Slang

Slang is the use of highly informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's dialect or language. Slang is often highly regional, specific to a particular territory.

Slang terms are frequently particular to a certain subculture, such as musicians, and members of minority groups. Nevertheless, usage of slang expressions can spread outside their original arenas to become commonly understood, such as "cool" and "jive." While some words eventually lose their status as slang, others continue to be considered as such by most speakers. In spite of this, the process tends to lead the original users to replace the words with other, less-recognized terms to maintain group identity.

Slang and jargon

Being informal speech, slang should be distinguished from jargon, which is the technical vocabulary of a particular profession. Moreover, jargon may not be intended to exclude nongroup members from the conversation, but rather deals with technical peculiarities of a given field requiring a specialized vocabulary.

According to Bethany K. Dumas and Jonathan Lighter, an expression should be considered "true slang" if it meets at least two of the following criteria:

• It lowers, if temporarily, "the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing"; in other words, it is likely to be seen in such contexts as a "glaring misuse of register."
• Its use implies that the user is familiar with whatever is referred to, or with a group of people that are familiar with it and use the term.
• "It is a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a higher social status or greater responsibility."
• It replaces "a well known conventional synonym." This is done primarily to avoid "the discomfort caused by the conventional item [or by] further elaboration."

Origins of slang

One use of slang is to circumvent social taboos, as mainstream language tends to shy away from evoking certain realities. For this reason, slang vocabularies are particularly rich in certain domains, such as sexuality, violence, crime and drugs.

Alternatively, slang can grow out of mere familiarity with the things described. Among wine connoisseurs, Cabernet Sauvignon might be known as "Cab Sav," Chardonnay as "Chard" and so on; this means that naming the different wines expends less superfluous effort. It also serves as a shared code among connoisseurs.

Even within a single language community, slang tends to vary widely across social, ethnic, economic, and geographic strata. Slang sometimes grows more and more common until it becomes the dominant way of saying something, at which time it is regarded as mainstream, acceptable language (e.g. the Spanish word caballo), while at other times it may fall into disuse. Numerous slang terms pass into informal mainstream speech, and sometimes into formal speech, though this may involve a change in meaning or usage.

Slang very often involves the creation of novel meanings for existing words. It is very common for such novel meanings to diverge significantly from the standard meaning. Thus, "cool" and "hot" can both mean "very good or impressive."

Slang terms are often only known within the community of users. For example, Leet Speak (Leet or "1337") is popular among online video gamers (although it is slowly being picked up by gaming in general). Text speak is also a commom form of slang, used among people to shorten words when typing.

Internet slang

Internet slang/language is slang that Internet users have coined and promulgated. Such terms typically originated with the purpose of saving keystrokes, and many people use the same abbreviations in text messages. They are also very commonly used in instant messaging. The terms often appear in lower case, with capitals reserved for emphasis; for example, the pronoun "I" often appears simply as "i." People also use "u" to mean "you," and "r" to mean "are."

Like most jargon, Internet slang aggrandises authors and readers, causing them to appear to have specialized knowledge of a complex medium. However, there are cases where using Internet slang is considered ridiculous, due to association with the stereotype of the internet n00b.

Another feature common to Internet communication involves the truncation and morphing of words to forms that users can type more readily, and quickly. When new terms of internet slang are created, it takes time for them to become widely accepted. The small ring of friends using an instant messaging client most of the time is not enough. Web forums are a way to get new terminology out on the net, and accepted and used by a wide range of members of the internet community.

Usage

Internet slang words develop from common phrases that users simplify to be able to type faster. However, in games, new game players may try to emulate this, and unintentionally emphasize their own lack of knowledge through misuse of the terms and poor spelling. As a result, several internet slang abbreviations and spellings are most often used ironically. Players may use intentionally poor grammar and an excessive amount of leet (also written as 1337) speak to ridicule or satirize new players. An example would be "pwned" (owned). "Pwned" means "beaten thoroughly"/"destroyed quickly and with ease" or "il ttyl, but that was funny 2 were i had 2 lmfao." Lmfao stands for "laughing my fucking ass off" and "ttyl" stand for "talk to you later." The word "Pwned" has been accepted as neolinguistic, and has been carried over into conversations. The most common context of "pwned" is "pwned like a noob," meaning "destroyed with the quickness and ease with which one would destroy a new player." The use of this phrase, however, is looked upon as "nerdy," "arrogant," or "vulgar" (in the sense of the word meaning "unlearned and common") by some people.

Classes of slang

Acronyms and abbreviations

Abbreviations are probably the most used kind of internet slang in which a three- or four-letter abbreviation can be used instead of a string of words. For example, "LMAO" means "laughing my ass off" and "TTYL" means "Talk To You Later,," "LOL" generally stands for "Laughing Out Loud" (although it can signify "Lots of Laughs" or "Lots of Love") and "LOTI" stands for "Laughing On The Inside."

Abbreviations vary within internet groups, particularly for online games where each game's subculture develops its own terms. For example, in the online Massive multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPG) World of Warcraft, "AP" generally means "Attack Power" while in the MMORPG Maple Story it means "Ability Points." This can lead to considerable confusion for the new user.

In many cases these abbreviations may also be used as acronyms. Outside internet use, the abbreviation "LOL," (as stated previously, stands for 'Laugh Out Loud') signifying the pronunciation rather than the abbreviation, is finding its way into normal conversation, pronounced either ("ell oh ell") as an abbreviation or as an acronym ("lohl" or /lʌl/).

The word "w00t" (pronounced woot) may be an acronym for "We Owned (beat severely) the Other Team," though other etymologies are also considered plausible. This is common in after-match chatrooms in team-based gaming servers where players can discuss the round after playing it. In conversational context, however, it means "hooray," "yay," "huzzah," or simply "What?" which is the original form of w00t. It may also stem from a corruption of a phrase expressed if a boss in an MMOG such as World of Warcraft drops an exceptionally powerful or valuable item, which is "Wow - loot!"

Emoticons (smileys)

Emoticons—also known as smileys—are a form of ASCII art where a short sequence of printable characters is used to resemble a facial expression and convey an emotion.

The basic smiley is :), where the colon or number 8 represents the eyes and the parenthesis the mouth, forming a rough approximation of a "happy face." Other common emoticons or "smileys" are those showing if one is sad :(, or if one is shocked 8-O. Emoticons may be more easily recognized by tilting one's head to the left, and a great many variants exist, such as 8D, =), =D, =>), >=D,:p, |=[, >8), >XD, XP,|8[,8-0. There is another variation of "smileys" resembling a wink by combining a semicolon and a parenthesis, such as ;), ;] or ;}. The differing use of parentheses can give the emoticon a slightly different slant; for example ;} can represent an evil or otherwise malicious wink.

The other major style of emoticon, which does not require the viewer to tilt their head, evolved in East Asia. In the basic smiling manga emoticon, ^_^, the carets representing the eyes, and the underscore a mouth. Notably, this "smiley" has a straight mouth and smiling eyes, suggesting a cultural difference in reading emotions. Another popular east Asian emoticon is (^ﾑ^), using a Japanese character to represent the nose. Kirby can also be done, (>'.')>

Emoticons most probably found their origins in the early days of e-mail as a method of avoiding a potentially embarrassing or emotionally damaging misunderstanding by clarifying intent, similar to the slang jk, meaning just kidding.

'n00b' and 'newbie'

The word "n00b" is used in internet slang coming from the word "newbie." Generally, the term "newb" is used endearingly for a newcomer to a game or commonplace. However, "noob" is an insulting word aimed at someone who has persisted in an environment but is being ridiculed for lack of skill and/or knowledge of the environment. There are also many variations of the word "noob," such as "nub," "naab" , "fr00b," "ch00b," or "n00b," but it is not to be confused with the mostly non-offensive "newb." In some places, such as popular MMORPGs or forums, this can be attributed to someone who has been in a certain place for a long time and retains their ignorance. The term "n00b" can be used describe a person who maintains an attitude of stupidity, whereas a "newbie" is more likely to be used in describing someone who is simply ignorant or inexperienced.

The term "newbie" is usually regarded as less of an insult than "noob." Newb is generally reserved for a person who is simply new to a game/topic and has not yet full understanding of its working. Noob is used to classify someone who has persisted in a game/topic and still acts poorly, whether in skill or demeanor.

Cockney rhyming slang

Cockney rhyming slang is a form of English slang which originated in the East End of London.

Traditional Cockney rhyming slang works by taking two words that are related through a short phrase and using the first word to stand for a word that rhymes with the second. For instance, "boat" means "face" as "boat race" rhymes with face. Similarly "plates" means "feet" ("plates of meat"), and bread means "money" (bread and honey).

The origins of rhyming slang are disputed. It remains a matter of speculation as to whether it was a linguistic accident or whether it was developed intentionally to confuse non-locals. If deliberate, it might have simply been used to maintain a sense of community; or to be used in the marketplace for vendors to talk amongst themselves without customers knowing what they were saying; or it may have been used by criminals (see thieves' cant) to confuse the police.

In recent years the practice of dropping the rhyming word and using just the first word in the pair has become less common, as the slang has been used by people who don't understand the traditional rules. The bastardized form, in which the full phase is used, is now assumed by many people to be Cockney rhyming slang. In it's original context this form makes no sense since it does little to exclude outsiders. It was popularized by Cockney comedians for just that reason.

The proliferation of rhyming slang has meant many of its traditional expressions have passed into common language, and the creation of new ones (often ironically) is no longer restricted to Cockneys. Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in Britain, such as "have a butcher's" (which means to have a look, from "butcher's hook"), and these are often now used without awareness of their origins. Many English speakers are unaware that the term "use your loaf" is derived from "loaf of bread" meaning head.

The non-native speaker needs to be cautious in using rhyming slang to "fit in." The extent of the use of the slang is often exaggerated; only a very few phrases are in everyday use. Many examples are only used by people who are discussing rhyming slang, or by people who are being ironic or are making up a term on the spot for a joke, often at the expense of the tourist. In addition, since the original purpose was to encode or disguise speech from the comprehension of bystanders, terms that become too 'well-known' still have a tendency to lose actual currency fairly quickly, putting whatever usage the slang enjoys into a constant flux.

This style of rhyming has spread through many English-speaking countries, where the original phrases are supplemented by rhymes created to fit local needs. Creation of rhyming slang has become a word game for people of many classes and regions. The term 'Cockney' rhyming slang is generally applied to these expansions to indicate the rhyming style; though arguably the term only applies to phrases used in the East End of London. Similar formations do exist in other parts of the United Kingdom; for example, in the East Midlands, the local accent has formed "Derby Road," which rhymes with "cold": a conjunction that would not be possible in any other dialect of the UK. The slang also exists in Ireland where a young man might say that is "going on a garden with a Richard" = going on a garden gate = "date" with a Richard the Third = "bird."

All slang is rooted in the era of its origin, and therefore some of the meaning of its original etymology will be lost as time passes. In the 1980s for example, "Kerry Packered" meant "knackered"; in the 1990s, "Veras" referred to Rizla rolling papers ("Vera Lynns" = "skins" = Rizlas), as popularized in the song "Ebeneezer Goode" by The Shamen; and in 2004, the term "Britneys" was used to mean "beers" (or in Ireland to mean "queers") via the music artist "Britney Spears."

Rhyming slang in popular culture

• The British comedy series Mind Your Language (1977) features a character (caretaker Sid) who uses Cockney rhyming slang extensively. The show also had a whole episode dedicated to Cockney rhyming slang.

• Musical artists such as Audio Bullys and The Streets use Cockney rhyming slang in almost all of their songs, while Cockney artists Chas & Dave regularly use Cockney rhyming slang in their songs. The UK punk scene of the late 70's brought along bands that glorified their working-class heritage: Sham 69 being a good example with their hit songs such as "The Cockney Kids are Innocent"; often audience members would chant the words "If you're proud to be a Cockney, clap your hands" in between songs. The term "Chas and Dave" is also Cockney rhyming slang for "shave." Ian Dury who used rhyming slang throughout his career, even wrote a song for his solo debut New Boots and Panties! entitled Blackmail Man, an anti-racist song that utilized numerous derogatory rhyming slang for various ethnic minorities. The idiom even briefly made an appearance in the UK-based DJ reggae music of the 80s, in the hit "Cockney Translation" by Smiley Culture; this was followed a couple of years later by Domenick & Peter Metro's "Cockney and Yardie."

• Rhyming slang is also often used in feature films, such as Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998) (which contains a glossary of Cockney rhyming slang on the United States DVD version to assist the viewer), and on television (e.g. Only Fools and Horses, EastEnders) to lend authenticity to an East End setting. The theme song to The Italian Job, composed by Quincy Jones, contains many Cockney rhyming slang expressions. The lyrics by Don Black amused and fascinated the composer. Additionally, the schoolkid characters in the film To Sir With Love regularly speak in Cockney rhyming slang, which their new teacher Sidney Poitier finds impossible to understand; the film Austin Powers in Goldmember features a dialogue between Austin Powers and his father Nigel entirely in Cockney rhyming slang; and although due to its working-class origins rhyming slang is not generally associated with royalty, the character of Prince Wendell is heard to use Cockney rhyming slang on occasion in the television movie The 10th Kingdom.

• The box office success Ocean's Eleven (2001) contains an apparent example of Cockney rhyming slang, when the character Basher Tarr (Don Cheadle) uses the slang "Barney" to mean "trouble," derived from Barney Rubble. In common usage, "Barney" does not mean trouble; it means an argument or a fight. Some argue that it is derived from "Barn Owl" which (in a Cockney accent) nearly rhymes with "row" (argument). However, the book Understanding British English, by Margaret E. Moore, Citadel Press, 1995, does not list "Barney" in its "Rhyming Slang" section. Furthermore, Slang and Its Analogues, by J.S. Farmer and W.E. Henley and originally printed in 1890, states that "Barney" (which can mean anything from a "lark" to a "row") is of unknown origin, and was used in print as early as 1865.

• The film Green Street Hooligans (2005) features usage of Cockney rhyming slang as well as a brief explanation of the process by which the slang is derived.

• The film It's All Gone Pete Tong (2004) takes its title from Cockney rhyming slang - Pete Tong meaning wrong (however in this case the entire phrase is common in British English slang).

• In the book Trainspotting, by Irvine Welsh, several of the characters use the phrase Joe Baksi to refer to a taxicab (taxi).

• The film The Limey (1999) features Terrence Stamp as Wilson, a Cockney man recently released from prison who spices his conversations with rhyming slang:

Wilson: Can't be too careful nowadays, y'know? Lot of "tea leaves" about, know what I mean?

Warehouse Foreman: Excuse me?

Wilson: "Tea leaves"... "thieves."

Wilson: Eddy... yeah, he's me new "china."

Elaine: What?

Wilson: "China plate"... "mate."

Wilson: I'm gonna 'ave a "butcher's" round the house.

Ed Roel: Who you gonna butcher?

Wilson: "Butcher's hook"... "look."

• In the film The Football Factory (2004) the character of Zebedee is berated for his occasional use of "that fucking muggy rhyming slang" by Billy Bright.

• Anthony Burgess uses rhyming slang as a part of the fictitious "Nadsat" dialect in his book A Clockwork Orange.

• Oliver Twist the novel and the musical both exhibit examples of Cockney throughout.

• In the Discworld novel Going Postal, rhyming slang is parodied with "Dimwell arrhythmic rhyming slang," which is like rhyming slang, but doesn't rhyme. An example of this is a wig being a prune, as wig doesn't, possibly by a complex set of unspoken rules, rhyme with "syrup of prunes." (In Britain a widely used example of real rhyming slang is syrup = syrup of fig(s) = wig).

• In the film Mr. Lucky (1943), Cary Grant's character teaches rhyming slang to his female companion. However the character describes this as Australian rhyming slang.

• On September 19, 2006, the comic strip Get Fuzzy introduced a new character: Mac Manc McManx, a manx cat and cousin of Bucky Katt. McManx uses a speech pattern heavily based around Cockney rhyming slang and other London slang, despite being from Manchester. These speech patterns often make it almost impossible for the other characters, especially Satchel, to understand him.

• Ronnie Barker wrote a classic sketch for the comedy series "The Two Ronnies" in which a vicar delivers an entire sermon in rhyming slang.

Common examples

Below are just a few of the most common examples of Cockney rhyming slang.

• Apples = apples and pears = stairs
• Barnet = Barnet Fair = hair
• Brass = Brass Flute = Prostitute
• Dog = dog and bone = telephone
• Jam = Jam jar = Car
• China = China plate = mate
• Frog = frog and toad = road
• Rosie = Rosie Lee = tea

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Ayto, John. 2002. The Oxford Dictionary of Rhyming Slang. Oxford University Press.

Franklyn, Julian. 1960. A Dictionary of Rhyming Slang. Routledge.

Green, Jonathon. 2000. Cassell's Rhyming Slang. Cassell.

Lillo, Antonio (full Spanish name, Antonio Lillo Buades). 1996. "Drinking and Drug-Addiction Terms in Rhyming Slang." In Comments on Etymology 25 (6): pp. 1-23.

Lillo, Antonio. 1998. "Origin of Cockney Slang Dicky Dirt." In Comments on Etymology 27 (8): pp. 16-20.

Lillo, Antonio. 1999. "More on Sausage and Mash 'Cash'." In Gerald L. Cohen and Barry Popik (eds.), Studies in Slang. Part VI. Peter Lang, pp. 87-89.

Lillo, Antonio. 2000. "Bees, Nelsons, and Sterling Denominations: A Brief Look at Cockney Slang and Coinage." In Journal of English Linguistics 28 (2): pp. 145-172.

Lillo, Antonio. 2001. "The Rhyming Slang of the Junkie." In English Today 17 (2): pp. 39-45.

Lillo, Antonio. 2001. "From Alsatian Dog to Wooden Shoe: Linguistic Xenophobia in Rhyming Slang." In English Studies 82 (4): pp. 336-348.

Lillo, Antonio. 2004. "A Wee Keek at Scottish Rhyming Slang." In Scottish Language 23: pp. 93-115.

Lillo, Antonio. 2004. "Exploring Rhyming Slang in Ireland." In English World-Wide 25 (2): pp. 273-285.

Lillo, Antonio. 2006. "Cut-down Puns." In English Today 22 (1): pp. 36-44.

External links

• Urban Dictionary - A dictionary of contemporary slang with user-contributed definitions. Largely unreliable and amateurish, but often the only reference to include very recent slang.
• Double-Tongued Dictionary - A collection of citations of slang captured from actual usage. Far from comprehensive, but trustworthy where it does have coverage.
• Slang Dictionary: Etymological, Historical, and Anecdotal By John Camden Hotten. Now largely out of date and superseded by subsequent works. 1874 ed. at Google books
• The Alternative Dictionaries - Slang, profanities, insults and vulgarisms from all the world. Poorly documented. Includes many terms that cannot be substantiated.

• Collection of Cockney slang
• Another collection
• Online dictionary of rhyming slang
• Cockney Alphabet
• Webster's Cockney Rhyming Slang-English Dictionary
• Cockney rhyming slang translator

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