for supporting surrogacy is that it allows couples who want a family, but who were prevented from having one by infertility, to have a child. Another argument is that people should be allowed to make personal arrangements with a surrogate as long as this arrangement does not harm others. As well, supporters claim that the child's rights can be protected if legal provisions are adequate and enforced. Supporters also argue that if a couple would go to such lengths to have a child, this child would very much be wanted and loved. Finally, proponents of surrogacy believe that most surrogate mothers are motivated by altruistic concerns for other women to have children, and that even if receiving payment, most entered the industry on the grounds of helping others.

The arguments against surrogacy include a consideration of the interests of the surrogate mother and the rights of the child. Some issues include:^[1]

What happens if the surrogate mother or commissioning couple change their mind?
What happens in the case of miscarriage or multiple births?
What happens if the child has serious disabilities?
What are the rights of the child?
Should payment be involved?

Surrogacy arrangements involve not only the couple and the surrogate mother, but the child as well. Therefore, some argue that society has a right to prohibit surrogacy in order to prevent the child from undesirable circumstances. Some also argue that surrogacy arrangements are in reality contracts for the purchase of a child, which are quite unacceptable.^[2]

There has also been some religious opposition to surrogacy. For example, the Vatican^[3] has issued a statement rejecting surrogate motherhood, finding that it is not morally licit because it is contrary to unity of marriage and the dignity of procreation of the human person. Some believe that Mary (mother of Jesus) was a surrogate mother, but the definition says that surrogacy is an arrangement whereby a woman agrees to become pregnant for the purpose of gestating and giving birth to a child for others to raise, she did not give up Jesus to be raised by someone else, she raised him.

Notes

↑ http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Surrogacy_the_issues?OpenDocument
↑ http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lrc.nsf/pages/DP18CHP6
↑ Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Instruction on Respect of Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation (1987) at 39

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[1] ttp://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Surrogacy_the_issues?OpenDocument

[2] ttp://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lrc.nsf/pages/DP18CHP6

[3] Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Instruction on Respect of Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation (1987) at 39

[1]

[2]

[3]

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 [[Category:Sociology]]
-'''Surrogacy''' is a [[third party reproduction]] arrangement whereby a woman agrees to become [[pregnancy|pregnant]] for the purpose of gestating and giving [[birth]] to a child for others to raise. She may be the child's [[Genetics|genetic mother]] or not, depending on the type of arrangement agreed to.
+'''Surrogacy''' is an arrangement whereby a woman agrees to become [[pregnancy|pregnant]] for the purpose of gestating and giving [[birth]] to a child for others to raise. She may be the child's [[Genetics|genetic mother]] (the more traditional form of surrogacy), or she may be implanted with someone else's [[fertilization|fertilized]] egg ([[gestational surrogacy]]), as this trend started since the first artificial surrogate mothers in Europe or the U.S. back in the 1960s.
-The word [[surrogate]], from [[Latin]] ''surrogatus'' (substituted), means appointed to act in the place of.
+==Terminology==
+The word [[surrogate]], from [[Latin]] ''surrogatus'' (substituted), means appointed to act in the place of. The existence of the concept of one woman bearing a child for another dates back to the [[Old Testament]], when [[Hagar (Bible)|Hagar]], the maidservant of [[Sarah]], lies with [[Abraham]] to bear a child for her infertile mistress.
-A surrogate mother is a woman who [[pregnancy|carries]] a child for a couple or single person with the intention of giving that child to that person/people once the child is [[childbirth|born]] (also called surrogate pregnancy). The surrogate mother may be the baby's biological [[mother]] (traditional surrogacy) or she may be implanted with someone else's [[fertilization|fertilized]] egg (gestational surrogacy).
+There is a tendency now to limit the term 'surrogacy' to only mean [[gestational surrogacy]], i.e. those services where both [[ovum donation]] and gestational carrier services are done together. {{Fact|date=March 2007}}
-==Compensation==
+== Who chooses surrogacy? ==
-Contracted motherhood agreements can be divided into two categories: commercial and non-commercial, or “altruistic.” Commercial contracted motherhood arrangements are those in which the party seeking a child agree to pay a fee to the surrogate beyond the cost of her medical needs. In contrast non-commercial or “altruistic” contracted motherhood arrangements are those where the surrogate agrees to receive no payment or reward, although it is rare that a total non-commercial agreement is ever made as it is expected that the commissioning party will pay the pregnant woman’s medical bills. Altrustic agreements are often between parties who are family or friends prior to the arrangement.
-It is estimated that in the [[United States]], the payment for a surrogate mother ranges between US$10,000 and $20,000, the whole procedure can cost $45,000 to $60,000. According to a poll on www.surromomsonline.com, fees anywhere from $10,000 to 30,000+ are considered fair by the surrogates themselves; with most voting in the $17,000-$22,000 range. The fees for the rest of the process- including fertility clinics; lawyers; medical fees; and agencies and/or egg donors (if they're used) generally cost more than the fee going to the surrogate. Gestational surrogacy costs more than traditional surrogacy, since more complicated [[medical procedure]]s are required. Surrogates who carry a baby for a family member (i.e. sister or daughter) usually do so without reimbursement.
+Surrogacy is a method of [[assisted reproduction]].
-In the [[United Kingdom]] it is an offence to pay a surrogate under the Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985,[http://72.14.209.104/search?q=cache:q5ddrRYvifYJ:www.surrogacyuk.org/surrogacyact1985.pdf+surrogate+mother+payment&hl=en&gl=uk&ct=clnk&cd=1] but it is permitted to reimburse expenses. Although no official statistics verify this, it is believed that by describing generous allowances as expenses, payment of surrogates occurs in the United Kingdom as well.
+In some cases it is the only available option for a couple who wish to have a child that is biologically related to them.  Changing attitudes towards [[illegitimacy]] have led to fewer women placing their children up for [[adoption]], and couples may wish to avoid being asked to adopt a child of a different race or having to go through the difficulties of [[international adoption]].
-Contrary to popular belief, surrogate mothers are not all poor women being exploited for their fertility. Many are middle-class women who want to help make families. They come from all walks of life, some are done having children of their own, while some want more children in the future.
+==The biological connection==
-The same can be said of fertility tourism, when couples go abroad for surrogacy, notably India. And here too surrogates come from all walks of life. The benefits of doing so would be that it is far cheaper; around $12,000 will give one a surrogate, an egg donor and all medical and hospital bills paid for. IVF on its own is more than $3,000. Other benefits are a short waiting list (or none at all) and an unrestrictive embryo count implant.
+There are two major types of surrogacy:
-== Who chooses surrogacy? ==
-Surrogacy is a method of [[assisted reproduction]].
-In some cases it is the only available option for a couple who wish to have a child that is genetically related to at least one of them. People who choose surrogacy may be:
-* [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]] couples who are unable to conceive children due to [[infertility]] suffered by either partner.
-* a woman who is not able to carry a pregnancy to term; or
-* women who don't want to go through [[pregnancy]].
-* single men or [[homosexuality|gay male]] couples;
-Women may be unable or unwilling to go through pregnancy due to: absent or poorly functioning [[ovaries]], an [[uterine malformation|absent or malformed uterus]], a disease which precludes pregnancy, [[Habitual abortion|recurrent pregnancy loss]], or repeated [[IVF]] implantation failures.
+# Partial or genetic contracted motherhood (also known as ''traditional'' or ''straight'' surrogacy), in which the gestational mother is impregnated with the [[spermatozoon|sperm]] of the commissioning father (usually through [[artificial insemination]]). In these cases, the woman who becomes pregnant is both the genetic and gestational mother of the child; however, she relinquishes her role of social mother to the commissioning mother.
+# Complete or gestational contracted motherhood (also known as ''host'' or ''gestational'' surrogacy). Using in vitro fertilisation ([[IVF]]), the intended parents produce an embryo that can then be transplanted into the surrogate mother for her to gestate and give birth to after nine months. In gestational contracted motherhood the pregnant woman makes no genetic contribution to the child; however, she is the child’s birth mother. In some cases, particularly of [[infertility]], this may be combined with the use of [[sperm donation|donor sperm]] or [[egg donation|donor eggs]] in creating the embryo for transfer.
-It has been suggested that one of the major motivations for turning to this method of reproduction is the difficulties associated with adoption in contemporary society. These include the fact that changes in social attitudes and legislation have led to fewer women placing their children up for adoption, and couples may wish to avoid being asked to adopt a child of a different race or having to go through the difficulties of [[international adoption]].
+Note that the term "biological mother" confuses the two sorts of surrogacy, and as such is best avoided.
-==The biological connection==
+Increasingly, more surrogate mothers are female relatives whom share a common blood type of child-bearing age (i.e. aunts, nieces, sisters and grandmothers) of birth mothers (or fathers) agreed to carry a developing fetus full-term, in order to help the actual mother to have that child. {{Fact|date=April 2007}}
-There are two major types of surrogacy:
-# Partial or genetic contracted motherhood (also known as ''traditional'' or ''straight'' surrogacy), in which the gestational mother is impregnated with the [[sperm]] of the commissioning father (usually through artificial insemination). In these cases, the gestational mother is both the genetic and gestational mother of the child, however she relinquishes her role of social mother to the commissioning mother.
+Also of note the "Traditional/Straight" surrogate can have her pregnancy achieved (for expediency sake) via IVF treatment. The surrogate's own eggs would still be used and would still be the genetic mother of the child. A sort of 'hybrid' method of the two major forms of surrogacy.
-# Complete or gestational contracted motherhood (also known as ''host'' or ''gestational'' surrogacy). Using in vitro fertilisation ([[IVF]]), the intended parents produce an embryo that can then be transplanted into the surrogate mother for her to gestate and give birth to after nine months. In gestational contracted motherhood the pregnant woman makes no genetic contribution to the child, however she is the child’s birth mother. In some cases, particularly of infertility, this may be combined with the use of [[sperm donation|donor sperm]] or [[egg donation|donor eggs]] in creating the embryo for transfer.
 ==Emotional issues==
-The emotions involved in surrogacy are very strong on both sides. Mothers should make sure they have appropriate support before choosing surrogacy. Support organizations exist for couples choosing this option.
+[[Research]] carried out by the Family and Child Psychology Research Centre at [[City University, London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] in 2002 showed surrogate mothers rarely had difficulty relinquishing rights to a surrogate child and that the commissioning mothers showed greater warmth to the child than mothers conceiving naturally.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
-[[Research]] carried out by the Family and Child Psychology Research Centre at [[City University, London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] in 2002 showed surrogate mothers rarely had difficulty relinquishing rights to a surrogate child and that the commissioning mothers showed greater warmth to the child than mothers conceiving naturally.
-Most surrogacies end without problems, with the parents getting their child(ren). Most stories (especially movie dramas) about the subject focus on the problems of the practice, and on the conflicts that may arise from it, but this is not so common in reality.
 ==Ethical issues==
 There has been some debate over the ethics of surrogacy.
 The clearest argument for supporting surrogacy is that it allows couples who want a family, but who were prevented from having one by infertility, to have a child. Another argument is that people should be allowed to make personal arrangements with a surrogate as long as this arrangement does not harm others. As well, supporters claim that the child's rights can be protected if legal provisions are adequate and enforced. Supporters also argue that if a couple would go to such lengths to have a child, this child would very much be wanted and loved. Finally, proponents of surrogacy believe that most surrogate mothers are motivated by altruistic concerns for other women to have children, and that even if receiving payment, most entered the industry on the grounds of helping others.
-The arguments against surrogacy include a consideration of the interests of the surrogate mother and the rights of the child. Some issues include<ref>http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Surrogacy_the_issues?OpenDocument</ref>:
+The arguments against surrogacy include a consideration of the interests of the surrogate mother and the rights of the child. Some issues include:<ref>http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Surrogacy_the_issues?OpenDocument</ref>
 * What happens if the surrogate mother or commissioning couple change their mind?
@@ Line 61: / Line 46: @@
 * Should payment be involved?
-Surrogacy arrangements involve not only the couple and the surrogate mother, but the child as well. Therefore, some argue that society has a right to prohibit surrogacy in order to prevent the child from undesirable circumstances. Some also argue that surrogacy arrangements are in reality contracts for the purchase of a child, which are quite unacceptable <ref>http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lrc.nsf/pages/DP18CHP6</ref>.
+Surrogacy arrangements involve not only the couple and the surrogate mother, but the child as well. Therefore, some argue that society has a right to prohibit surrogacy in order to prevent the child from undesirable circumstances. Some also argue that surrogacy arrangements are in reality contracts for the purchase of a child, which are quite unacceptable.<ref>http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lrc.nsf/pages/DP18CHP6</ref>
-There has also been some religious opposition to surrogacy. For example, the Vatican<ref>Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Instruction on Respect of Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation (1987) at 39</ref> has issued a statement rejecting surrogate motherhood, finding that it is not morally licit because it is contrary to unity of marriage and the dignity of procreation of the human person.
+There has also been some religious opposition to surrogacy. For example, the Vatican<ref>Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Instruction on Respect of Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation (1987) at 39</ref> has issued a statement rejecting surrogate motherhood, finding that it is not morally licit because it is contrary to unity of marriage and the dignity of procreation of the human person.  Some believe that [[Mary (mother of Jesus)]] was a surrogate mother, but the definition says that surrogacy is an arrangement whereby a woman agrees to become pregnant for the purpose of gestating and giving birth to a child for others to raise, she did not give up Jesus to be raised by someone else, she raised him.{{Lopsided}}
 ==Notes==
-<!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cite/Cite.php —>
-<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
 <references/>
-</div>
+==References==
 ==External links==
 *[http://www.surrogacyuk.org Surrogacy UK - The organisation formed to support and inform anyone with an interest in surrogacy within the UK]
 *[http://www.conceptualoptions.com Industry Standards, Licensing, and Regulations for Third Party Reproduction]
 *[http://www.fertilitystories.com/surrogacy.htm Personal Accounts of Surrogate Mothers & Intended Parents]
-*[http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Surrogacy_the_issues?OpenDocument Surrogacy - the issues]
+*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7717993840593347853&q=mslaw A video on how money, science, and politics play a role in the issue of surrogacy in the United States]
+* [http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Surrogacy_the_issues?OpenDocument Surrogacy - the issues]
 *[http://allaboutsurrogacy.com An Online Community of Surrogate Mothers, Intended Parents and  Egg Donors]
 *[http://surromomsonline.com A Virtual Meeting Ground for the Surrogacy Community]
@@ Line 82: / Line 69: @@
-{{Credit1|Surrogacy|101042114|}}
+{{Credits|Surrogacy|140704350|}}