Difference between revisions of "Hesychasm" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
({{Contracted}})
 
(17 intermediate revisions by 5 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{Claimed}}{{Contracted}}
+
{{Approved}}{{Submitted}}{{Images OK}}{{Paid}}{{Copyedited}}
−
{{Eastern Christianity}}
+
[[Image:Gregor Palamas.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Saint [[Gregory Palamas]] (1296-1368 C.E.), defender of Hesychasm.]]
−
'''Hesychasm''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{Polytonic|ἡσυχασμός}} ''hesychasmos'', from {{Polytonic|ἡσυχία}} ''hesychia'', "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") is an [[eremitic]] tradition of [[prayer]] in [[Eastern Orthodox]] [[Christianity]] practised (Gk: {{Polytonic|ἡσυχάζω}} ''hesychazo'': "to keep stillness") by the '''Hesychast''' (Gr. {{Polytonic|Ἡσυχαστής}} ''hesychastes'').
+
'''Hesychasm''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]]: {{Polytonic|ἡσυχασμός}} ''hesychasmos'', meaning "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") is an eremitic tradition of [[prayer]] that developed in [[Eastern Orthodox]] [[Christianity]]. 
 +
Rooted in the  ancient tradition of Christian [[asceticism]] and contemplation, the Hesychast interprets Christ's injunction to "go into your closet to pray" (Matthew 6:6), to mean that one should ignore the senses and withdraw inward to acquire an inner stillness and to apprehend the light of God. Especially popular among the monks of [[Mt. Athos]], [[Greece]], Hesychasm flourished in the fourteenth century C.E. and became an official doctrine of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]] in 1351 C.E...
  
−
==History of the term==
+
The distinctive characteristics of Hesychasm are its emphasis on solitary mental ascesis and contemplative stillness, repetition of the "[[Jesus Prayer]]," reading of the ''[[Philokalia]]'' (a collection of texts on prayer written from the fourth to the fifteenth centuries), and a theology of Uncreated Light.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
Though not well known or understood in other branches of Christianity, the ancient practice of Hesychasm remains a very respected part of the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox tradition]]. It is often said that Hesychasm has great potential for both renewing interest in [[Christianity]] and for establishing a point of common ground among many of the world religions. Hesychasm is renowned as a form of Christian [[Mysticism|mysticism]] that seeks to attain a direct experience of God’s light and love. It is well known that mystics from the world’s religions have inspired humanity through their celebration of divine love.
  
−
The origin of the term ''hesychasmos,'' and of the related terms ''hesychastes'', ''hesychia'' and ''hesychazo,'' is not entirely certain. According to the entries in Lampe's ''A Patristic Greek Lexicon'', the basic terms ''hesychia'' and ''hesychazo'' appear as early as the 4th Century in such Fathers as St [[John Chrysostom]] and the Cappadocians. The terms also appear in the same period in [[Evagrius Pontikos]] (c.[[345]]–[[399]]), who although he is writing in Egypt is out of the circle of the Cappadocians, and in the ''Sayings of the [[Desert Fathers]].''
+
==Etymology==
 +
The origin of the term ''hesychasmos'' is not entirely certain. The basic terms ''hesychia'' and ''hesychazo'' appear in the fourth century in the writings of the early [[Cappadocian]] Church Fathers such as St. [[John Chrysostom]] (349– ca. 407). The terms also appear in the writings of [[Evagrius Pontikos]] (c.345–399). The Greek term ''[[anchorite]]'' (Gr. {{Polytonic|ἀναχωρητής}}, "one who withdraws or retreats, i.e. a hermit") was often considered to be synonymous with ''Hesychast''. The term ''Hesychast'' also appears in the ''[[Ladder of Divine Ascent]]'' of [[St John of Sinai]] (523–603) and in ''Pros Theodoulon'' by St Hesychios (''c.''750).
  
−
The term ''Hesychast'' is used sparingly in Christian [[ascetical]] writings emanating from [[Egypt]] from the 4th Century on, although the writings of Evagrius and the ''Sayings of the Desert Fathers'' do attest to it.  In Egypt, the terms more often used are ''anchoretism'' (Gr. {{Polytonic|ἀναχώρησις}}, "withdrawal, retreat"), and ''[[anchorite]]'' (Gr. {{Polytonic|ἀναχωρητής}}, "one who withdraws or retreats, i.e. a hermit").
+
==History==
  
−
[[Image:Zografou4.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Zograf Monastery]], one of the 20 monasteries of [[Mount Athos]].]]
+
The beginnings of Hesychasm can be traced back to the early Desert Fathers, who retreated from society to go off into the desert to pray. Their prayers often involved stillness and contemplation, similar to forms of mediation practiced in the religions of [[Asia]]. Over time, Mount Athos became a centre for the practice of Hesychasm and by the fourteenth century, the monastries at Mount Athos reached the height of their fame and influence. It was at this time, that Barlaam of Constantinople visited Mount Athos and was scandalized by Hesychastic teachings. Barlaam began to attack Hesychasm in his writings, taking particular exception to its doctrine of divine light, which he held to be [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] because it postulated two eternal substances—a visible and an invisible God.
  
−
The term ''Hesychast'' was used in the 6th Century in [[Palestine]] in the ''Lives'' of [[Cyril of Scythopolis]], many of which lives treat of Hesychasts who were contemporaries of Cyril. Here, it should be noted that several of the saints about whom Cyril was writing, especially Euthymios and Savas, were in fact from Cappadocia.
+
Hesychasm, in turn, was defended by St [[Gregory Palamas]] (1296-368 C.E.),<ref>The contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively.</ref> who vigorously supported its positions at three different synods in the 1340s in [[Constantinople]]. Gregory Palamas also wrote a number of works in its defense of Hesychasm in which he used a distinction between the operations (Gr. ''energeies'') of God and the essence of God. He taught that while the energies of God were uncreated, the essence of God can never be known by creatures. In Palamite theology, it is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the Hesychast as an experience of the Uncreated Light.
  
−
The laws ''(novella)'' of the Emperor [[Justinian]] (6th Century) treat ''Hesychast'' and ''anchorite'' as synonyms, making them interchangeable terms.
+
In 1341 C.E., the dispute came before a [[synod]] held at Constantinople and presided over by the Emperor Andronicus; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the [[pseudo-Dionysius]] were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming a bishop in the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
  
−
The terms ''hesychia'' and ''Hesychast'' are used quite systematically in the ''[[Ladder of Divine Ascent]]'' of [[St John of Sinai]] (523–603) and in ''Pros Theodoulon'' by St Hesychios (''c.''750?), who is ordinarily also considered to be of the School of [[sinai peninsula|Sinai]]. It is not known where either St John of Sinai or St Hesychios were born, nor where they received their monastic formation.
+
One of Barlaam's friends, Gregory Akindynos, who originally was also a friend of St Gregory Palamas, took up the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of Barlaam gained a brief victory. However, in 1351 at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus, Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church.
  
−
It appears that the particularity of the term ''Hesychast'' has to do with the integration of the continual repetition of the [[Jesus Prayer]] into the practices of mental ascesis already used by hermits in Egypt.
+
The Roman Catholic Church has never fully accepted the practice or theology of Hesychasm. In Roman Catholic thinking since the [[Scholastic period]], the essence of God can be known, but only in the next life; the grace of God is always created; and the essence of God is pure act, so that there can be no distinction between the energies or operations and the essence of God (e.g., the ''Summa Theologiae'' of St Thomas Aquinas).  Some of these positions depend on Aristotelian [[metaphysics]].
  
−
''Hesychasm'' itself is not recorded in Lampe, which indicates that it is a much later usage.
+
==Practices==
  
−
By the 14th Century on [[Mt Athos]] the terms ''Hesychasm'' and ''Hesychast'' refer to the practice and to the practitioner of a method of mental ascesis that involves the use of the Jesus Prayer assisted by certain psychophysical techniques. Most likely, the rise of term ''Hesychasm'' reflects the coming to the fore of this practice as something concrete and specific that can be discussed.
+
Hesychastic practice bears some resemblance to mystical prayer or meditation in the Eastern religions, although this similarity is often over-emphasized and generally rejected by Orthodox practitioners of Hesychasm. Its practice may involve specific body postures and be accompanied by very deliberate breathing patterns. However, these bodily postures and breathing patterns are treated as secondary both by modern practitioners of Hesychasm and by the more ancient texts in the ''Philokalia'', the emphasis being on the primary role of Grace.
  
−
Books used by the Hesychast include the ''[[Philokalia]],'' a collection of texts on prayer and solitary mental ascesis written from the 4th to the 15th Centuries, this collection existing in a number of independent redactions; the ''Ladder of Divine Ascent;'' the collected works of [[St Symeon the New Theologian]] (949–1022); and the works of [[St Isaac the Syrian]] (7th C.?–8th C.?), as they were selected and translated into Greek at the [[Monastery of St Savas]] in [[Jerusalem]] about the 10th Century.
+
Hesychasts are fully inserted into the Liturgical and [[Sacrament|sacramental]] life of the [[Orthodox Church]], including the daily cycle of liturgical prayer of the Divine Office and the Divine Liturgy. However, Hesychasts living as [[hermit]]s might have a very rare attendance at the Divine Liturgy and might not recite the Divine Office except by means of the [[Jesus Prayer]]. In general, the Hesychast restricts external activities for the sake of contemplation. Such contemplative practice involves acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses. In this, Hesychasm shows its roots in [[Evagrius Pontikos]] and even in the Greek tradition of asceticism going back to [[Plato]]. The Hesychast interprets Christ's injunction in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] to "go into your closet to pray," to mean that he should ignore the senses and withdraw inward. St John of Sinai writes: "Hesychasm is the enclosing of the bodiless mind ''(nous)'' in the bodily house of the body." (''Ladder,'' Step 27, 5, (Step 27, 6 in the Holy Transfiguration edition).)
  
−
==Hesychastic practice==
 
−
 
−
Hesychastic practice bears some superficial resemblance to mystical prayer or meditation in Eastern religions ([[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Sufism]], compare with [[yoga]]), although this similarity is often over-emphasized in popular accounts and generally rejected by actual Orthodox practitioners of Hesychasm.  The practice may involve specific body postures and be accompanied by very deliberate breathing patterns.  However, these bodily postures and breathing patterns are treated as secondary both by modern Athonite practitioners of Hesychasm (e.g. ''Elder Ephraim of Katounakia,'' p. 114 (Greek edition)) and by the more ancient texts in the ''Philokalia'' (e.g. ''On the Two Methods of Prayer'' by St Gregory of Sinai), the emphasis being on the primary role of Grace.
 
−
 
−
Hesychasts are fully inserted into the Liturgical and [[Sacraments|sacramental]] life of the Orthodox Church, including the daily cycle of liturgical prayer of the [[Canonical hours|Divine Office]] and the [[Divine Liturgy]].  However, Hesychasts who are living as hermits might have a very rare attendance at the Divine Liturgy (see the life of [[Saint Seraphim of Sarov]]) and might not recite the Divine Office except by means of the Jesus Prayer (attested practice on Mt Athos).  In general, the Hesychast restricts his external activities for the sake of his Hesychastic practice.
 
−
 
−
Hesychastic practice involves acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses.  In this, Hesychasm shows its roots in [[Evagrius Pontikos]] and even in the Greek tradition of asceticism going back to [[Plato]].  The Hesychast interprets Christ's injunction in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] to "go into your closet to pray", to mean that he should ignore the senses and withdraw inward.  St [[John of Sinai]] writes:  "Hesychasm is the enclosing of the bodiless mind ''(nous)'' in the bodily house of the body."  ''(Ladder,'' Step 27, 5, (Step 27, 6 in the Holy Transfiguration edition).)
 
−
 
−
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:OrthodoxMonks.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Orthodox Monks at prayer in their monastery church.]] —>
 
 
In Step 27, 21 of the ''Ladder'' (Step 27, 22–3 of the Holy Transfiguration edition), St John of Sinai describes Hesychast practice as follows:
 
In Step 27, 21 of the ''Ladder'' (Step 27, 22–3 of the Holy Transfiguration edition), St John of Sinai describes Hesychast practice as follows:
  
 
::Take up your seat on a high place and watch, if only you know how, and then you will see in what manner, when, whence, how many and what kind of thieves come to enter and steal your clusters of grapes.  When the watchman grows weary, he stands up and prays; and then he sits down again and courageously takes up his former task.
 
::Take up your seat on a high place and watch, if only you know how, and then you will see in what manner, when, whence, how many and what kind of thieves come to enter and steal your clusters of grapes.  When the watchman grows weary, he stands up and prays; and then he sits down again and courageously takes up his former task.
  
−
In this passage, St John of Sinai says that the primary task of the Hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis. This mental ascesis is the rejection of tempting thoughts (the “thieves”) that come to the Hesychast as he watches in sober attention in his hermitage. Much of the literature of Hesychasm is occupied with the psychological analysis of such tempting thoughts (e.g. [[St Mark the Ascetic]]). This psychological analysis owes much to the ascetical works of Evagrius Pontikos, with its doctrine of the eight passions.
+
In this passage, St John of Sinai says that the primary task of the Hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis. This mental ascesis is the rejection of tempting thoughts (the “thieves”) that come to the Hesychast as he watches in sober attention in his hermitage. Much of the literature of Hesychasm is occupied with the psychological analysis of such tempting thoughts (e.g. [[St Mark the Ascetic]]). This psychological analysis owes much to the ascetical works of Evagrius Pontikos, with its doctrine of the eight passions.
  
−
[[John Cassian|St. John Cassian]] is not represented in the ''Philokalia'' except by two brief extracts, but this is most likely due to his having written in Latin.  His works ''(Coenobitical Institutions'' and the ''Conferences)'' represent a transmittal of Evagrius Pontikos’ ascetical doctrines to the West. These works formed the basis of much of the spirituality of the [[Order of St Benedict]] and its offshoots. Hence, the tradition of St John Cassian in the West concerning the spiritual practice of the hermit can be considered to be a tradition parallel to that of Hesychasm in the Orthodox Church.
+
The highest goal of the Hesychast is the experiential knowledge of God. In the fourteenth century, the possibility of this experiential knowledge of God was challenged by a Calabrian monk, Barlaam, who although he was formally a member of the Orthodox Church had been trained in Western Scholastic theology. Barlaam asserted that our knowledge of God can only be propositional. The practice of the Hesychasts was defended by St. Gregory Palamas (discussed above).
  
−
The highest goal of the Hesychast is the experiential knowledge of God. In the 14th Century, the possibility of this experiential knowledge of God was challenged by a [[Calabrian]] monk, Barlaam, who although he was formally a member of the Orthodox Church had been trained in Western Scholastic theology.  Barlaam asserted that our knowledge of God can only be propositional.  The practice of the Hesychasts was defended by [[Gregory Palamas|St. Gregory Palamas]].  (See below.)
+
In solitude and retirement the Hesychast repeats the Jesus Prayer, ''"Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner."'' The Hesychast prays the Jesus Prayer "with the heart"—with meaning, with intent, "for real." He never treats the Jesus Prayer as a string of syllables whose "surface" or overt verbal meaning is secondary or unimportant. He considers bare repetition of the Jesus Prayer as a mere string of syllables, perhaps with a "mystical" inner meaning beyond the overt verbal meaning, to be worthless or even dangerous. There is a very great emphasis on humility in the practice of the Jesus Prayer, great cautions being given in the texts about the disaster that will befall the would-be Hesychast if he proceeds in pride, arrogance, or conceit.   
  
−
In solitude and retirement the Hesychast repeats the [[Jesus Prayer]], ''"Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner."'' The Hesychast prays the Jesus Prayer 'with the heart'—with meaning, with intent, 'for real'. He never treats the Jesus Prayer as a string of syllables whose 'surface' or overt verbal meaning is secondary or unimportant.  He considers bare repetition of the Jesus Prayer as a mere string of syllables, perhaps with a 'mystical' inner meaning beyond the overt verbal meaning, to be worthless or even dangerous.  This emphasis on the actual, real invocation of Jesus Christ marks a divergence from Eastern forms of meditation.
+
In addition to repeating the Jesus Prayer, the Hesychast is required to cultivate sobriety (Gr. ''nepsis)''  where extreme attention is devoted to the consciousness of his inner world and to the words of the Jesus Prayer, not letting his mind wander in any way at all.
  
−
There is a very great emphasis on humility in the practice of the Jesus Prayer, great cautions being given in the texts about the disaster that will befall the would-be Hesychast if he proceeds in pride, arrogance or conceit.  It is also assumed in the Hesychast texts that the Hesychast is a member of the Orthodox Church in good standing.
+
The Hesychast is to attach Eros (Gr. ''eros)'', that is, "yearning," to his practice of sobriety so as to overcome the temptation to accidie (sloth). He is also to use an extremely directed and controlled anger against the tempting thoughts, although to obliterate them entirely he is to invoke Jesus Christ via the Jesus Prayer.
−
 
 
−
While he maintains his practice of the Jesus Prayer, which becomes automatic and continues twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, the Hesychast cultivates sobriety (Gr. ''nepsis).''  Sobriety is the mental ascesis described above that rejects the tempting thoughts; it puts a great emphasis on focus and attention.  The Hesychast is to pay extreme attention to the consciousness of his inner world and to the words of the Jesus Prayer, not letting his mind wander in any way at all.
 
−
 
 
−
The Hesychast is to attach Eros (Gr. ''eros)'', that is, "yearning", to his practice of sobriety so as to overcome the temptation to accidie (sloth). He is also to use an extremely directed and controlled anger against the tempting thoughts, although to obliterate them entirely he is to invoke Jesus Christ via the Jesus Prayer.
 
  
 
[[Image:Megaloschema.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Great Schema or Megaloschema, worn by seasoned hesychasts]]
 
[[Image:Megaloschema.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Great Schema or Megaloschema, worn by seasoned hesychasts]]
−
The Hesychast is to bring his mind (Gr. ''nous)'' into his heart so as to practise both the Jesus Prayer and sobriety with his mind in his heart. The descent of the mind into the heart is taken quite literally by the practitioners of Hesychasm and is not at all considered to be a metaphorical expression. Some of the psychophysical techniques described in the texts are to assist the descent of the mind into the heart at those times that only with difficulty it descends on its own.
+
The Hesychast is to bring his mind (Gr. ''nous)'' into his heart so as to practise both the Jesus Prayer and sobriety with his mind in his heart. The descent of the mind into the heart is taken quite literally by the practitioners of Hesychasm and is not at all considered to be a metaphorical expression. Some of the psychophysical techniques described in the texts are to assist the descent of the mind into the heart.
  
−
The goal at this stage is a practice of the Jesus Prayer with the mind in the heart, which practice is free of images (see ''Pros Theodoulon).'' What this means is that by the exercise of sobriety (the mental ascesis against tempting thoughts), the Hesychast arrives at a continual practice of the Jesus Prayer with his mind in his heart and where his consciousness is no longer encumbered by the spontaneous inception of images: his mind has a certain stillness and emptiness that is punctuated only by the eternal repetition of the Jesus Prayer.
+
The goal at this stage is a practice of the Jesus Prayer with the mind in the heart, which practice is free of images (''Pros Theodoulon).'' What this means is that by the exercise of sobriety (the mental ascesis against tempting thoughts), the Hesychast arrives at a continual practice of the Jesus Prayer with his mind in his heart and where his consciousness is no longer encumbered by the spontaneous inception of images: his mind has a certain stillness and emptiness that is punctuated only by the eternal repetition of the Jesus Prayer.
  
−
This stage is called the ''guard of the mind.'' This is a very advanced stage of ascetical and spiritual practice, and attempting to accomplish this prematurely, especially with psychophysical techniques, can cause very serious spiritual and emotional harm to the would-be Hesychast. St [[Theophan the Recluse]] once remarked that bodily postures and breathing techniques were virtually forbidden in his youth, since, instead of gaining the Spirit of God, people succeeded only "in ruining their lungs."
+
This stage is called the ''guard of the mind.'' This is a very advanced stage of ascetical and spiritual practice, and attempting to accomplish this prematurely, especially with psychophysical techniques, can cause very serious spiritual and emotional harm to the would-be Hesychast. The guard of the mind is the practical goal of the Hesychast. It is the condition in which he remains as a matter of course throughout his day, every day until he dies. It is from the guard of the mind that he is raised to contemplation by the Grace of God.
  
−
The guard of the mind is the practical goal of the Hesychast.  It is the condition in which he remains as a matter of course throughout his day, every day until he dies.  It is from the guard of the mind that he is raised to contemplation by the Grace of God.
+
==Theology==
 +
The Hesychast usually experiences the contemplation of God as light, the Uncreated Light of the theology of St Gregory Palamas. The Hesychast, when he has by the mercy of God been granted such an experience, does not remain in that experience for a very long time (there are exceptions, but he returns "to earth" and continues to practise the guard of the mind.
  
−
The Hesychast usually experiences the contemplation of God as light, the Uncreated Light of the theology of St Gregory Palamas.  The Hesychast, when he has by the mercy of God been granted such an experience, does not remain in that experience for a very long time (there are exceptions—see for example the ''Life'' of St Savas the Fool for Christ (14th Century), written by [[St Philotheos Kokkinos]] (14th Century)), but he returns 'to earth' and continues to practise the guard of the mind.
+
The Uncreated Light in Hesychast experience is identified with the Holy Spirit. Notable accounts of encounters with the Holy Spirit in this fashion are found in St Symeon the New Theologian's account of the illumination of "George" (considered a pseudonym of St Symeon himself); in the "conversation with Motovilov" in the ''Life'' of St Seraphim of Sarov (1759 – 1833); and, more recently, in the reminiscences of Elder Porphyrios.
  
−
The Uncreated Light that the Hesychast experiences is identified with the Holy Spirit.  Experiences of the Uncreated Light are allied to the 'acquisition of the Holy Spirit'. Notable accounts of encounters with the Holy Spirit in this fashion are found in St Symeon the New Theologian's account of the illumination of 'George' (considered a pseudonym of St Symeon himself); in the 'conversation with Motovilov' in the ''Life'' of [[St Seraphim of Sarov]] (1759 – 1833); and, more recently, in the reminiscences of [[Starets|Elder]] [[Porphyrios]] (''Wounded by Love'' pp. 27 – 31).
+
Orthodox Tradition warns against seeking ecstasy as an end in itself. Hesychasm is a traditional complex of ascetical practices intended to purify the member of the Orthodox Church and to make him ready for an encounter with God that comes to him when and if God wants, through God's Grace. The goal is to acquire, through purification and Grace, the Holy Spirit and salvation. Any ecstatic states or other unusual phenomena that may occur in the course of Hesychast practice are considered secondary and unimportant, even quite dangerous. Moreover, seeking after unusual 'spiritual' experiences can itself cause great harm, ruining the soul and the mind of the seeker. Such a seeking after 'spiritual' experiences can lead to ''spiritual delusion'' (R.u ''prelest,'' Gr. ''plani)''—the antonym of sobriety—in which a person believes himself or herself to be a saint, has hallucinations in which he or she "sees" angels, Christ, etc. This state of spiritual delusion is in a superficial, egotistical way pleasurable, but can lead to madness and suicide, and, according to the Hesychast fathers, makes salvation impossible.
  
−
Orthodox Tradition warns against seeking [[ecstasy]] as an end in itself. Hesychasm is a traditional complex of ascetical practices embedded in the doctrine and practice of the Orthodox Church and intended to purify the member of the Orthodox Church and to make him ready for an encounter with God that comes to him when and if God wants, through God's Grace.  The goal is to acquire, through purification and Grace, the Holy Spirit and salvation. Any ecstatic states or other unusual phenomena which may occur in the course of Hesychast practice are considered secondary and unimportant, even quite dangerous. Moreover, seeking after unusual 'spiritual' experiences can itself cause great harm, ruining the soul and the mind of the seeker. Such a seeking after 'spiritual' experiences can lead to ''spiritual delusion'' (Ru. ''prelest,'' Gr. ''plani)''—the antonym of sobriety—in which a person believes himself or herself to be a saint, has hallucinations in which he or she 'sees' angels, Christ, etc. This state of spiritual delusion is in a superficial, egotistical way pleasurable, but can lead to madness and suicide, and, according to the Hesychast fathers, makes salvation impossible.
+
==Influence on Western Monasticism==
 +
The Latin writings of [[John Cassian|St. John Cassian]] (ca. 360 – 433), especially his works ''Coenobitical Institutions'' and the ''Conferences'', represent a transmittal of Evagrius Pontikos’ ascetical doctrines to the West.  These works formed the basis of much of the spirituality of the [[Order of St Benedict]] and its offshoots. Therefore, the influence of St John Cassian on the spiritual practice of Western monasticism indirectly parallels Hesychasm practice in the Orthodox Church.
  
−
Mount Athos is a centre of the practice of Hesychasm.  St [[Paisius Velichkovsky]] and his disciples [[starets|made the practice known]] in [[Russia]] and [[Romania]], although Hesychasm was already previously known in Russia, as is attested by [[St Seraphim of Sarov]]'s independent practice of it.
+
==Notes==
 +
<references/>
  
−
===Gregory Palamas: defender of Hesychasm===
+
==References==
−
[[Image:Gregor Palamas.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gregory Palamas]]
+
* Cavarnos, Constantine. ''Modern Orthodox Saints Vol. 3: St. Nicodemos the Hagiorite Great Theologian and Teacher of the Orthodox Church, Reviver of Hesychasm, Moralist, Canon (Modern Orthodox Saints)''.  Institute for Byzantine & Modern Greek Studie; 2nd edition, 1994. ISBN 9780914744412
−
About the year [[1337]] Hesychasm attracted the attention of a learned member of the Orthodox Church, [[Barlaam of Calabria|Barlaam, a Calabrian monk]] who at that time held the office of abbot in the Monastery of [[St Saviour]]'s in Constantinople and who visited Mount Athos. [[Mount Athos]] was then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of [[Andronicus III Palaeologus]] and under the 'first-ship' of the Protos Symeon.  On Mount Athos, Barlaam encountered Hesychasts and heard descriptions of their practices, also reading the writings of the teacher in Hesychasm of St [[Gregory Palamas]], himself an Athonite monk.  Trained in Western [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] theology, Barlaam was scandalized by Hesychasm and began to combat it both orally and in his writings.  As a  private teacher of theology in the Western Scholastic mode, Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the Hesychasts taught.
 
  
−
Barlaam took exception to, as [[heresy|heretical]] and [[blasphemy|blasphemous]], the doctrine entertained by the Hesychasts as to the nature of the light, the experience of which was said to be the goal of Hesychast practice.  It was maintained by the Hesychasts to be of divine origin and to be identical to that light which had been manifested to Jesus' disciples on [[Mount Tabor]] at the [[Transfiguration]]. This Barlaam held to be [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God.
+
* Henry, Gary, and Jonathan Montaldo. ''Merton & Hesychasm: The Prayer of the Heart & the Eastern Church (The Fons Vitae Thomas Merton series)''. Vitae, 2003. ISBN 9781887752459
  
−
On the Hesychast side, the controversy was taken up by St [[Gregory Palamas]], afterwards Archbishop of Thessalonica, who was asked by his fellow monks on Mt Athos to defend Hesychasm from the attacks of Barlaam. St Gregory himself was well-educated in Greek philosophy. St Gregory defended Hesychasm in the 1340s at three different synods in [[Constantinople]], and he also wrote a number of works in its defense.
+
* LaBauve, Maurice. ''Hesychasm, word-weaving, and Slavic hagiography: The literary school of Patriarch Euthymius''. Hébert Sagner, 1992. ISBN 9783876905303
  
−
In these works, St Gregory Palamas uses a distinction, already found in the 4th Century in the works of the [[Cappadocian Fathers]], between the energies or operations (Gr. ''energeies)'' of God and the essence of God. St Gregory taught that the energies or operations of God were uncreated. He taught that the essence of God can never be known by his creature even in the next life, but that his uncreated energies or operations can be known both in this life and in the next, and convey to the Hesychast in this life and to the righteous in the next life a true spiritual knowledge of God. In Palamite theology, it is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the Hesychast who has been vouchsafed an experience of the Uncreated Light.
+
*  Leloup, Jean-Yves. ''Being Still: Reflections on an Ancient Mystical Tradition''. Paulist Press, 2003. ISBN 9780809141777
  
−
In [[1341]] the dispute came before a [[synod]] held at [[Constantinople]] and presided over by the Emperor Andronicus; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the [[pseudo-Dionysius]] were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop in the Roman Catholic Church.
+
* Markides, Kyriacos C. ''The Mountain of Silence: A Search for Orthodox Spirituality''.  Image, 2002. ISBN 9780385500920
  
−
One of Barlaam's friends, Gregory Akindynos, who originally was also a friend of St Gregory Palamas, took up the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of Barlaam gained a brief victory. But in [[1351]] at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor [[John VI Cantacuzenus]], Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church.
+
* Meyendorff, John. ''Gregory Palamas: The Triads (Classics of Western Spirituality)''.  Paulist Press; New Ed edition, 1982. ISBN 9780809124473
−
 
 
−
Up to this day, the Roman Catholic Church has never fully accepted Hesychasm, especially the distinction between the energies or operations of God and the essence of God, and the notion that those energies or operations of God are uncreated.  In Roman Catholic theology as it has developed since the Scholastic period, the essence of God can be known, but only in the next life; the grace of God is always created; and the essence of God is pure act, so that there can be no distinction between the energies or operations and the essence of God (see, e.g., the ''Summa Theologiae'' of St Thomas Aquinas).  Some of these positions depend on Aristotelian metaphysics.
 
−
 
 
−
The contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and [[Nicephorus Gregoras]] deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively.
 
−
 
 
−
==References==
 
−
 
 
−
* ''The ''[[Philokalia]].''  (Four volumes published, one awaited.)
 
−
* ''The Ladder of Divine Ascent'' by St John of Sinai.
 
−
* ''The Ascetical Homilies of St Isaac the Syrian''.
 
−
* Works of St Symeon the New Theologian.
 
−
* ''Coenobitical Institutions'' and ''Conferences'' of St John Cassian.
 
−
* ''The Way of the Pilgrim''.
 
−
* ''St Silouan the Athonite''.  (Contains an introduction by [[Archimandrite Sophrony]] (Sakharov), immediate disciple of [[St Silouan,]] together with the meditations of St Silouan (1866 – 1938).)
 
−
* Works of Archimandrite Sophrony (Sakharov) (1896 – 1993).
 
−
* ''Elder Joseph the Hesychast''.  (Life of a very influential Hesychast on Mt Athos who died in 1959.)
 
−
* ''Monastic Wisdom.  The Letters of Elder Joseph the Hesychast''.
 
−
* ''Wounded by Love.  The Life and the Wisdom of Elder Porphyrios.''  (Reminiscences and reflections of Elder Porphyrios (1906 – 1991) of Mt Athos.)
 
−
* Works by Elder Paisios (1924 – 1994) of Mount Athos.  (A very well-known Athonite Elder and Hesychast.)
 
−
* ''Elder Ephraim of Katounakia.'' Translated by Tessy Vassiliadou-Christodoulou. (Life and teachings of [[Elder Ephraim]] (1912–1998) of Katounakia, Mt Athos, a disciple of [[Elder Joseph the Hesychast]].)
 
−
* ''Hieromonachos Charalampos Dionusiates, O didaskalos tes noeras proseuches (Hieromonk Charalambos of the Monastery of Dionysiou, The Teacher of Mental Prayer)''.  (Life and teachings of [[Elder Charalambos]] (1910–2001), sometime Abbot of the Monastery of Dionysiou, Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast.  In Greek, available in English.)
 
−
* Works of [[Archimandrite Aimilianos]] (1934 – ) of the Monastery of Simonos Petra, Mt Athos, especially Volumes I and II.
 
−
* ''Counsels from the Holy Mountain.  Selected from the Lessons and Homilies of Elder Ephraim.'' ([[Archimandrite Ephraim]] of the Monastery of St Anthony, Florence, Arizona.  Formerly Abbot of the Monastery of Philotheou on Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast.  Not to be confused with Elder Ephraim of Katounakia.)
 
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
 
+
All links retrieved December 22, 2017.
−
*[http://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=195 The Jesus Prayer], a very straightforward exposition.
+
*[http://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=195 The Jesus Prayer]
−
*[http://www.ellopos.net/blog/?p=87 St Gregory Palamas works in English and Greek, Unceasing Prayer, Select Resources]
 
−
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07301a.htm Catholic Explanation of Hesychasm].  This is useful only as historical documentation of Roman Catholic attitudes to Hesychasm around 1910, the date that the Catholic Encyclopedia was published from which this article was taken.  While the article does have historical detail, its hostile tone creates doubt about the article as a whole.
 
−
*[http://www.catholicculture.org/docs/doc_view.cfm?recnum=5660 Pope John Paul II's Angelus Message, August 11, 1996]  This is a brief modern reflection by a Pope that refers directly to Hesychasm, indicating that its defense was in conflict with certain aspects of Roman Catholic teaching
 
−
*[http://www.monachos.net/patristics/palamas_theology.shtml Three foundational aspects of the Theology of St Gregory Palamas]
 
−
*[http://www.stanthonysmonastery.org St Anthony's Monastery]
 
  
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]

Latest revision as of 11:44, 22 January 2024

Saint Gregory Palamas (1296-1368 C.E.), defender of Hesychasm.

Hesychasm (from Greek: ἡσυχασμός hesychasmos, meaning "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") is an eremitic tradition of prayer that developed in Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Rooted in the ancient tradition of Christian asceticism and contemplation, the Hesychast interprets Christ's injunction to "go into your closet to pray" (Matthew 6:6), to mean that one should ignore the senses and withdraw inward to acquire an inner stillness and to apprehend the light of God. Especially popular among the monks of Mt. Athos, Greece, Hesychasm flourished in the fourteenth century C.E. and became an official doctrine of the Greek Orthodox Church in 1351 C.E..

The distinctive characteristics of Hesychasm are its emphasis on solitary mental ascesis and contemplative stillness, repetition of the "Jesus Prayer," reading of the Philokalia (a collection of texts on prayer written from the fourth to the fifteenth centuries), and a theology of Uncreated Light.

Though not well known or understood in other branches of Christianity, the ancient practice of Hesychasm remains a very respected part of the Greek Orthodox tradition. It is often said that Hesychasm has great potential for both renewing interest in Christianity and for establishing a point of common ground among many of the world religions. Hesychasm is renowned as a form of Christian mysticism that seeks to attain a direct experience of God’s light and love. It is well known that mystics from the world’s religions have inspired humanity through their celebration of divine love.

Etymology

The origin of the term hesychasmos is not entirely certain. The basic terms hesychia and hesychazo appear in the fourth century in the writings of the early Cappadocian Church Fathers such as St. John Chrysostom (349– ca. 407). The terms also appear in the writings of Evagrius Pontikos (c.345–399). The Greek term anchorite (Gr. ἀναχωρητής, "one who withdraws or retreats, i.e. a hermit") was often considered to be synonymous with Hesychast. The term Hesychast also appears in the Ladder of Divine Ascent of St John of Sinai (523–603) and in Pros Theodoulon by St Hesychios (c.750).

History

The beginnings of Hesychasm can be traced back to the early Desert Fathers, who retreated from society to go off into the desert to pray. Their prayers often involved stillness and contemplation, similar to forms of mediation practiced in the religions of Asia. Over time, Mount Athos became a centre for the practice of Hesychasm and by the fourteenth century, the monastries at Mount Athos reached the height of their fame and influence. It was at this time, that Barlaam of Constantinople visited Mount Athos and was scandalized by Hesychastic teachings. Barlaam began to attack Hesychasm in his writings, taking particular exception to its doctrine of divine light, which he held to be polytheistic because it postulated two eternal substances—a visible and an invisible God.

Hesychasm, in turn, was defended by St Gregory Palamas (1296-368 C.E.),[1] who vigorously supported its positions at three different synods in the 1340s in Constantinople. Gregory Palamas also wrote a number of works in its defense of Hesychasm in which he used a distinction between the operations (Gr. energeies) of God and the essence of God. He taught that while the energies of God were uncreated, the essence of God can never be known by creatures. In Palamite theology, it is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the Hesychast as an experience of the Uncreated Light.

In 1341 C.E., the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople and presided over by the Emperor Andronicus; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming a bishop in the Roman Catholic Church.

One of Barlaam's friends, Gregory Akindynos, who originally was also a friend of St Gregory Palamas, took up the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of Barlaam gained a brief victory. However, in 1351 at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus, Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church.

The Roman Catholic Church has never fully accepted the practice or theology of Hesychasm. In Roman Catholic thinking since the Scholastic period, the essence of God can be known, but only in the next life; the grace of God is always created; and the essence of God is pure act, so that there can be no distinction between the energies or operations and the essence of God (e.g., the Summa Theologiae of St Thomas Aquinas). Some of these positions depend on Aristotelian metaphysics.

Practices

Hesychastic practice bears some resemblance to mystical prayer or meditation in the Eastern religions, although this similarity is often over-emphasized and generally rejected by Orthodox practitioners of Hesychasm. Its practice may involve specific body postures and be accompanied by very deliberate breathing patterns. However, these bodily postures and breathing patterns are treated as secondary both by modern practitioners of Hesychasm and by the more ancient texts in the Philokalia, the emphasis being on the primary role of Grace.

Hesychasts are fully inserted into the Liturgical and sacramental life of the Orthodox Church, including the daily cycle of liturgical prayer of the Divine Office and the Divine Liturgy. However, Hesychasts living as hermits might have a very rare attendance at the Divine Liturgy and might not recite the Divine Office except by means of the Jesus Prayer. In general, the Hesychast restricts external activities for the sake of contemplation. Such contemplative practice involves acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses. In this, Hesychasm shows its roots in Evagrius Pontikos and even in the Greek tradition of asceticism going back to Plato. The Hesychast interprets Christ's injunction in the Gospel of Matthew to "go into your closet to pray," to mean that he should ignore the senses and withdraw inward. St John of Sinai writes: "Hesychasm is the enclosing of the bodiless mind (nous) in the bodily house of the body." (Ladder, Step 27, 5, (Step 27, 6 in the Holy Transfiguration edition).)

In Step 27, 21 of the Ladder (Step 27, 22–3 of the Holy Transfiguration edition), St John of Sinai describes Hesychast practice as follows:

Take up your seat on a high place and watch, if only you know how, and then you will see in what manner, when, whence, how many and what kind of thieves come to enter and steal your clusters of grapes. When the watchman grows weary, he stands up and prays; and then he sits down again and courageously takes up his former task.

In this passage, St John of Sinai says that the primary task of the Hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis. This mental ascesis is the rejection of tempting thoughts (the “thieves”) that come to the Hesychast as he watches in sober attention in his hermitage. Much of the literature of Hesychasm is occupied with the psychological analysis of such tempting thoughts (e.g. St Mark the Ascetic). This psychological analysis owes much to the ascetical works of Evagrius Pontikos, with its doctrine of the eight passions.

The highest goal of the Hesychast is the experiential knowledge of God. In the fourteenth century, the possibility of this experiential knowledge of God was challenged by a Calabrian monk, Barlaam, who although he was formally a member of the Orthodox Church had been trained in Western Scholastic theology. Barlaam asserted that our knowledge of God can only be propositional. The practice of the Hesychasts was defended by St. Gregory Palamas (discussed above).

In solitude and retirement the Hesychast repeats the Jesus Prayer, "Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner." The Hesychast prays the Jesus Prayer "with the heart"—with meaning, with intent, "for real." He never treats the Jesus Prayer as a string of syllables whose "surface" or overt verbal meaning is secondary or unimportant. He considers bare repetition of the Jesus Prayer as a mere string of syllables, perhaps with a "mystical" inner meaning beyond the overt verbal meaning, to be worthless or even dangerous. There is a very great emphasis on humility in the practice of the Jesus Prayer, great cautions being given in the texts about the disaster that will befall the would-be Hesychast if he proceeds in pride, arrogance, or conceit.

In addition to repeating the Jesus Prayer, the Hesychast is required to cultivate sobriety (Gr. nepsis) where extreme attention is devoted to the consciousness of his inner world and to the words of the Jesus Prayer, not letting his mind wander in any way at all.

The Hesychast is to attach Eros (Gr. eros), that is, "yearning," to his practice of sobriety so as to overcome the temptation to accidie (sloth). He is also to use an extremely directed and controlled anger against the tempting thoughts, although to obliterate them entirely he is to invoke Jesus Christ via the Jesus Prayer.

The Great Schema or Megaloschema, worn by seasoned hesychasts

The Hesychast is to bring his mind (Gr. nous) into his heart so as to practise both the Jesus Prayer and sobriety with his mind in his heart. The descent of the mind into the heart is taken quite literally by the practitioners of Hesychasm and is not at all considered to be a metaphorical expression. Some of the psychophysical techniques described in the texts are to assist the descent of the mind into the heart.

The goal at this stage is a practice of the Jesus Prayer with the mind in the heart, which practice is free of images (Pros Theodoulon). What this means is that by the exercise of sobriety (the mental ascesis against tempting thoughts), the Hesychast arrives at a continual practice of the Jesus Prayer with his mind in his heart and where his consciousness is no longer encumbered by the spontaneous inception of images: his mind has a certain stillness and emptiness that is punctuated only by the eternal repetition of the Jesus Prayer.

This stage is called the guard of the mind. This is a very advanced stage of ascetical and spiritual practice, and attempting to accomplish this prematurely, especially with psychophysical techniques, can cause very serious spiritual and emotional harm to the would-be Hesychast. The guard of the mind is the practical goal of the Hesychast. It is the condition in which he remains as a matter of course throughout his day, every day until he dies. It is from the guard of the mind that he is raised to contemplation by the Grace of God.

Theology

The Hesychast usually experiences the contemplation of God as light, the Uncreated Light of the theology of St Gregory Palamas. The Hesychast, when he has by the mercy of God been granted such an experience, does not remain in that experience for a very long time (there are exceptions, but he returns "to earth" and continues to practise the guard of the mind.

The Uncreated Light in Hesychast experience is identified with the Holy Spirit. Notable accounts of encounters with the Holy Spirit in this fashion are found in St Symeon the New Theologian's account of the illumination of "George" (considered a pseudonym of St Symeon himself); in the "conversation with Motovilov" in the Life of St Seraphim of Sarov (1759 – 1833); and, more recently, in the reminiscences of Elder Porphyrios.

Orthodox Tradition warns against seeking ecstasy as an end in itself. Hesychasm is a traditional complex of ascetical practices intended to purify the member of the Orthodox Church and to make him ready for an encounter with God that comes to him when and if God wants, through God's Grace. The goal is to acquire, through purification and Grace, the Holy Spirit and salvation. Any ecstatic states or other unusual phenomena that may occur in the course of Hesychast practice are considered secondary and unimportant, even quite dangerous. Moreover, seeking after unusual 'spiritual' experiences can itself cause great harm, ruining the soul and the mind of the seeker. Such a seeking after 'spiritual' experiences can lead to spiritual delusion (R.u prelest, Gr. plani)—the antonym of sobriety—in which a person believes himself or herself to be a saint, has hallucinations in which he or she "sees" angels, Christ, etc. This state of spiritual delusion is in a superficial, egotistical way pleasurable, but can lead to madness and suicide, and, according to the Hesychast fathers, makes salvation impossible.

Influence on Western Monasticism

The Latin writings of St. John Cassian (ca. 360 – 433), especially his works Coenobitical Institutions and the Conferences, represent a transmittal of Evagrius Pontikos’ ascetical doctrines to the West. These works formed the basis of much of the spirituality of the Order of St Benedict and its offshoots. Therefore, the influence of St John Cassian on the spiritual practice of Western monasticism indirectly parallels Hesychasm practice in the Orthodox Church.

Notes

  1. ↑ The contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Cavarnos, Constantine. Modern Orthodox Saints Vol. 3: St. Nicodemos the Hagiorite Great Theologian and Teacher of the Orthodox Church, Reviver of Hesychasm, Moralist, Canon (Modern Orthodox Saints). Institute for Byzantine & Modern Greek Studie; 2nd edition, 1994. ISBN 9780914744412
  • Henry, Gary, and Jonathan Montaldo. Merton & Hesychasm: The Prayer of the Heart & the Eastern Church (The Fons Vitae Thomas Merton series). Vitae, 2003. ISBN 9781887752459
  • LaBauve, Maurice. Hesychasm, word-weaving, and Slavic hagiography: The literary school of Patriarch Euthymius. Hébert Sagner, 1992. ISBN 9783876905303
  • Leloup, Jean-Yves. Being Still: Reflections on an Ancient Mystical Tradition. Paulist Press, 2003. ISBN 9780809141777
  • Markides, Kyriacos C. The Mountain of Silence: A Search for Orthodox Spirituality. Image, 2002. ISBN 9780385500920
  • Meyendorff, John. Gregory Palamas: The Triads (Classics of Western Spirituality). Paulist Press; New Ed edition, 1982. ISBN 9780809124473

External links

All links retrieved December 22, 2017.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Hesychasm&oldid=1134147

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki