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| − | {{Infobox Military Conflict | + | {{Ready}}{{Images OK}}{{Approved}}{{copyedited}} |
| − | |conflict = Hussite Wars
| + | [[Image:LIVONIAE NOVA DESCRIPTIO 1573-1578.jpg|thumb|310px|right|[[Livonia]] as shown on the map of 1573 of Joann Portantius.]] |
| − | |partof =
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| − | |date = [[July 30]] [[1419]] – [[May 30]] [[1434]]
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| − | |place = [[Central Europe]], mostly in [[Bohemia]] | |
| − | |casus = [[First Defenestration of Prague]] ([[30 July]]), burning of [[John Huss]] in 1415 | |
| − | |result = Defeat of radical Hussites, [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]] becomes [[King of Bohemia]]
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| − | |combatant1 = [[Hussites]] 1419-1423, [[Radical Hussites]] (Taborites and Orebites) 1423-1434 | |
| − | |combatant2 = [[Holy Roman Empire]], Royalists, [[Pope]], moderated Hussites ([[Utraquists]]) | |
| − | |commander1 = '''[[Jan Žižka]]''', '''[[Prokop the Great]]''', [[Jan Roháč z Dubé|John Horn-Beetle of Dubé]], [[Prokop the Lesser]], [[Jan Čapek of Sány]], [[Sigismund Korybut]], [[Hynek Krušina]]
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| − | |commander2 = '''[[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]]''' (Crusaders); [[Diviš Bořek of Miletínek]] (Utraquist), [[Čeněk from Wartenberg]], [[Bohuslav of Svamberg]], [[Peter of Sternberg]], [[Henry of Hradec]] (Bohemian Catholics)
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| − | }}
| + | The '''Livonian Confederation''' was a loosely organized confederation in present day [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]] ruled by the Order of Teutonic Knights of Livonia which existed from 1228 to the 1560s. It contained five small states: The [[Livonian Order]], Archbishopric of Riga, Bishopric of Dorpat, Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek, and Bishopric of Courland. It was a defensive alliance to protect [[Germany|German]] ascendancy in the region against the threat of [[Russia|Russian]] expansion. The alliance was also intended to defend [[Roman Catholic]] [[Christianity]] against the encroachment of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. The Order had been founded in 1201, to spread Christianity among the Baltic population, which was still largely [[paganism|pagan]] at the time. After the collapse of the Confederation, the region was first under Sweden, then Russia. It remained under Russian control except for a brief period of independence after [[World War I]] until the end of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] era. |
| − | {{Crusade}}
| + | {{toc}} |
| − | {{Campaignbox Hussite Wars}}
| + | The Confederation was an imposition from the outside onto the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic people]]. It was ruled by Germans for the benefit of Germans; few of the local population owned land. Most worked as serfs, exploited by their [[Feudalism|feudal]] lords. German merchants wanted access to the sea; [[trade]] flourished. Goods flowed from the Confederation's ports to the rest of [[Europe]]. When Russia invaded in 1558, Russia too wanted to improve her access to the sea. The formation of the Confederation and the [[war]] that ended it were both motivated by the desire to control resources. Dispute about access to or possession of valuable resources causes many conflicts. Wars will continue to wage around resources until mechanisms are developed to ensure their more [[equality|equitable]] distribution across the globe; people need to recognize that the world is our common home. It has to sustain all life-forms, while remaining healthy and viable itself. Ultimately, the type of alliance of interests that the defeated Livonian Confederation represented, apart from exploitation of the local people, might be indicative of how [[humanity|human]] [[society]] ought to evolve, towards a trans-national form of governance. |
| − | {{reformation}}
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| − | The '''Hussite Wars''', also called the '''Bohemian Wars''' involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of [[Jan Hus]] in [[Bohemia]] in the period 1420 to ''circa'' 1434. The Hussite Wars were arguably the first European war in which hand-held [[gunpowder]] weapons such as [[musket]]s made a decisive contribution. The [[Hussite]] warriors were basically [[infantry]], and their many defeats of larger armies with heavily armoured knights helped effect the infantry revolution. In the end, it was an inconclusive war. | |
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| − | ===Origins=== | + | ==History== |
| | + | This division was created by [[Papal Legate]] [[William of Modena]] in 1228, as a compromise between the church and the powerful Livonian Order, both factions led by Germans, after the German knights had conquered and subdued the territories of several indigenous tribes: Finnic-speaking Estonians and Livs, and Baltic-speaking Latgalians, [[Selonians]], [[Semigallians]] and [[Curonians]]. In theory, one-third of the land was to be controlled by the Order and the remaining two-thirds by the church. But in reality, most of [[Livonia]]'s territory was controlled by the Order, and conflicts between the Order, the bishops, and the powerful [[Hanseatic]] cities were common throughout the existence of the Confederation. To solve internal disputes, the Livonian Diet or ''[[Landtag]]'' was formed in 1419. The city of [[Walk, Livonia|Walk]] was chosen as the site of the Diet. The Diet was composed of members of the Livonian Order, Livonian Bishops, [[vassal]]s and city representatives. The territory controlled by the Confederation was referred to as "Alt-Livland" (Old Livonia)."<ref>Bojtár (1999), 169.</ref> |
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| − | The Hussite movement assumed a revolutionary character as soon as the news of the execution of [[Jan Hus]] by order of the [[Council of Constance]] ([[6 July]] [[1415]]) reached [[Prague]]. The knights and nobles of [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]], who were in favour of church reform, sent a protest to the Council of Constance on ([[2 September]] [[1415]]), known as the ''protestatio Bohemorum'', which condemned the execution of Hus in the strongest language. The attitude of [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]], who sent threatening letters to Bohemia declaring that he would shortly drown all [[John Wyclif|Wycliffites]] and Hussites, greatly incensed the people. | + | The Livonian Brothers of the Sword was originally a Crusading order, founded by Albert, bishop of Riga to bring the Baltic region into the Christian fold. It was formed in 1201 and approved by the [[Papacy|Pope]] in 1204. It began to invade Estonia in 1208, forcing the people it subdued to accept [[baptism]].<ref name=Frucht65>Frucht (2005), 65.</ref> Later, after several defeats, the order sought the help of the [[Teutonic Knights]] more or less becoming their "Livonian branch."<ref name=Frucht65/> |
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| − | Troubles broke out in various parts of Bohemia, and drove many Catholic priests from their parishes. Almost from the first the Hussites divided into two groups, though many minor divisions also arose among them. Shortly before his death Hus had accepted a doctrine preached during his absence by his adherents at Prague, namely that of [[Utraquism]], or the obligation of the faithful to receive communion in both kinds (''sub utraque specie''). This doctrine became the watchword of the moderate Hussites known as the [[Utraquists]] or Calixtines, from the [[Latin]] ''calix'' (the chalice), in [[Czech language|Czech]] ''kališníci'' (from ''kalich''); while the more extreme Hussites soon became known as the [[Taborites]] (''táborité''), named after the city of [[Tábor]] that became their centre; or Orphans (''sirotci'') a name they adopted after the death of their beloved leader and general [[Jan Žižka]].
| + | ===Economy=== |
| | + | After the Livonian Confederation was formed, trade flourished with string links with the cities of the [[Hanseatic League]]. The Confederation provided [[Europe]] with "grain, wax, furs, flax and timber" in return for "cloth, metal goods, [[salt]], and various luxury items.<ref name=OConnor22>O'Connor (2003), 22.</ref> The peasants, or serfs, "were expected to cultivate the land for the profit of the German landowners." A few Lavonians had small holdings but the "majority were landless."<ref name=OConnor22/> The Germans lived apart from the peasants, with the result that the Baltic people retained their own language and customs. |
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| − | Under the influence of his brother Sigismund, King [[Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor|Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia]] endeavored to stem the Hussite movement. A certain number of Hussites led by [[Nicolas of Hus]] — no relation of Jan Hus, though of the same town — left Prague. They held meetings in various parts of Bohemia, particularly at Sezimovo Ústí (not to be confused with [[Ústí]] nad Labem), near the spot where the town of [[Tábor]] was founded soon afterwards. At these meetings they violently denounced Sigismund, and the people everywhere prepared for war.
| + | ===Demise=== |
| | + | All five states of the Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the [[Livonian War]] (1558–82). The Livonian Order was dissolved by the [[Wilno Pact]] in 1561. The following year, the Livonian Diet decided to ask protection from [[Sigismund II of Poland]] (Zygmunt II August) and the Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]]. With the end of [[government]] by the last Archbishop of Riga [[William of Brandenburg]], [[Riga]] became a [[Free Imperial City]] and the rest of the territory was split between the Lithuanian [[vassal state]]s [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] and the [[Duchy of Livonia]]. The knights themselves became the "landed gentility" of the Duchy.<ref>O'Connor (2006), 14.</ref> |
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| − | In spite of the departure of many prominent Hussites the troubles at Prague continued. On [[30 July]] [[1419]], when a Hussite procession headed by the priest [[Jan Želivský]] marched through the streets of Prague, anti-Hussites threw stones at the Hussites from the windows of the [[New Town Hall, Prague|town-hall of the ‘new town’]]. The people, headed by [[Jan Žižka]], threw the burgomaster and several town-councillors, who had instigated this outrage, from the windows (the first "[[Defenestrations of Prague|Defenestration of Prague]]"), whereupon the crowd killed them immediately. King Wenceslaus died of natural causes a few days afterwards ([[16 August]] [[1419]]).
| + | The Confederacy began to weaken when many of the Knights converted to [[Lutheranism]], which made [[cooperation]] with the Bishops problematic. Gotthard Kettler, the last Grand Master of the Livonian Order, became the first secular ruler of the Duchy. His dynasty "ruled until extinction in 1737."<ref>Bojtár (1999), 170.</ref> |
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| − | ===The outbreak of fighting=== | + | ===The Livonian War=== |
| − | [[Image:Hussite Wars.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Hussite War Wagons and Hand Cannoneers]] | + | In the [[Lovonian War]], Russia, [[Sweden]] and [[Poland]] "battled for control of the Baltic" which ultimately went to Russia,<ref>O'Connor (2003), 23.</ref> although initially "Sweden appeared to be the winners of the struggle."<ref>O'Connor (2006), 14.</ref> Having shaken off [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] rule, Russia set out to unite Slav people elsewhere under its rule. The Baltic was regarded as properly Russian territory. In addition, Russia wanted access to the lucrative sea-trade that Baltic ports would provide. Russia at the time had only a "small hold on the coastline at the mouth of the Neva River."<ref>O'Connor (2003), 24.</ref> None of the powers were at all interested in the welfare of the people, who suffered most from the devastation and chaos caused by the war. |
| − | [[Image:Wagonformation.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Hussite War Wagons]] | |
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| − | The death of the king resulted in renewed troubles in Prague and in almost all parts of Bohemia. Many Catholics, mostly Germans — for they had almost all remained faithful to the papal cause — suffered expulsion from the Bohemian cities. In Prague, in November 1419, severe fighting took place between the Hussites and the mercenaries whom Queen Sophia (widow of Wenceslaus and regent after the death of her husband) had hurriedly collected. After a considerable part of the city had been destroyed, the parties declared a truce on [[13 November]]. The nobles, who though favourable to the Hussite cause supported the regent, promised to act as mediators with Sigismund, while the citizens of Prague consented to restore to the royal forces the castle of [[Vyšehrad]], which had fallen into their hands. Žižka, who disapproved of this compromise, left Prague and retired to [[Plzeň]]. Unable to maintain himself there he marched to southern Bohemia, and after defeating the Catholics at the [[battle of Sudoměř]] ([[25 March]] [[1420]]) in the first pitched battle of the Hussite wars, he arrived at Usti, one of the earliest meeting-places of the Hussites. Not considering its situation sufficiently strong, he moved to the neighbouring new settlement of the Hussites, called by the biblical name of [[Tábor]]. | + | ==Legacy== |
| | + | The Baltic has seen many struggles between various powers to control the region, motivated by both commercial and strategic interest. The Baltic states of [[Lithuania]], Estonia and Latvia have historically either fallen to Scandinavian or to Russian domination. After the [[Great Northern War]] (1700-1721) the Baltic passed back into Russian hands as Swedish "aspiration to dominion of the Baltic proved unsustainable."<ref>Smith (20020, 8.</ref> Sweden had moved against an alliance of Russia, Poland-Lithuania and Saxony to claim supremacy in the Baltic. The result was that Russia occupied and claimed Livonia. What remained under Poland was annexed in 1772, when Poland was partitioned. Following World War I, the three states made a brief reappearance as [[sovereign]] nations but were invaded by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[World War II]] and did not gain independence again until 1991. In 2004, they joined the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. |
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| − | Tabor soon became the centre of the advanced Hussites, who differed from the Utraquists by recognizing only two sacraments - [[Baptism]] and [[Eucharist|Communion]] - and by rejecting most of the ceremony of the Roman Catholic Church. The ecclesiastical organization of Tabor had a somewhat puritanical character, and the government was established on a thoroughly democratic basis. Four captains of the people (''hejtmané'') were elected, one of whom was Žižka; and a very strictly military discipline was instituted.
| + | The Livonian Confederation was imposed by outsiders on the region in order to protect their own interests. Ultimately, however, the type of alliance of interests that the defeated Livonian Confederation represented, might be indicative of how human society ought to evolve, towards a trans-national form of governance. On the one hand, the Livonian Confederation was run by [[Germany|Germans]] not by [[ethnicity|ethnic]] Estonians and Latvians; on the other hand, it was based on [[cooperative]] principles even if "cooperation and collaboration emerged only when their was an external threat and sometimes not even then."<ref>Plakans (1995), 18.</ref> Both Germans and Russians wanted access to the Baltic sea-routes. |
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| − | ===Wagenburg tactics===
| + | The formation of the Confederation, and the war that ended it, were both linked with competition for resources. Caught between powerful imperial polities on both sides, the people of the Baltic have had to struggle to achieve self-government, to develop their distinct identities. Many wars have been waged around access to the sea and around access to or possession of other resources. Resources will continue to be the cause of war or of international disputes until mechanisms are developed to ensure a more equitable distribution of these across the globe, recognizing that the world is humanity's common home. It has to sustain all people, all life-forms and remain viable. |
| − | {{main|Wagenburg}}
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| − | Depending on the terrain, Hussites prepared carts for the battle, forming them into squares or circles. The carts were joined wheel to wheel by chains and positioned aslant, with their corners attached to each other, so that horses could be harnessed to them quickly, if necessary. In front of this wall of carts a [[ditch]] was dug by camp followers. The crew of each cart consisted of 16-22 [[soldiers]]: 4-8 [[crossbow]]men, 2 [[handgun]]ners, 6-8 soldiers equipped with [[Pike (weapon)|pikes]] or [[flail (weapon)|flails]] (the flail was the Hussite "national weapon"), 2 shield carriers and 2 drivers.
| + | The end of the Confederation did not necessarily represent a dramatic change for the people of Livonia; for them, rule by Germans ended and rule by Russian started. |
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| − | The Hussites' battle consisted of two stages, the first defensive, the second an offensive counterattack. In the first stage the army placed the carts near the enemy army and by means of artillery fire provoked the enemy into battle. The artillery would usually inflict heavy casualties at close range.
| + | ==Notes== |
| | + | <references/> |
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| − | In order to avoid more losses, the enemy knights finally attacked. Then the infantry hidden behind the carts used firearms and crossbows to ward off the attack, weakening the enemy. The shooters aimed first at the horses, depriving the cavalry of its main advantage. Many of the knights died as their horses were shot and they fell.
| + | ==References== |
| | + | * Bojtár, Endre. 1999. ''Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People.'' Budapest, HU: Central European University Press. ISBN 9789639116429. |
| | + | * Frucht, Richard C. 2005. ''Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture.'' Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576078006. |
| | + | * O'Connor, Kevin. 2003. ''The History of the Baltic States.'' The Greenwood histories of the modern nations. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313323553. |
| | + | * O'Connor, Kevin. 2006. ''Culture and Customs of the Baltic States. Culture and Customs of Europe''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313331251. |
| | + | * Plakans, Andrejs. 1995. ''The Latvians: A Short History.'' Studies of nationalities. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University. ISBN 9780415285803. |
| | + | * Smith, David J. 2002. ''The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.'' London, UK: Routledge. ISBN 9780415285803. |
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| − | As soon as the enemy's morale was lowered, the second stage, an offensive counterattack, began. The infantry and the cavalry burst out from behind the carts striking violently at the enemy - mostly from the flanks. While fighting on the flanks and being shelled from the carts the enemy was not able to put up much resistance. They were forced to withdraw, leaving behind dismounted knights in heavy armor who were unable to escape the battlefield. The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives.
| + | [[Category:History]] |
| − | | + | [[Category:History of Europe]] |
| − | ===The first anti-Hussite crusade===
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| − | After the death of his childless brother Wenceslaus, Sigismund had acquired a claim on the Bohemian crown, though it was then, and remained till much later, in question whether Bohemia was an hereditary or an elective monarchy. A firm adherent of the Church of Rome, Sigismund was successful in obtaining aid from [[Pope Martin V]], who issued a bill on [[17 March]] [[1420]] which proclaimed a [[crusade]] “for the destruction of the Wycliffites, Hussites and all other [[heresy|heretic]]s in Bohemia". Sigismund and many German princes arrived before [[Prague]] on [[30 June]] at the head of a vast army of crusaders from all parts of [[Europe]], largely consisting of adventurers attracted by the hope of pillage. They immediately began a siege of the city, which had, however, soon to be abandoned. Negotiations took place for a settlement of the religious differences. The united Hussites formulated their demands in a statement known as the “[[Hussite#The Four Articles of Prague|Four Articles of Prague]]". This document, the most important of the Hussite period, ran, in the wording of the contemporary chronicler, [[Laurence of Brezova]], as follows:
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| − | :"1. The word of God shall be preached and made known in the kingdom of Bohemia freely and in an orderly manner by the priests of the Lord.
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| − | :2. The sacrament of the most Holy Eucharist shall be freely administered in the two kinds, that is bread and wine, to all the faithful in Christ who are not precluded by mortal sin - according to the word and disposition of Our Saviour.
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| − | :3. The secular power over riches and worldly goods which the clergy possesses in contradiction to Christ’s precept, to the prejudice of its office and to the detriment of the secular arm, shall be taken and withdrawn from it, and the clergy itself shall be brought back to the evangelical rule and an apostolic life such as that which Christ and his apostles led.
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| − | :4. All mortal sins, and in particular all public and other disorders, which are contrary to God’s law shall in every rank of life be duly and judiciously prohibited and destroyed by those whose office it is." {{Fact|date=May 2008}}
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| − | These articles, which contain the essence of the Hussite doctrine, were rejected by Sigismund, mainly through the influence of the [[papal legate]]s, who considered them prejudicial to the authority of the Roman see. Hostilities therefore continued. Though Sigismund had retired from Prague, the castles of [[Vysehrad]] and [[Hradcany]] remained in possession of his troops. The citizens of Prague laid siege to the Vysehrad (see [[Battle of Vysehrad]]), and towards the end of October (1420) the garrison was on the point of capitulating through [[famine]]. Sigismund attempted to relieve the fortress, but was decisively defeated by the Hussites on [[1 November]] near the village of [[Pankrác]]. The castles of Vysehrad and Hradcany now capitulated, and shortly afterwards almost all Bohemia fell into the hands of the Hussites.
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| − | ===The second anti-Hussite crusade===
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| − | Internal troubles prevented the followers of Hus from fully capitalising on their victory. At Prague a demagogue, the priest [[Jan Zelivsky]], for a time obtained almost unlimited authority over the lower classes of the townsmen; and at Tabor a religious communistic movement (that of the so-called Adamites) was sternly suppressed by Žižka. Shortly afterwards a new crusade against the Hussites was undertaken. A large German army entered Bohemia and in August 1421 laid siege to the town of [[Zatec]]. After an unsuccessful attempt of storming the city, the crusaders retreated somewhat ingloriously on hearing that the Hussite troops were approaching. Sigismund only arrived in Bohemia at the end of the year 1421. He took possession of the town of [[Kutná Hora]] but was decisively defeated by [[Jan Žižka]] at the [[battle of Nemecky Brod]] (Deutschbrod) on [[6 January]] [[1422]].
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| − | ===Civil war===
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| − | Bohemia was for a time free from foreign intervention, but internal discord again broke out, caused partly by theological strife and partly by the ambition of agitators. Jan Želivský was on [[9 March]] [[1422]] arrested by the town council of Prague and decapitated. There were troubles at Tábor also, where a more advanced party opposed Žižka's authority. Bohemia obtained a temporary respite when, in 1422, Prince [[Sigismund Korybut]] of Lithuania (nephew of King [[Władysław II Jagiełło]] of Poland) briefly became ruler of the country. He was a governor sent by the [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]], [[Vytautas]], who accepted the Hussite proposal to be their new king. His authority was recognized by the Utraquist nobles, the citizens of Prague, and the more moderate Taborites. Sigismund Korybut, however, remained a short time in Bohemia, as in 1423 he was called to come back to [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]], after Jagiello had made a treaty with Sigismund. On his departure, [[civil war]] broke out, the Taborites opposing in arms the more moderate Utraquists, who at this period are also called by the chroniclers the "Praguers", as Prague was their principal stronghold. On [[27 April]] [[1423]], Žižka now again leading, the Taborites defeated the Utraquist army under [[Čeněk of Wartenberg]] at the [[battle of Horic]]; and shortly afterwards an armistice was concluded at [[Konopilt]].
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| − | ===The third anti-Hussite crusade===
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| − | Papal influence had meanwhile succeeded in calling forth a new crusade against Bohemia, but it resulted in complete failure. In spite of the endeavours of their rulers, Poles and Lithuanians did not wish to attack the kindred Czechs; the [[German people|Germans]] were prevented by internal discord from taking joint action against the Hussites; and the King of [[Denmark]], who had landed in Germany with a large force intending to take part in the crusade, soon returned to his own country. Free for a time from foreign aggression, the Hussites invaded Moravia, where a large part of the population favoured their creed; but, paralysed again by dissensions, they soon returned to Bohemia. The city of [[Hradec Králové]], which had been under Utraquist rule, espoused the doctrine of Tabor, and called Žižka to its aid. After several military successes gained by Žižka in 1423 and the following year, a treaty of peace between the Hussites was concluded on [[13 September]] [[1424]] at Liben, a village near Prague, now part of that city.
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| − | ===Campaigns of 1426 and 1427===
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| − | In 1426 the Hussites were again attacked by foreign enemies. In June of that year their forces, led by [[Prokop the Great]] - who took the command of the Taborites shortly after Žižka's death in October 1424 - and Sigismund Korybut, who had returned to Bohemia, signally defeated the Germans at [[Usti nad Labem]]. After this great victory, and another at the [[Battle of Tachov]] in 1427, the Hussites repeatedly invaded Germany, though they made no attempt to occupy permanently any part of the country.
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| − | ===Polish and Lithuanian involvement===
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| − | From 1421 to 1427 the Hussites received military support from the Poles. Poland, though a devoutly Catholic nation, was supporting the Hussites on non-religious grounds. Poland's motive was revenge against Germany for the [[Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409-1411)]]. Because of this, Jan Žižka arranged for the crown of Bohemia to be offered to [[Jagiello]], the King of Poland, who, under pressure from his own advisors, refused it. The crown was then offered to Grand Duke [[Vytautas of Lithuania]] and Vytautas accepted it, with the condition that the Hussites reunite with the Catholic Church. In 1422, Žižka accepted the Polish king's nephew, [[Sigismund Korybut]], as regent of Bohemia for Vytautas. Korybut never managed to return the Hussites to the Catholic Church; and he even had to resort to force of arms when dealing with the various factions. Korybut did not tolerate the Protestant rebels breaking their promise of reuniting with the Catholic Church. On a few occasions, he even fought against both the [[Taborites]] and the [[Oreborites]] to try to force them into reuniting. Large scale Polish involvement was ended in 1427 when Korybut was arrested by the Hussites after Polish plans to hand over the Hussite forces to Emperor Sigismund were discovered. The Poles, however, did not really want to withdraw; the only reason they did is because the Pope planned to call a crusade against Poland if they did not.
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| − | ===Beautiful rides===
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| − | ''Spanilé jízdy'', or beautiful rides, as the Hussites called them, were undertaken in many different foreign lands. Throughout the Hussite Wars, especially under the leadership of Prokop the Great, invasions were made into [[Silesia]], [[Saxony]], [[Hungary]], [[Lusatia]], and [[Meissen]]. Every raid that the Hussites carried out was against a country that had supplied the Germans with men during the anti-Hussite crusades. These raids were made to try to strike enough fear in these areas to make sure that they would not help out the Germans again. However, the raids did not have the desired effect; these countries kept supplying soldiers to the crusade against the Hussites. During [[Polish–Teutonic War (1431–1435)|yet another war]] between Poland and the [[Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights]], some Hussite raiders helped the Poles. In 1433, a Hussite army of 7000 fighting men marched through Neumark into Prussia and captured [[Dirschau]] on the [[Vistula River]]. They would eventually reach the mouth of the Vistula where it enters the [[Baltic Sea]] near [[Danzig]]. There, they performed a great victory celebration to show that nothing but the ocean could stop the Hussites. The Prussian historian [[Heinrich von Treitschke]] would later write that they had "greeted the sea with a wild Czech song about God's warriors, and filled their water bottles with brine in token that the Baltic once more obeyed the Slavs."
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| − | ===Peace talks and renewed wars===
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| − | The almost uninterrupted series of victories of the Hussites now rendered vain all hope of subduing them by force of arms. Moreover, the conspicuously democratic character of the Hussite movement caused the German princes, who were afraid that such views might extend to their own countries, to desire peace. Many Hussites, particularly the Utraquist clergy, were also in favour of peace. Negotiations for this purpose were to take place at the ecumenical [[Council of Basel|council]] which had been summoned to meet at [[Basel]] on [[3 March]] [[1431]]. The Roman See reluctantly consented to the presence of heretics at this council, but indignantly rejected the suggestion of the Hussites that members of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Greek Church]], and representatives of all Christian creeds, should also be present. Before definitely giving its consent to peace negotiations, the Roman Church determined on making a last effort to reduce the Hussites to subjection. On [[1 August]] [[1431]] a large army of crusaders under Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg, whom Cardinal Cesarini accompanied as papal legate, crossed the Bohemian border and on [[14 August]] the crusaders reached the town of Domažlice. Upon the arrival of the Hussite army reinforced with some 6000 Polish hussites and under the command of Prokop or — as the legend has it — upon seeing the Hussite banners and hearing their battle hymn "[[Kdož jsou Boží bojovníci]]" ("Ye Who are Warriors of God"), the crusaders immediately took to flight.
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| − | On [[15 October]] the members of the council, already assembled at Basel, issued a formal invitation to the Hussites to take part in its deliberations. Prolonged negotiations ensued; but finally a Hussite embassy, led by Prokop and including [[John of Rokycan]], the Taborite bishop [[Nicolas of Pelhrimov]], the ‘English Hussite’ [[Peter Payne]] and many others, arrived at Basel on [[4 January]] [[1433]]. It was found impossible to reach an agreement. Negotiations were not, however, broken off, and a change in the political situation of Bohemia finally resulted in a settlement. In 1434 war again broke out between the Utraquists and the Taborites. On [[30 May]] of that year the Taborite army, led by Prokop the Great and [[Prokop the Lesser]], who both fell in the battle, was totally defeated and almost annihilated at [[battle of Lipany|Lipany]]. An end to the Polish Hussite movement in Poland would arrive as well: the Polish Hussites, often reinforced by their Czech Slav brethren, had been raiding there for years, and the royal Polish forces under [[Władysław III of Varna]] would defeat the Hussites at the [[Battle of Grotniki]], bringing the Hussite Wars to an end.
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| − | ===Peace agreement===
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| − | The moderate party thus obtained the upper hand; and it formulated its demands in a document which was finally accepted by the Church of Rome in a slightly modified form, and which is known as ‘the compacts.’ The compacts, mainly founded on the articles of Prague, declare that:—
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| − | I. The Holy Sacrament is to be given freely in both kinds to all Christians in Bohemia and Moravia, and to those elsewhere who adhere to the faith of these two countries.
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| − | | |
| − | 2. All mortal sins shall be punished and extirpated by those whose office it is so to do.
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| − | 3. The word of God is to be freely and truthfully preached by the priests of the Lord, and by worthy deacons.
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| − | 4. The priests in the time of the law of grace shall claim no ownership of worldly possessions.
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| − | On [[5 July]] [[1436]] the compacts were formally accepted and signed at [[Jihlava]], in Moravia, by King Sigismund, by the Hussite delegates, and by the representatives of the Roman Catholic Church. The last-named, however, refused to recognize as archbishop of Prague [[John of Rokycan]], who had been elected to that dignity by the estates of Bohemia.
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| − | ===Aftermath===
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| − | The Utraquist creed, frequently varying in its details, continued to be that of the established church of Bohemia until all non-Catholic religious services were prohibited shortly after the [[Battle of the White Mountain]] in 1620. The Taborite party never recovered from its defeat at Lipan, and after the town of Tabor had been captured by [[George of Podebrady]] in 1452, Utraquist religious worship was established there. The [[Unity of the Brethren|Bohemian brethren]], whose intellectual originator was [[Peter Chelcicky|Petr Chelčický]] but whose actual founders were Brother Gregory, a nephew of Archbishop Rokycan, and Michael, curate of Zamberk, to a certain extent continued the Taborite traditions, and in the 15th and 16th centuries included most of the strongest opponents of Rome in Bohemia.
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| − | J. A. Komensky ([[Comenius]]), a member of the brotherhood, claimed for the members of his church that they were the genuine inheritors of the doctrines of Hus. After the beginning of the German Reformation many Utraquists adopted to a large extent the doctrines of [[Martin Luther]] and of [[John Calvin]]; and in 1567 obtained the repeal of the compacts, which no longer seemed sufficiently far-reaching. From the end of the 16th century the inheritors of the Hussite tradition in Bohemia were included in the more general name of "Protestants" borne by the adherents of the Reformation.
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| − | All histories of Bohemia devote a large amount of space to the Hussite movement. See:
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| − | *Count Lützow, ''Bohemia; an Historical Sketch'' (London, 1896)
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| − | *František Palacký, ''Geschichte von Bohmen''
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| − | *Bachmann, ''Geschichte Bohmens''
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| − | *L. Krummel, ''Geschichte der bohmischen Reformation'' (Gotha, 1866)
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| − | *L. Krummel, ''Utraquisten und Taboriten'' (Gotha, 187 i)
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| − | *Ernest Denis, ''Huss et la guerre des Hussites'' (Paris, 1878)
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| − | *H. Toman, ''Husitské válečnictví'' (Prague, 1898).
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| − | | |
| − | ''Original text from [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
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| − | | |
| − | == See also ==
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| − | * [[Czechoslovak Hussite Church]]
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| − | | |
| − | ==Further reading==
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| − | *Kaminsky, Howard. ''A History of the Hussite Revolution''. University of California Press, 1967. ISBN 978-1592446315 (paperback, 2004).
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| − | *Turnbull, Stephen. ''The Hussite Wars (1419–36)'', Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84176-665-8
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| − | | |
| − | ==External links==
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| − | * [http://www.husmuzeum.cz/eng/default.htm] '''Hussite Museum in Tabor''' -(English Version)
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| − | * [http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_letter_march_23_1430.html Joan of Arc's Letter to the Hussites] ([[23 March]] [[1430]]) — In 1430, [[Joan of Arc]] dictated a letter threatening to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to "the Catholic Faith and the original Light". This link contains a translation of the letter plus notes and commentary.
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| − | * [http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=hussite_wars#section_2 Tactics of the Hussite Wars.]
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| − | * [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Hussites.htm The Hussite Wars]
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| − | * [http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_bohemian.html The Bohemian War (1420–1434)]
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| − | *[[Wikia:crusades:Main Page|The Crusades Wiki]]
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| − | [[Category:Hussite Wars| ]]
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| − | <!-- interwiki —>
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| − | [[bg:Хусистки войни]]
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| − | [[de:Hussitenkriege]]
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| − | [[es:Guerras Husitas]]
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| − | [[fr:Croisades contre les Hussites]]
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| − | [[hr:Husitski ratovi]]
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| − | [[it:Crociata Hussita]]
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| − | [[lt:Husitų karai]]
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| − | [[nl:Hussitische Oorlogen]]
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| − | [[ja:フス戦争]]
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| − | [[pl:Wojny husyckie]]
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| − | [[pt:Guerras Hussitas]]
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| − | [[ro:Războaiele Husite]]
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| − | [[ru:Гуситские войны]]
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| | {{Credit|225846585}} | | {{Credit|225846585}} |
Livonia as shown on the map of 1573 of Joann Portantius.
The Livonian Confederation was a loosely organized confederation in present day Estonia and Latvia ruled by the Order of Teutonic Knights of Livonia which existed from 1228 to the 1560s. It contained five small states: The Livonian Order, Archbishopric of Riga, Bishopric of Dorpat, Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek, and Bishopric of Courland. It was a defensive alliance to protect German ascendancy in the region against the threat of Russian expansion. The alliance was also intended to defend Roman Catholic Christianity against the encroachment of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Order had been founded in 1201, to spread Christianity among the Baltic population, which was still largely pagan at the time. After the collapse of the Confederation, the region was first under Sweden, then Russia. It remained under Russian control except for a brief period of independence after World War I until the end of the Soviet era.
The Confederation was an imposition from the outside onto the Baltic people. It was ruled by Germans for the benefit of Germans; few of the local population owned land. Most worked as serfs, exploited by their feudal lords. German merchants wanted access to the sea; trade flourished. Goods flowed from the Confederation's ports to the rest of Europe. When Russia invaded in 1558, Russia too wanted to improve her access to the sea. The formation of the Confederation and the war that ended it were both motivated by the desire to control resources. Dispute about access to or possession of valuable resources causes many conflicts. Wars will continue to wage around resources until mechanisms are developed to ensure their more equitable distribution across the globe; people need to recognize that the world is our common home. It has to sustain all life-forms, while remaining healthy and viable itself. Ultimately, the type of alliance of interests that the defeated Livonian Confederation represented, apart from exploitation of the local people, might be indicative of how human society ought to evolve, towards a trans-national form of governance.
History
This division was created by Papal Legate William of Modena in 1228, as a compromise between the church and the powerful Livonian Order, both factions led by Germans, after the German knights had conquered and subdued the territories of several indigenous tribes: Finnic-speaking Estonians and Livs, and Baltic-speaking Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians and Curonians. In theory, one-third of the land was to be controlled by the Order and the remaining two-thirds by the church. But in reality, most of Livonia's territory was controlled by the Order, and conflicts between the Order, the bishops, and the powerful Hanseatic cities were common throughout the existence of the Confederation. To solve internal disputes, the Livonian Diet or Landtag was formed in 1419. The city of Walk was chosen as the site of the Diet. The Diet was composed of members of the Livonian Order, Livonian Bishops, vassals and city representatives. The territory controlled by the Confederation was referred to as "Alt-Livland" (Old Livonia)."[1]
The Livonian Brothers of the Sword was originally a Crusading order, founded by Albert, bishop of Riga to bring the Baltic region into the Christian fold. It was formed in 1201 and approved by the Pope in 1204. It began to invade Estonia in 1208, forcing the people it subdued to accept baptism.[2] Later, after several defeats, the order sought the help of the Teutonic Knights more or less becoming their "Livonian branch."[2]
Economy
After the Livonian Confederation was formed, trade flourished with string links with the cities of the Hanseatic League. The Confederation provided Europe with "grain, wax, furs, flax and timber" in return for "cloth, metal goods, salt, and various luxury items.[3] The peasants, or serfs, "were expected to cultivate the land for the profit of the German landowners." A few Lavonians had small holdings but the "majority were landless."[3] The Germans lived apart from the peasants, with the result that the Baltic people retained their own language and customs.
Demise
All five states of the Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The Livonian Order was dissolved by the Wilno Pact in 1561. The following year, the Livonian Diet decided to ask protection from Sigismund II of Poland (Zygmunt II August) and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. With the end of government by the last Archbishop of Riga William of Brandenburg, Riga became a Free Imperial City and the rest of the territory was split between the Lithuanian vassal states Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and the Duchy of Livonia. The knights themselves became the "landed gentility" of the Duchy.[4]
The Confederacy began to weaken when many of the Knights converted to Lutheranism, which made cooperation with the Bishops problematic. Gotthard Kettler, the last Grand Master of the Livonian Order, became the first secular ruler of the Duchy. His dynasty "ruled until extinction in 1737."[5]
The Livonian War
In the Lovonian War, Russia, Sweden and Poland "battled for control of the Baltic" which ultimately went to Russia,[6] although initially "Sweden appeared to be the winners of the struggle."[7] Having shaken off Mongol rule, Russia set out to unite Slav people elsewhere under its rule. The Baltic was regarded as properly Russian territory. In addition, Russia wanted access to the lucrative sea-trade that Baltic ports would provide. Russia at the time had only a "small hold on the coastline at the mouth of the Neva River."[8] None of the powers were at all interested in the welfare of the people, who suffered most from the devastation and chaos caused by the war.
Legacy
The Baltic has seen many struggles between various powers to control the region, motivated by both commercial and strategic interest. The Baltic states of Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia have historically either fallen to Scandinavian or to Russian domination. After the Great Northern War (1700-1721) the Baltic passed back into Russian hands as Swedish "aspiration to dominion of the Baltic proved unsustainable."[9] Sweden had moved against an alliance of Russia, Poland-Lithuania and Saxony to claim supremacy in the Baltic. The result was that Russia occupied and claimed Livonia. What remained under Poland was annexed in 1772, when Poland was partitioned. Following World War I, the three states made a brief reappearance as sovereign nations but were invaded by the Soviet Union in World War II and did not gain independence again until 1991. In 2004, they joined the European Union and NATO.
The Livonian Confederation was imposed by outsiders on the region in order to protect their own interests. Ultimately, however, the type of alliance of interests that the defeated Livonian Confederation represented, might be indicative of how human society ought to evolve, towards a trans-national form of governance. On the one hand, the Livonian Confederation was run by Germans not by ethnic Estonians and Latvians; on the other hand, it was based on cooperative principles even if "cooperation and collaboration emerged only when their was an external threat and sometimes not even then."[10] Both Germans and Russians wanted access to the Baltic sea-routes.
The formation of the Confederation, and the war that ended it, were both linked with competition for resources. Caught between powerful imperial polities on both sides, the people of the Baltic have had to struggle to achieve self-government, to develop their distinct identities. Many wars have been waged around access to the sea and around access to or possession of other resources. Resources will continue to be the cause of war or of international disputes until mechanisms are developed to ensure a more equitable distribution of these across the globe, recognizing that the world is humanity's common home. It has to sustain all people, all life-forms and remain viable.
The end of the Confederation did not necessarily represent a dramatic change for the people of Livonia; for them, rule by Germans ended and rule by Russian started.
Notes
- ↑ Bojtár (1999), 169.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Frucht (2005), 65.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 O'Connor (2003), 22.
- ↑ O'Connor (2006), 14.
- ↑ Bojtár (1999), 170.
- ↑ O'Connor (2003), 23.
- ↑ O'Connor (2006), 14.
- ↑ O'Connor (2003), 24.
- ↑ Smith (20020, 8.
- ↑ Plakans (1995), 18.
References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Bojtár, Endre. 1999. Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People. Budapest, HU: Central European University Press. ISBN 9789639116429.
- Frucht, Richard C. 2005. Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576078006.
- O'Connor, Kevin. 2003. The History of the Baltic States. The Greenwood histories of the modern nations. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313323553.
- O'Connor, Kevin. 2006. Culture and Customs of the Baltic States. Culture and Customs of Europe. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313331251.
- Plakans, Andrejs. 1995. The Latvians: A Short History. Studies of nationalities. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University. ISBN 9780415285803.
- Smith, David J. 2002. The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. London, UK: Routledge. ISBN 9780415285803.
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