Difference between revisions of "Gwageo" - New World Encyclopedia
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[[Image:Changgyeonggung Palace Seoul.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Gwageo is traditional civil servants examination system and the first Gwageo took place in A.D 958 under King Gwangjong of Goryeo(918-1392) and it had continued for the nearly 950 years.]] | [[Image:Changgyeonggung Palace Seoul.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Gwageo is traditional civil servants examination system and the first Gwageo took place in A.D 958 under King Gwangjong of Goryeo(918-1392) and it had continued for the nearly 950 years.]] | ||
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During the [[Goryeo]] and [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon]] dynasties of [[Korea]], the royal courts conducted '''gwageo''' (or '''kwago'''), the nationalocivil service examinations. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' knowledge of the [[Chinese classics]], and sometimes also of technical subjects. Gwageo served as the primary route to secure positions in the government or military. | During the [[Goryeo]] and [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon]] dynasties of [[Korea]], the royal courts conducted '''gwageo''' (or '''kwago'''), the nationalocivil service examinations. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' knowledge of the [[Chinese classics]], and sometimes also of technical subjects. Gwageo served as the primary route to secure positions in the government or military. | ||
| − | Based on the [[Imperial examination|civil service examinations]] of imperial [[China]], the ''gwageo'' first appeared in [[Unified Silla]], gained importance in [[Goryeo]], and became the centerpiece of [[education in the Joseon Dynasty]]. The tutelage provided at the [[hyanggyo]], [[seowon]], and [[Seonggyungwan]] aimed primarily at preparing students for the gwageo and their subsequent career in government | + | Based on the [[Imperial examination|civil service examinations]] of imperial [[China]], the ''gwageo'' first appeared in [[Unified Silla]], gained importance in [[Goryeo]], and became the centerpiece of [[education in the Joseon Dynasty]]. The tutelage provided at the [[hyanggyo]], [[seowon]], and [[Seonggyungwan]] aimed primarily at preparing students for the gwageo and their subsequent career in government. Under Joseon law, children of officials of the second full rank or higher only enjoyed high office automatically; other candidates had to pass the gwageo. Those who passed the higher literary examination came to monopolize all of the dynasty's high positions of state. <ref>SNUERI, p. 108.</ref> |
==Silla== | ==Silla== | ||
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The major examinations tested literary, coming in two forms: a composition test (''jesul eop''), and a test of classical knowledge (''myeonggyeong eop''). The royal court officially held those tests every three years, but had descretion to them at other times as well. <ref>SNUERI, p. 63</ref> The composition test became more prestigious, and its successful applicants divided into three grades. Successful candidates on the classical examination received no rank. In the course of the dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination.<ref>Lee (1984), p. 118</ref> | The major examinations tested literary, coming in two forms: a composition test (''jesul eop''), and a test of classical knowledge (''myeonggyeong eop''). The royal court officially held those tests every three years, but had descretion to them at other times as well. <ref>SNUERI, p. 63</ref> The composition test became more prestigious, and its successful applicants divided into three grades. Successful candidates on the classical examination received no rank. In the course of the dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination.<ref>Lee (1984), p. 118</ref> | ||
| − | The Goryeo royal court revised the classics examination in 1344 under the reign of [[Chunghye of Goryeo|Chunghye]], on the model of the examination system then employed in [[Yuan Dynasty]] China. The earlier system based directly on the classics was replaced with one based on [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] interpretations of the classics.<ref>SNUERI, p. 62</ref> | + | The Goryeo royal court revised the classics examination in 1344 under the reign of [[Chunghye of Goryeo|Chunghye]], on the model of the examination system then employed in [[Yuan Dynasty]] China. The earlier system based directly on the classics was replaced with one based on [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] interpretations of the classics.<ref>SNUERI, p. 62</ref> [[Yejong of Goryeo|Yejong]], and later[[Gongyang of Goryeo|Gongyang]] just before the dynasty's falloffered military examinations briefly. For most of the dynasty, military examinations and educational paths to military rank did not exist. That may have reflected the strength of the military elites during that period. |
| − | + | The court offered examinations (''jabeop'') in a variety of fields, including Buddhism. Monks who passed received a special clerical title, beginning with ''daeseon'', or "monk designate."<ref>Lee (1984), p. 133.</ref> The government administerd separate tests for the [[Seon]] and [[Gyo]] sects, which dominated the Buddhism of the Goryeo period. | |
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==Joseon== | ==Joseon== | ||
[[Image:Gwageo 2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Gwageo, Changgyeonggung Palace in Seoul, Korea]] | [[Image:Gwageo 2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Gwageo, Changgyeonggung Palace in Seoul, Korea]] | ||
| − | Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: | + | Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary examinations (''mun-gwa''), military examinations (''mugwa''), and miscellaneous examinations (''japgwa'') covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads to advancement closed, the gwageo became virtually the only pathway to a position of rank.<ref>Byeon (1996), pp. 277-278.</ref> |
| − | + | Strict criteria governed who could take the various examinations. Only [[yangban]] could sit for the literary examination; by that means, the yangban secured a hold over most positions of state. When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-grandfathers. Only those who already held a position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination, could take the higher literary examination. The yangban looked down upon the miscellaneous examinations, generally restricted to the [[jungin]] class of hereditary technical workers. Over time, even members of the lowest class (the [[cheonmin]]) could take the military examination. <ref>Lee (1984), p. 219</ref> | |
| − | The gwageo provided a basis for | + | The gwageo provided a basis for [[regionalism]]. Due to the strength of regional factions in [[Joseon Dynasty politics]], scholars from out-of-favor factions often did not bother to take the examination at all. In addition, for much of the dynasty candidates from [[Hamgyong]] were forbidden to attempt the gwageo. In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing percentage of successful candidates came from the northern province of [[Pyongan]], and the small county of [[Chŏngju]] came to produce more successful candidates than any other county. |
===Administration=== | ===Administration=== | ||
Revision as of 02:49, 4 September 2007
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During the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea, the royal courts conducted gwageo (or kwago), the nationalocivil service examinations. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' knowledge of the Chinese classics, and sometimes also of technical subjects. Gwageo served as the primary route to secure positions in the government or military.
Based on the civil service examinations of imperial China, the gwageo first appeared in Unified Silla, gained importance in Goryeo, and became the centerpiece of education in the Joseon Dynasty. The tutelage provided at the hyanggyo, seowon, and Seonggyungwan aimed primarily at preparing students for the gwageo and their subsequent career in government. Under Joseon law, children of officials of the second full rank or higher only enjoyed high office automatically; other candidates had to pass the gwageo. Those who passed the higher literary examination came to monopolize all of the dynasty's high positions of state. [1]
Silla
The kingdom of Silla administered the first national examinations in beginning in 788 at the suggestion of Confucian scholar Choe Chi-won. Silla's entrenched bone rank system dictated that appointments on the basis of birth negated the benefit of passing the examination.
Goryeo
Under the Goryeo dynasty, the national examinations became more systematic and powerful than they had been under Silla. Still, they remained only one among several avenues to power. A man who had reached a position of the fifth rank or higher could automatically have one son placed in a position of rank.[2]
The examinations, established in the reign of Gwangjong, served as a means of breaking the hold that a few powerful families held over the government.[3] Throughout the dynasty, the examinations strengthened the throne against the aristocracy. That also took the form of aligning the throne with the provincial elites, and the kings of Goryeo strove to extend educational opportunities to the local elites throughout the country. Any member of the yangin freeborn class had permission to take the examination, although the throne excluded the descendants of monks, criminals and cheonmin. [4] Over time, government-run educational institutions such as the hyanggyo and Gukjagam lost ground to private institutions like the Twelve Assemblies.[5]
The major examinations tested literary, coming in two forms: a composition test (jesul eop), and a test of classical knowledge (myeonggyeong eop). The royal court officially held those tests every three years, but had descretion to them at other times as well. [6] The composition test became more prestigious, and its successful applicants divided into three grades. Successful candidates on the classical examination received no rank. In the course of the dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination.[7]
The Goryeo royal court revised the classics examination in 1344 under the reign of Chunghye, on the model of the examination system then employed in Yuan Dynasty China. The earlier system based directly on the classics was replaced with one based on Neo-Confucian interpretations of the classics.[8] Yejong, and laterGongyang just before the dynasty's falloffered military examinations briefly. For most of the dynasty, military examinations and educational paths to military rank did not exist. That may have reflected the strength of the military elites during that period.
The court offered examinations (jabeop) in a variety of fields, including Buddhism. Monks who passed received a special clerical title, beginning with daeseon, or "monk designate."[9] The government administerd separate tests for the Seon and Gyo sects, which dominated the Buddhism of the Goryeo period.
Joseon
Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary examinations (mun-gwa), military examinations (mugwa), and miscellaneous examinations (japgwa) covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads to advancement closed, the gwageo became virtually the only pathway to a position of rank.[10]
Strict criteria governed who could take the various examinations. Only yangban could sit for the literary examination; by that means, the yangban secured a hold over most positions of state. When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-grandfathers. Only those who already held a position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination, could take the higher literary examination. The yangban looked down upon the miscellaneous examinations, generally restricted to the jungin class of hereditary technical workers. Over time, even members of the lowest class (the cheonmin) could take the military examination. [11]
The gwageo provided a basis for regionalism. Due to the strength of regional factions in Joseon Dynasty politics, scholars from out-of-favor factions often did not bother to take the examination at all. In addition, for much of the dynasty candidates from Hamgyong were forbidden to attempt the gwageo. In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing percentage of successful candidates came from the northern province of Pyongan, and the small county of Chŏngju came to produce more successful candidates than any other county.
Administration
The gwageo were originally administered every three years; these regular examinations were known as the singnyeonsi (식년시). However, the singnyeonsi became less important over time, and an increasing percentage of candidates took the gwageo on special occasions. These included the alseongsi (visitation examinations), which were administered when the king visited the Shrine of Confucius at the Seonggyungwan royal academy, the jeunggwangsi (augmented examinations) held during national celebrations, and the byeolsi (special examinations) held on other special occasions. [12] However, these special examinations were usually limited to the literary and military examinations. Over the course of the dynasty, a total of 581 irregular examinations were held, in comparison to 163 of the triennial singneonsi examinations.
The literary and military examinations were administered in three stages: an initial qualifying test (chosi) administered in the provinces, a second examination (hoesi) conducted in the capital (in which the qualifying candidates were selected), and a third examination (jeonsi) in the presence of the king, in which the successful candidates were ranked in order. Each stage was norm-referenced, with a set number of successful applicants. The candidate who received the highest score (jangwon) in the literary examination was given a post of the 6th junior (jong) rank. [13] If the jangwon was already employed in a position of rank, he was raised 4 levels. [14] The miscellaneous examinations had only the first two stages; their candidates were not ranked.
Testing procedures were a frequent flashpoint of controversy, with various factions vying for control of the examination criteria. In particular, the question of whether the first phase of the higher examination should be oral or written became a hot topic of debate in early Joseon.
Literary examinations
The literary examination was divided into a lower and higher examination. In turn, in the lower literary examination some candidates applied for a "classics licentiate" (or saengwon) and others for a "literary licentiate" (or jinsa). After passing these lower examinations (saengjin-gwa), they could proceed to the higher examination. This lower examination may have originated in the entrance examinations for the Gukjagam of Goryeo. [15]
In the lower examination, the literary licentiate tested compositional skill in various forms of Chinese poetry and prose, including shih poetry, fu rhyming prose, piao documentary prose, and ts'e problem-essays.[16] The classics licentiate tested knowledge of the Four Books and Five Classics from an orthodox Neo-Confucian interpretation. From each regular administration of the test, a total of 100 successful candidates were selected for each licentiate. These were drawn from a pool of 600 (for each licentiate), of which 200 were chosen from the capital and 400 were apportioned from the various provinces.[17]
The higher literary examination was administered every three years, and a total of 33 successful candidates were selected from a pool of 240. These 240, in turn, were sent from the Seonggyungwan (50), the capital (40), and the Eight Provinces (the number sent from each province varied, with Hwanghae and Yeongan sending only 10 while Gyeongsang sent 30).[18] Each of the first two of the higher examination was in turn divided into three parts: in the first section, the candidates showed their understanding of the Confucian canon, in the second part they demonstrated their ability to compose in various literary forms, and in the last portion they wrote a problem-essay which was intended to show their political aptitude.[19]
Over the ocurse of the Joseon Dynasty, a total of 14,620 men passed the literary examination. The triennial singneonsi passed roughly 41% of these; the remainder passed in the course of irregular examinations. [20] This proportion shifted over time; as the dynasty progressed, the irregular examinations became increasingly important.[21] This may in part have been because the number of candidates in triennial examinations was fixed, while the number in the irregular examinations was not fixed.
Military examination
The military examination selected 190 candidates in the first stage, of whom 28 were allowed to pass the second stage.[22] Of these, 70 came from the capital and the remainder from the various provinces, with Gyeongsang contributing 30, Chungcheong and Jeolla contributing 25, and the remaining provinces 10 candidates each.[23]
The military examinations tested a mixture of military and literary criteria. The first stage of the test was a practical test of various military skills, but the second stage, in which the successful applicants were selected, was an oral examination of applicants' knowledge of the Confucian canon and certain classics of military thought.[24] The third stage, in which the candidates were ranked, was again based on practical military skills.
Miscellaneous examinations
The miscellaneous examinations, or japgwa, were divided into four parts: translation, medicine, natural science (astrology, geography, and ...), and recordkeeping (??). These examinations were overseen by the government office which employed specialists in the field. They were closely connected to the Sahak royal technical academies, which were overseen by the same offices.
In the case of translation, the languages tested were the four which the Joseon court maintained translators in: contemporary Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen/Manchu, and Japanese. This examination was overseen by the Office of Translators, which maintained translators in the capital and in the major border-ports and cities. At the first level, 45 candidates were accepted in spoken Chinese and 4 in each of the other languages; the second level selected 13 successful applicants in Chinese and 2 in each of the other languages.[25]
The medical examination selected 18 finalists, narrowed to 9 successful applicants in the second round. These were then given positions in the Bureau of Medicine, which sent some of them to the palace and others to each provincial division down to the hyeon level.[26]
Those who passed the japgwa were originally given a crimson certificate, the same color obtained by those who passed the literary examination. However, pressure from the yangban eventually changed this color to white, signifying a lower level of achievement and entitling the bearer to a position of lower rank.
Historical change
The gwageo were supplemented in the reign of Jungjong of Joseon (1506-1544), at the suggestion of the high official Jo Gwang-jo. The supplementary examination was called an "examination for the learned and the virtuous" (hyeollanggwa). This was an abbreviated examination, held in the presence of the king. The candidates had to be recommended by their local magistrate as men of the highest integrity.[27]
The gwageo system became increasingly corrupt in the later years of the Joseon Dynasty. Scholars who were unable to pass the examination began to form a class of disaffected yangban; notable among these was early 19th-century rebel leader Hong Gyeong-nae.[28] Many of the later Silhak scholars also turned away from state service.
The gwageo were finally abolished in the Gabo Reforms of 1894, along with legal class discrimination and the old rank system.[29] However, the tradition continues in the form of university entrance examinations and civil service examinations in modern-day South Korea.
See also
- Imperial examination
- Education in the Joseon Dynasty
- History of education
- List of Korea-related topics
Notes
- ↑ SNUERI, p. 108.
- ↑ SNUERI, pp. 63-64
- ↑ Lee (1984), pp. 104-105.
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 118; SNUERI, p.
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 129.
- ↑ SNUERI, p. 63
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 118
- ↑ SNUERI, p. 62
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 133.
- ↑ Byeon (1996), pp. 277-278.
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 219
- ↑ These translations are taken from Lee (1984), p. 181.
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 181.
- ↑ Byeon (1999), p. 278.
- ↑ SNUERI, p. 109.
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 180.
- ↑ These figures are given by SNUERI, but Byeon (1996, p. 278) says that the total number from the provinces was 700.
- ↑ SNUERI, p. 107
- ↑ SNUERI, loc. cit.
- ↑ SNUERI, p. 112.
- ↑ Lee (1984), p.
- ↑ SNUERI, p. 110. Byeon (1996, p. 279) gives 200 for the initial stage, but agrees with 28 for the second stage.
- ↑ SNUERI, loc. cit.
- ↑ SNUERI, p. 110-111.
- ↑ SNUEI, p. 111.
- ↑ SNUERI, p. 104
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 205.
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 254)
- ↑ Lee (1984), p. 291.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Lee, Ki-baik, A New History of Korea, 1984
- SNUERI (Seoul National University Educational Research Institute)|title=한국교육사
- De Bary, William Theodore, and JaHyun Kim Haboush. 1985. The Rise of Neo-Confucianism in Korea. Neo-Confucian studies. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231060523
- Song, June-Ho. 1969. The Korean government service examination rosters. Salt Lake City: Genealogical Society of Utah. OCLC: 41797058
- Sei Moon Sa. 1952. Ko Tun Ko Si Kuk Sa Moon Je Jip = = [Examination in Korean history for government employees]. Seoul, Korea: Sei Moon Co. OCLC: 12105076
- Yi, Hŭi-chʻŏn. 2000. Hanʼguksa. Sŏul Tʻŭkpyŏlsi: Sŏngminsa. 9788987421063
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