Sadhu and Swami

A sadhu and his apprentice

In Hinduism, the terms Sadhu, Swami and Sanyasi refer to renunciates or spiritual masters, who have left behind all material and sexual attachments to live in forests, temples and caves all over India. The sadhu is an ascetic who has given up pursuit of the first three Hindu goals of life: kama (pleasure), artha (wealth and power) and even dharma (duty), to solely dedicate himself to achieving moksha (liberation) through meditation and contemplation of God. Swami is an honorific title meaning "Master", which literally translates as "owner of oneself", denoting complete mastery over instinctive and lower urges. The title "Swami" often added to one's name to emphasize mastery of a specific field of knowledge, most often religious and/or spiritual. Sometimes the respectful suffix 'ji' may also be added after Swami to give greater respect to the renunciant. Many great yogis and gurus (teachers) of the Hindu tradition hold the title of Swami along with their names, such as Swami Vivekananda or Swami Sivananda.

Sadhus and Swamis in Indian society

Vedic textual data suggest that asceticism in India - in forms similar to that practiced by sadhus today - dates back to 1700 B.C.E.; the present-day sadhus of India likely represent the oldest continuous tradition of monastic mystical practice in the world.

Sadhus and Swamis occupy a unique and important place in Hindu society, particularly in villages and small towns more closely tied to Hindu tradition. Along with bestowing religious instruction and blessings to lay people, sadhus are often called upon to adjudicate disputes between individuals or to intervene in conflicts within families. Sadhus are also considered to be living embodiments of the divine, and images of what human life, in the Hindu view, is truly about - religious illumination and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. It is also thought that the austere practices of the sadhus help to burn off their karma and that of the community at large. Thus seen as benefitting society, many people help support sadhus with donations. It is estimated that there are several million sadhus in India today. By and large, these sadhus are still widely respected, revered and even feared, especially for their curses. However, reverence of sadhus is by no means universal in India. Historically and contemporarily, sadhus have often been seen with a certain degree of suspicion, particularly amongst the urban populations of India. Today, especially in popular pilgrimage cities, posing as a 'sadhu' can be a means of acquiring income for beggars who could hardly be considered 'devout.'

Becoming a sadhu

Becoming a sadhu is a path followed by few. It is supposed to be the fourth phase of a Hindu’s life, after studies, being a father and a pilgrim, but for most it is not a practical option. There are some who fake holy status to gain respect but they are often discovered by true sadhus.

Becoming a sadhu is a difficult lifestyle. Sadhus are considered to be dead unto themselves, and they may be required ritually to attend their own funeral before following a guru for many years, serving him by doing menial tasks until acquiring the necessary experience to leave his leadership.

While the life of renunciation is described as the fourth stage of life in the classical, Sanskrit literature of the Hindu tradition, and the members of certain sects, particularly those dominated by initiates of Brahmin background, have typically lived as householders and raised families before becoming sadhus, many sects are composed of men that have renounced early in life - often in their late teens or early 20s. In many cases, those who choose the sadhu life are fleeing from family or financial situations that they have found to be untenable.

The processes and rituals of becoming a sadhu vary with sect; in almost all sects, a sadhu is initiated by a guru, who bestows upon the initiate a new name, as well as a mantra, or sacred sound or phrase, which is generally known only to the sadhu and the guru and may be repeated by the initiate as part of meditative practice. The guru is an important figure in all ascetic traditions, often being equated with the Deity, and service of the guru, even in the most menial of forms, is considered an important form of spiritual practice.

Initiation in the Dandi sect, a subdivision of the Shaiva Dashnami tradition, appears to most clearly mirror the rites described in the ancient Sanskrit literature. Initiates into the Dandi fold often cremate effigies of themselves at initation, and they renounce the use of fire - an allusion to Vedic times, when the ritual use of fire was an integral part of the religious practice of family men.

The sadhu life

A sadhu performing namaste in Madurai, India.

The lives of sadhus in contemporary India vary tremendously. Sadhus live in ashrams and temples in the midst of major urban centers, in huts on the edges of villages, in caves in the remote mountains. Others live lives of perpetual pilgrimage, moving without ceasing from one town, one holy place, to another. Some sadhus live with one or two disciples; some ascetics are solitary, while others live in large, communal institutions. For some, the bonds of sadhu identity, the brotherhood or sisterhood of other ascetics, is very important; for others it is not.

The rigor of the spiritual practices in which contemporary sadhus engage also varies a great deal. Apart from the very few that engage in the most dramatic, striking austerities - standing on one leg for years on end, remaining silent for a dozen years, most sadhus engage in some form of religious practice: devotional worship, hatha yoga, fasting, etc. For many sadhus, the consumption of cannabis - in the form of marijuana, hashish, or the edible bhang - is a central part of life, especially when interacting with their ascetic cohorts. Cannabis is accorded a religious significance by many sadhus; though many Vaishnava sadhus smoke it, cannabis is closely associated with Shiva and is said to be his "prasad," a form of his grace, and to allow the participation in his being. Smoking cannabis is also said to further the sense of "vairagya," or dispassion, and separation from the mainstream social world, its comforts and temptations - states that are central to sadhu existence. Smoking cannabis also clearly marks the sadhus as occupying a different space than their non-ascetic peers.

The ruggedness of the sadhu life deters many from following the sadhu path. Many sadhus have entered the Guinness World Records for feats of marathon endurance including standing for 17 years, staying in the same place for more than two decades, crawling 1400 km and many similar efforts, in their quest to attain liberation.

Some sadhus allegedly practice black magic or herbalism and dispense cures to the local community, remove evil eyes or bless a marriage. They are a walking reminder to the average Hindu of Divinity. They are generally allowed free passage on the trains and are a closely-knit organization. Some were even military in the old days, and even now, the Naga babas carry their swords with them.

Kumbh Mela, a mass gathering of sadhus from all parts of India, takes place every four years at one of four points along sacred rivers in India, including the holy River Ganges. Sadhus of all sects join in this reunion. Millions of non-sadhu pilgrims also attend the festivals, and the Kumbh Mela is said to be the largest gathering of human beings for a single purpose on the planet.

Sadhu sects

Sadhus are not unified in their practices. Some live in the mountains alone for years at a time, eating only bananas. Others walk around with one hand in the air for decades until the fingers withdraw into a stump. Still others partake in the religious consumption of charas, similar to marijuana and contemplate the cosmic nature and presence of God in the smoke patterns.

There are naked Naga (Digambar, or "sky-clad") sadhus with thick dreadlocks, or Jata, who carry swords. Aghora sadhus may keep company with ghosts, or live in cemeteries as part of their holy path. Indian culture tends to emphasize an infinite number of paths to God, such that sadhus, and the varieties that sadhus come in, have their place.

However, for every sadhu who is doing some form of extreme practice, there is another one who is devoting all of their time and attention to praying, chanting or meditating.

There are two primary sectarian divisions within the sadhu community: Shaiva sadhus, ascetics devoted to the god Shiva, and Vaishnava sadhus, renouncers devoted to the god Vishnu and/or his incarnations, which include Ram and Krishna. Less numerous than these two sects are Shakta sadhus, who are devoted to the Goddess - or Shakti, the divine energy - in one form or another. Within these general divisions are numerous sects and subsects, reflecting different lineages and philosophical schools and traditions (often referred to as "sampradayas").

The largest Shaiva sampradaya is called the Dashnami - or Ten Names; sadhus in the sect take one of the ten names as an appellation upon initiation. The sect is said to have been formed by the philosopher and renunciant Shankara, believed to have lived in the 8th century C.E., though the full history of the sect's formation is not clear. The Vaishnava sect with the greatest number of members - and indeed the largest sadhu sect in contemporary India - is the Ramanandi sect, said to have been founded by a medieval teacher of bhakti, or devotion, named Ramananda.

Shaiva sadhus are known as "samnyasis," those who have renounced, or laid down, while Vaishnavas call themselves "vairagis," or dispassionate ones. The terms reflect the different worldviews of the two groups: the philosophy of Shaiva asceticism and renunciation is, in many ways, more austere and radical than that of the Vaishnavas. The Shaiva ascetic worldview emphasizes a radical separation from the mainstream social world and complete commitment to liberation from "samsara," the world of birth and death, coming and going, while Vaishnavas emphasize remaining engaged in the non-sadhu social world through compassionate service.

While sadhus ostensibly leave behind caste at initiation, the caste backgrounds of initiates does influence the sects into which they are admitted; certain ascetic groups, such as the Dandis within the Dashnami sampradaya, are composed only of men of brahmin birth, while other groups admit people from a wide variety of caste backgrounds.

There are female sadhus - known as sadhvis - in many sects. In many cases, the women that take to the life of renunciation are widows, and these types of sadhvis often life secluded lives in ascetic compounds. Sadhvis are often regarded as manifestations or forms of the Goddess, or Devi, and are honored as such. There have been a number of charismatic sadhvis that have risen to fame as religious teachers in contemporary India.

Though some ascetic sects possess properties that generate revenue to sustain members, most sadhus rely on the donations of lay people; poverty and hunger are ever-present realities for many sadhus.

In this more formal sense, the title has a deeper, more specific signification - a Swami is an initiated monk of the philosophical school of Hinduism known as Advaita Vedanta, as systemized by Adi Shankara. In his book Autobiography of a Yogi [1], Paramahansa Yogananda, the great Indian yogi and guru, explains:

"Every swami belongs to the ancient monastic order which was organized in its present form by Shankara. Because it is a formal order, with an unbroken line of saintly representatives serving as active leaders, no man can give himself the title of swami. He rightfully receives it only from another swami; all monks thus trace their spiritual lineage to one common guru, Lord Shankara. By vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience to the spiritual teacher, many Catholic Christian monastic orders resemble the Order of Swamis...

The ideal of selfless service to all mankind, and of renunciation of personal ties and ambitions, leads the majority of swamis to engage actively in humanitarian and educational work in India, or occasionally in foreign lands. Ignoring all prejudices of caste, creed, class, color, sex, or race, a swami follows the precepts of human brotherhood. His goal is absolute unity with Spirit. Imbuing his waking and sleeping consciousness with the thought, "I am He," he roams contentedly, in the world but not of it. Thus only may he justify his title of swami - one who seeks to achieve union with the Swa or Self. It is needless to add that not all formally titled swamis are equally successful in reaching their high goal."

Notes

• ^  Pak Tribune

External links

• BABA: Autobiography of a Blue Eyed Yogi
• BBC Kumbh Mela coverage
• Swami Pranavananda Ashram
• Kumbh Mela 2001
• A Guide to Sadhus, Holy Men of India

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