Difference between revisions of "Falcon" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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As is the case with many birds of prey, falcons are renowned for their exceptional powers of vision; one species has been found to have a visual acuity of 2.6 times that of a normal human (Fox et al. 1976).
 
As is the case with many birds of prey, falcons are renowned for their exceptional powers of vision; one species has been found to have a visual acuity of 2.6 times that of a normal human (Fox et al. 1976).
  
−
In February 2005, the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[scientist]] [[Dr Louis Lefebvre]] announced a method of measuring avian intelligence in terms of their innovation in feeding habits (Lefebvre 2005). The falcon and crow family scored highest on this scale.  
+
In February 2005, the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[scientist]] [[Louis Lefebvre]] announced a method of measuring avian intelligence in terms of their innovation in feeding habits (Lefebvre 2005). The falcon and crow family scored highest on this scale.  
−
 
 
  
 
==Systematics and evolution==
 
==Systematics and evolution==
−
Compared to other birds of prey, the [[fossil]] record of the falcons is not well distributed in time. The oldest fossils tentatively assigned to this genus are from the Late [[Miocene]], less than 10 million years ago. This coincides with a period in which many modern genera of birds became recognizable in the fossil record. The falcon lineage - probably of [[North America]]n or [[Africa]]n, possibly [[Middle East]]ern or [[Europe]]an origin given the distribution of fossil and living ''Falco'' [[taxa]] - is likely to be somewhat older however.
+
Compared to other birds of prey, the [[fossil]] record of the falcons is not well distributed in time. The oldest fossils tentatively assigned to this genus are from the Late [[Miocene]], less than 10 million years ago. This coincides with a period in which many modern genera of birds became recognizable in the fossil record. The falcon lineage—probably of [[North America]]n or [[Africa]]n, possibly [[Middle East]]ern or [[Europe]]an origin, given the distribution of fossil and living ''Falco'' [[taxa]]—is likely to be somewhat older, however.
  
−
Falcons are roughly divisible into three or four groups. The first contains the '''[[kestrel]]s''' (probably excepting the [[American Kestrel]]: Groombridge ''et al.'' 2002); usually small and stocky falcons of mainly brown upperside color and sometimes [[sexually dimorphic]]; three African species that are generally grey in color stand apart from the typical members of this group. Kestrels feed chiefly on [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]] [[vertebrate]]s and [[invertebrates]] of appropriate size, such as rodents, [[reptile]]s, or insects.
+
Falcons (genus ''Falco'') are roughly divisible into three or four groups. The first contains the '''[[kestrel]]s''', probably excepting the [[American kestrel]] (Groombridge et al. 2002). These are usually small and stocky falcons of mainly brown upperside color and sometimes [[sexually dimorphic]]. Three African species that are generally gray in color stand apart from the typical members of this group. Kestrels feed chiefly on [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]] [[vertebrate]]s and [[invertebrate]]s of appropriate size, such as rodents, [[reptile]]s, or insects.
  
−
The second group contains slightly larger (on average) and more elegant species, the '''[[Hobby (bird)|hobbies]]''' and relatives. These birds are characterized by considerable amounts of dark slaty grey in their plumage; the malar area is nearly always black. They feed mainly on smaller birds.
+
The second group contains slightly larger (on average) and more elegant species, the '''[[Hobby (bird)|hobbies]]''' and relatives. These birds are characterized by considerable amounts of dark slaty gray in their plumage; the malar area is nearly always black. They feed mainly on smaller birds.
  
−
Third are the '''Peregrine''' Falcon and its relatives: powerful birds, often the size of small [[hawk]]s, they also have a black malar area (except some very light color [[morph (zoology)|morph]]s), and often a black cap also. Otherwise, they are somewhat intermediate between the other groups, being chiefly medium grey with some lighter or brownish colours on the upper side. They are on average more delicately patterned than the hobbies and if the hierofalcons are excluded (see below), this group contains typically species with horizontal barring on the underside. As opposed to the other groups, where tail colour varies much in general but little according to [[evolution]]ary relatedness<ref>
+
Third are the peregrine falcon and its relatives. Powerful birds, often the size of small [[hawk]]s, they also have a black malar area (except some very light color [[morph (zoology)|morph]]s), and often a black cap also. Otherwise, they are somewhat intermediate between the other groups, being chiefly medium gray with some lighter or brownish colors on the upper side. They are on average more delicately patterned than the hobbies and if the hierofalcons are excluded (see below), this group contains typically species with horizontal barring on the underside. As opposed to the other groups, where tail color varies much in general but little according to [[evolution]]ary relatedness<ref>
−
For example, tail colour in the Common and Lesser Kestrels is absolutely identical, yet they do not seem too closely related (Groombridge ''et al.'' 2002). On the other hand, the [[Fox Kestrel|Fox]] and [[Greater Kestrel]]s can be told apart at first glance by their tail colours, but not by much else; they might be very close relatives and are probably much closer to each other than the Lesser and Common Kestrels.</ref>,
+
For example, tail color in the common and lesser kestrels is absolutely identical, yet they do not seem too closely related (Groombridge et al. 2002). On the other hand, the [[Fox Kestrel|fox]] and [[greater kestrel]]s can be told apart at first glance by their tail colors, but not by much else; they might be very close relatives and are probably much closer to each other than the lesser and common Kestrels.</ref>, the tails of the large falcons are quite uniformly dark gray with rather inconspicuous black banding and small white tips, though this is probably [[plesiomorph]]ic.  
−
the tails of the large falcons are quite uniformly dark grey with rather inconspicuous black banding and small white tips, though this is probably [[plesiomorph]]ic. These large ''Falco'' feed on mid-sized birds and terrestrial vertebrates, taking prey of up to 5-pound [[sage grouse]] size.
+
These large ''Falco'' feed on mid-sized birds and terrestrial vertebrates, taking prey of up to 5-pound [[sage grouse]] size.
  
−
Very similar to these and sometimes included therein are the 4 or so species of '''[[hierofalcon]]s''' (literally, "hawk-falcons"). They represent taxa with usually more [[phaeomelanin]]s which impart reddish or brown colors, and generally more strongly patterned plumage reminiscent of [[hawk]]s. Notably, their undersides have a legthwise pattern of blotches, lines or arrowhead marks.
+
Very similar to these and sometimes included therein are the 4 or so species of '''[[hierofalcon]]s''' (literally, "hawk-falcons"). They represent taxa with usually more [[phaeomelanin]]s, which impart reddish or brown colors, and generally more strongly patterned plumage reminiscent of [[hawk]]s. Notably, their undersides have a lengthwise pattern of blotches, lines, or arrowhead marks.
  
−
While these three or four groups, loosely circumscribed, are an informal arrangement, they are probably contain several distinct [[clade]]s in their entirety. A study of [[mtDNA]] [[cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']] [[DNA sequence|sequence]] data of some kestrels (Groombridge ''et al.'' 2002) identified a clade containing the Common Kestrel and related "[[malar]]-striped" species, to the exclusion of such taxa as the Greater Kestrel (which lacks a malar stripe), the Lesser Kestrel (which is very similar to the Common but also has no malar stripe), and the American Kestrel. The latter species has a malar stripe, but its color pattern - apart from the brownish back - and notably also the black feathers behind the ear, which never occur in the true kestrels, are more reminiscent of some hobbies. The malar-striped kestrels apparently split from their relatives in the [[Gelasian]], roughly 2.5-2 [[mya (unit)|mya]], and are apparently of tropical East African origin. The entire "true kestrel" group - excluding the American species - is probably a distinct and quite young clade, as also suggested by their numerous [[apomorph]]ies.
+
While these three or four groups, loosely circumscribed, are an informal arrangement, they probably contain several distinct [[clade]]s in their entirety. A study of [[mtDNA]] [[cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']] [[DNA sequence|sequence]] data of some kestrels (Groombridge et al. 2002) identified a clade containing the common kestrel and related "[[malar]]-striped" species, to the exclusion of such taxa as the greater kestrel (which lacks a malar stripe), the lesser kestrel (which is very similar to the common but also has no malar stripe), and the American kestrel. The latter species has a malar stripe, but its color pattern&mdash;apart from the brownish back&mdash;and notably also the black feathers behind the ear, which never occur in the true kestrels, are more reminiscent of some hobbies. The malar-striped kestrels apparently split from their relatives in the [[Gelasian]], roughly two and a half to two million years ago, and are apparently of tropical East African origin. The entire "true kestrel" group&mdash;excluding the American species&mdash;is probably a distinct and quite young clade, as also suggested by their numerous [[apomorph]]ies.
  
−
Other studies<ref>Helbig ''et al.'' (1994), Wink ''et al.'' (1998), Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2000), Wink ''et al.'' (2004), Nittinger ''et al.'' (2005)</ref> have confirmed that the hierofalcons are a [[monophyletic]] group - and, incidentially, that [[hybridization]] is quite frequent at least in the larger species falcon species. Initial studies of [[mtDNA]] [[cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']] sequence data suggested that the hierofalcons are [[basal (evolution)|basal]] among living falcons<ref>E.g. Helbig ''et al.'' (1994), Wink ''et al.'' (1998)</ref>. This is now known to be an erroneous result due to the presence of a [[numt]] (Wink & Sauer-Gürth 2000); in reality the hierofalcons are a rather young group, originating maybe at the same time as the start of the main kestrel radiaton, about 2 million years ago. This lineage seems to have gone nearly extinct at some point in the past; the present diversity is of very recent origin, though little is known about their fossil history (Nittinger ''et al.'' 2005).
+
Other studies (Helbig et al. 1994; Wink et al. 1998; Wink and Sauer-Gürth 2000; Wink et al. 2004; Nittinger et al. 2005) have confirmed that the hierofalcons are a [[monophyletic]] group&mdash;and, incidentally, that [[hybridization]] is quite frequent in at least in the larger falcon species. Initial studies of [[mtDNA]] [[cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']] sequence data suggested that the hierofalcons are [[basal (evolution)|basal]] among living falcons (eg., Helbig et al. 1994; Wink et al. 1998). This is now known to be an erroneous result due to the presence of a [[numt]] or nuclear mitochondrial DNA (Wink and Sauer-Gürth 2000); in reality the hierofalcons are a rather young group, originating maybe at the same time as the start of the main kestrel [[adaptive radiation|radiation]], about 2 million years ago. This lineage seems to have gone nearly extinct at some point in the past; the present diversity is of very recent origin, though little is known about their fossil history (Nittinger et al. 2005).
  
−
The phylogeny and delimitations of the Peregrine and hobbies groups is more problematic. Molecular studies have only been conducted on a few species, and namely the morphologically ambiguous taxa have often been little researched. The [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] of the [[syrinx]], which contributes well to resolving the overall [[phylogeny]] of the [[Falconidae]]<ref>See Griffiths (1999), Griffiths ''et al.'' (2004).</ref>, is not very informative in the present genus. Nonetheless, a core group containing the Peregrine and Barbary falcons which in turn group with the hierofalcons and the more distant Prairie Falcon (which was sometimes placed with the hierofalcons, even though it is entirely distinct [[biogeographical]]ly), as well as at least most of the "typical" hobbies, are confirmed to be [[monophyletic]] as suspected<ref>Helbig ''et al.'' (1994), Wink ''et al.'' (1998)</ref>.
+
The phylogeny and delimitations of the peregrine and hobbies groups are more problematic. Molecular studies have only been conducted on a few species, and namely the morphologically ambiguous taxa have often been little researched. The [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] of the [[syrinx]], which contributes well to resolving the overall [[phylogeny]] of the [[Falconidae]] (see Griffiths 1999; Griffiths et al. 2004) is not very informative in the present genus. Nonetheless, a core group containing the peregrine and barbary falcons, which in turn group with the hierofalcons and the more distant Prairie Falcon (which was sometimes placed with the hierofalcons, even though it is entirely distinct [[biogeographical]]ly), as well as at least most of the "typical" hobbies, are confirmed to be [[monophyletic]] as suspected (Helbig et al. 1994; Wink et al. 1998).
  
−
Given that the American ''Falco''s of today belong to the Peregrine group or are apparently more basal species, it seems that the initially most successful [[evolutionary radiation]] was an [[Holarctic]] one that originated possibly around central Eurasia or in (northern) Africa. One or several lineages were present in North America by the [[Early Pliocene]] at latest.
+
Given that the American ''Falco''s of today belong to the peregrine group or are apparently more basal species, it seems that the initially most successful evolutionary radiation was an [[Holarctic]] one that originated possibly around central Eurasia or in (northern) Africa. One or several lineages were present in North America by the [[Early Pliocene]] at latest.
  
−
In conclusion, the origin of today's major ''Falco'' groups - the "typical" hobbies and kestrels for example, or the Peregine-hierofalcon complex, or the Aplomado Falcon lineage - can be quite confidently placed from the [[Miocene]]-[[Pliocene]] boundary through the [[Zanclean]] and [[Piacenzian]] and just into the Gelasian, that is from about 8 to 2.4 million years ago, when the malar-striped kestrels diversified. Some groups of falcons, such as the hierofalcon complex or the Peregrine-Barbary superspecies have only evolved in more recent times; the species of the former seem to be a mere 120.000 years old or so (Nittinger ''et al.'' 2005).  
+
In conclusion, the origin of today's major ''Falco'' groups&mdash;the "typical" hobbies and kestrels for example, or the peregine-hierofalcon complex, or the aplomado falcon lineage&mdash;can be quite confidently placed from the [[Miocene]]-[[Pliocene]] boundary through the [[Zanclean]] and [[Piacenzian]] and just into the Gelasian; that is, from about 8 to 2.4 million years ago, when the malar-striped kestrels diversified. Some groups of falcons, such as the hierofalcon complex or the peregrine-barbary superspecies have only evolved in more recent times; the species of the former seem to be a mere 120.000 years old or so (Nittinger et al. 2005).  
 
[[Image:Common Kestrel 1.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Common Kestrel]]]]
 
[[Image:Common Kestrel 1.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Common Kestrel]]]]
 
[[Image:NZ Falcon 2006-01-14.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[New Zealand Falcon]], a relative of the hobbies]]
 
[[Image:NZ Falcon 2006-01-14.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[New Zealand Falcon]], a relative of the hobbies]]
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===Species===
 
===Species===
−
The sequence follows the taxonomic order of White ''et al.'' (1996), except for adjustments in the kestrel sequence.
+
The sequence follows the taxonomic order of White et al. (1996), except for adjustments in the kestrel sequence.
 
* [[Madagascar Kestrel]], ''Falco newtoni''
 
* [[Madagascar Kestrel]], ''Falco newtoni''
 
* [[Seychelles Kestrel]], ''Falco araea''
 
* [[Seychelles Kestrel]], ''Falco araea''
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* [[Taita Falcon]], ''Falco fasciinucha''
 
* [[Taita Falcon]], ''Falco fasciinucha''
  
−
===Fossil record===
 
−
*''?Falco medius'' (Late Miocene of Cherevichnyi, Ukraine)<ref>[[IZAN]] 45-4033: left [[carpometacarpus]]. Small species; possibly closer to kestrels than to peregrine lineage or hierofalcons, but may be more basal altogether due to its age.(Becker 1987, Mlíkovský 2002).</ref>
 
−
*''?Falco'' sp. (Late Miocene of Idaho)<ref>[[Idaho Museum of Natural History|IMNH]] 27937. A [[coracoid]] of a [[Merlin (bird)|Merlin]]-sized species. It seems not close to ''F. columbarius'' or the Recent North American species (Becker 1987).</ref>
 
−
*''Falco'' sp. (Early<ref>[[Fox Canyon Local Fauna]], 4.3–4.8 [[million years ago]]: see Martin ''et al.'' (2000).</ref> Pliocene of Kansas)<ref>[[UMMP]] V27159, V29107, V57508-V57510, V57513/V57514{{Verify source|date=August 2007}}: some limb bones. Slightly smaller than a [[Merlin (bird)|Merlin]] and more robust than [[American Kestrel]], and seems not too distant from ''F. columbarius''.(Feduccia 1970)</ref>
 
−
*''Falco'' sp. (Early Pliocene of Bulgaria - Early Pleistocene of Spain and Czechia)<ref>A [[hierofalcon]] (Mlíkovský 2002)? If so, probably not close to the living species but an earlier divergence that left no descendants; might be more than one species due to large range in time and/or include common ancestor of hierofalcons and Peregrine-Barbary complex (Nittinger ''et al.'' 2005).</ref>
 
−
*''Falco oregonus'' (Early/Middle Pliocene of Fossil Lake, Oregon) - possibly not distinct from a living species
 
−
*''Falco umanskajae'' (Late Pliocene of Kryzhanovka, Ukraine) - includes "Falco odessanus," a ''[[nomen nudum]]''<!--- not italicized —><ref>[[National Academy of Science of Ukraine|NNPM NAN]] 41-646. Almost complete left [[tarsometatarsus]]. Probably a prehistoric hobby, perhaps less specialized for bird hunting.(Sobolev 2003)</ref>
 
−
*''?Falco bakalovi'' (Late Pliocene of Varshets, Bulgaria)<ref>Status, especially distinctness from ''F. antiquus'', requires confirmation (Mlíkovský 2002).</ref>
 
−
*''Falco antiquus'' (Middle Pleistocene of Noailles, France and possibly Horvőlgy, Hungary)<ref>Supposedly a [[Saker Falcon]] [[paleosubspecies]] (Mlíkovský 2002), but this is not too likely due to the probable [[Eemian Interglacial|Eemian]] origin of that species (Nittinger ''et al.'' 2005).</ref><!-- Boreas, Vol. 32, pp. 521–531. —>
 
−
* [[Cuban Kestrel]], ''Falco kurochkini'' (Late Pleistocene/Holocene of Cuba, West Indies)
 
−
 
−
Several more paleosubspecies of extant species also been described; see species accounts for these.
 
−
 
−
''"Sushkinia" pliocaena'' from the Early Pliocene of Pavlodar (Kazakhstan) appears to be a falcon of some sort. It might belong into this genus or a closely related one (Becker 1987). In any case, the genus name ''[[Sushkinia]]'' is invalid for this animal because it had already been allocated to a prehistoric [[dragonfly]] relative.
 
−
 
−
The supposed ''"Falco" pisanus'' was actually a pigeon of the genus ''[[Columba (genus)|Columba]]'', possibly the same as ''Columba omnisanctorum'' which in that case would adopt the older species name of the "falcon" (Mlíkovský 2002). The [[Eocene]] fossil ''"Falco" falconellus'' (or ''"F." falconella'') from Wyoming is a bird of uncertain affiliations, maybe a falconid, maybe not; it certainly does not belong into this genus. ''"Falco" readei'' is now considered a [[paleosubspecies]] of the [[Yellow-headed Caracara]] ''(Milvago chimachima)''.
 
  
 
==Footnotes==
 
==Footnotes==
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* {{aut|Wink, Michael; Sauer-Gürth, Hedi; Ellis, David & Kenward, Robert}} (2004): Phylogenetic relationships in the Hierofalco complex (Saker-, Gyr-, Lanner-, Laggar Falcon). ''In:'' {{aut|Chancellor, R.D. & Meyburg, B.-U. (eds.)}}: ''Raptors Worldwide'': 499-504. WWGBP, Berlin. [http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/2004/27.2004.pdf PDF fulltext]
 
* {{aut|Wink, Michael; Sauer-Gürth, Hedi; Ellis, David & Kenward, Robert}} (2004): Phylogenetic relationships in the Hierofalco complex (Saker-, Gyr-, Lanner-, Laggar Falcon). ''In:'' {{aut|Chancellor, R.D. & Meyburg, B.-U. (eds.)}}: ''Raptors Worldwide'': 499-504. WWGBP, Berlin. [http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/2004/27.2004.pdf PDF fulltext]
  
−
==External links==
 
−
{{commons|Falcon}}
 
−
{{Wiktionary}}
 
−
*[http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/familia.phtml?idFamilia=32 Falconidae videos] on the Internet Bird Collection
 
−
*[http://www.raptorresource.org The Raptor Resource Project] Peregrine, owl, eagle and osprey cams, facts, and other resources.
 
−
*[http://www.billyformayor.com/falcon.mp3] Recording of a Falcon mating call.
 
  
 
[[Category:Life sciences]]
 
[[Category:Life sciences]]

Revision as of 21:22, 6 December 2007


Falcons
Mauritius Kestrel, Falco punctatus. This small falcon was nearly extinct in 1974.
Mauritius Kestrel, Falco punctatus.
This small falcon was nearly extinct in 1974.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Falconiformes
Family: Falconidae
Genus: Falco
Linnaeus, 1758
Species

About 37; see text.

Falcon is the common name for birds of prey comprising the genus Falco in the family Falconidae, characterized by a short curved beak, and thin, long, tapered and powerful wings adapted for swift flight. The term falcon also is applied to all members of Falconidae, the falcon family.

Although the members of the genus Falco are known as the "true falcons," there are other genera in Falconidae whose members include the common name of falcon or falconets. These include the forest falcons (genus Micrastur), the laughing falcon (genus Herpetotheres), the pygmy-falcons (genus Polihierax), the spot-winged falconet (genus Spiziapteryx), and the typical falconets (genus Microhierax).

The technique of hunting with trained captive birds of prey is known as falconry.

Description

Most members of the genus Falco show a tooth on the upper mandible

The falcon family Falconidae includes about 60 species of diurnal birds of prey, notably the falcons and caracaras. They differ from other Falconiformes in killing with their beaks instead of their feet. They have a "tooth" on the side of their beak for the purpose.

Adult falcons have thin tapered wings, which enable them to fly at high speed and to change direction rapidly. Peregrine falcons are the fastest-moving creatures on Earth. Fledgling falcons, in their first year of flying, have longer flight feathers, which makes their configuration more like that of a general-purpose bird such as a broadwing. This makes it easier for them to fly while learning the exceptional skills required to be effective hunters in their adult configuration.

Sickle
leftA traditional wooden scythe

The word falcon comes from their Latin name falco, related to Latin falx ("sickle") because of the shape of these birds' wings. Technically a falcon's wings are shaped more like a scythe than a sickle. Common misconceptions of the difference of a scythe and sickle are the cause of the misconception of the shape of the falcons wings.

The traditional term for a male falcon is tercel (British English) or tiercel (American English), from Latin tertius, meaning "third," because of the belief that only one in three eggs hatched a male bird or the third egg of a clutch (COED 2007). Some sources give the etymology as deriving from the fact that a male falcon is approximately one third smaller than the female. A falcon chick that is still in its downy stage, especially one reared for falconry, is known as an eyas(FD 2007), sometimes spelled eyass. Some small insectivorous falcons with long narrow wings are called hobbies, and some that hover while hunting for small rodents are called kestrels.

As is the case with many birds of prey, falcons are renowned for their exceptional powers of vision; one species has been found to have a visual acuity of 2.6 times that of a normal human (Fox et al. 1976).

In February 2005, the Canadian scientist Louis Lefebvre announced a method of measuring avian intelligence in terms of their innovation in feeding habits (Lefebvre 2005). The falcon and crow family scored highest on this scale.

Systematics and evolution

Compared to other birds of prey, the fossil record of the falcons is not well distributed in time. The oldest fossils tentatively assigned to this genus are from the Late Miocene, less than 10 million years ago. This coincides with a period in which many modern genera of birds became recognizable in the fossil record. The falcon lineage—probably of North American or African, possibly Middle Eastern or European origin, given the distribution of fossil and living Falco taxa—is likely to be somewhat older, however.

Falcons (genus Falco) are roughly divisible into three or four groups. The first contains the kestrels, probably excepting the American kestrel (Groombridge et al. 2002). These are usually small and stocky falcons of mainly brown upperside color and sometimes sexually dimorphic. Three African species that are generally gray in color stand apart from the typical members of this group. Kestrels feed chiefly on terrestrial vertebrates and invertebrates of appropriate size, such as rodents, reptiles, or insects.

The second group contains slightly larger (on average) and more elegant species, the hobbies and relatives. These birds are characterized by considerable amounts of dark slaty gray in their plumage; the malar area is nearly always black. They feed mainly on smaller birds.

Third are the peregrine falcon and its relatives. Powerful birds, often the size of small hawks, they also have a black malar area (except some very light color morphs), and often a black cap also. Otherwise, they are somewhat intermediate between the other groups, being chiefly medium gray with some lighter or brownish colors on the upper side. They are on average more delicately patterned than the hobbies and if the hierofalcons are excluded (see below), this group contains typically species with horizontal barring on the underside. As opposed to the other groups, where tail color varies much in general but little according to evolutionary relatedness[1], the tails of the large falcons are quite uniformly dark gray with rather inconspicuous black banding and small white tips, though this is probably plesiomorphic. These large Falco feed on mid-sized birds and terrestrial vertebrates, taking prey of up to 5-pound sage grouse size.

Very similar to these and sometimes included therein are the 4 or so species of hierofalcons (literally, "hawk-falcons"). They represent taxa with usually more phaeomelanins, which impart reddish or brown colors, and generally more strongly patterned plumage reminiscent of hawks. Notably, their undersides have a lengthwise pattern of blotches, lines, or arrowhead marks.

While these three or four groups, loosely circumscribed, are an informal arrangement, they probably contain several distinct clades in their entirety. A study of mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data of some kestrels (Groombridge et al. 2002) identified a clade containing the common kestrel and related "malar-striped" species, to the exclusion of such taxa as the greater kestrel (which lacks a malar stripe), the lesser kestrel (which is very similar to the common but also has no malar stripe), and the American kestrel. The latter species has a malar stripe, but its color pattern—apart from the brownish back—and notably also the black feathers behind the ear, which never occur in the true kestrels, are more reminiscent of some hobbies. The malar-striped kestrels apparently split from their relatives in the Gelasian, roughly two and a half to two million years ago, and are apparently of tropical East African origin. The entire "true kestrel" group—excluding the American species—is probably a distinct and quite young clade, as also suggested by their numerous apomorphies.

Other studies (Helbig et al. 1994; Wink et al. 1998; Wink and Sauer-Gürth 2000; Wink et al. 2004; Nittinger et al. 2005) have confirmed that the hierofalcons are a monophyletic group—and, incidentally, that hybridization is quite frequent in at least in the larger falcon species. Initial studies of mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data suggested that the hierofalcons are basal among living falcons (eg., Helbig et al. 1994; Wink et al. 1998). This is now known to be an erroneous result due to the presence of a numt or nuclear mitochondrial DNA (Wink and Sauer-Gürth 2000); in reality the hierofalcons are a rather young group, originating maybe at the same time as the start of the main kestrel radiation, about 2 million years ago. This lineage seems to have gone nearly extinct at some point in the past; the present diversity is of very recent origin, though little is known about their fossil history (Nittinger et al. 2005).

The phylogeny and delimitations of the peregrine and hobbies groups are more problematic. Molecular studies have only been conducted on a few species, and namely the morphologically ambiguous taxa have often been little researched. The morphology of the syrinx, which contributes well to resolving the overall phylogeny of the Falconidae (see Griffiths 1999; Griffiths et al. 2004) is not very informative in the present genus. Nonetheless, a core group containing the peregrine and barbary falcons, which in turn group with the hierofalcons and the more distant Prairie Falcon (which was sometimes placed with the hierofalcons, even though it is entirely distinct biogeographically), as well as at least most of the "typical" hobbies, are confirmed to be monophyletic as suspected (Helbig et al. 1994; Wink et al. 1998).

Given that the American Falcos of today belong to the peregrine group or are apparently more basal species, it seems that the initially most successful evolutionary radiation was an Holarctic one that originated possibly around central Eurasia or in (northern) Africa. One or several lineages were present in North America by the Early Pliocene at latest.

In conclusion, the origin of today's major Falco groups—the "typical" hobbies and kestrels for example, or the peregine-hierofalcon complex, or the aplomado falcon lineage—can be quite confidently placed from the Miocene-Pliocene boundary through the Zanclean and Piacenzian and just into the Gelasian; that is, from about 8 to 2.4 million years ago, when the malar-striped kestrels diversified. Some groups of falcons, such as the hierofalcon complex or the peregrine-barbary superspecies have only evolved in more recent times; the species of the former seem to be a mere 120.000 years old or so (Nittinger et al. 2005).

Common Kestrel
New Zealand Falcon, a relative of the hobbies
Saker Falcon, a typical hierofalcon
File:Peregrine falcon x.jpg
Peregrine Falcon

Species

The sequence follows the taxonomic order of White et al. (1996), except for adjustments in the kestrel sequence.

  • Madagascar Kestrel, Falco newtoni
  • Seychelles Kestrel, Falco araea
  • Mauritius Kestrel, Falco punctatus
  • Réunion Kestrel, Falco duboisi - extinct (c.1700)
  • Spotted Kestrel, Falco moluccensis
  • Nankeen Kestrel or Australian Kestrel, Falco cenchroides
  • Common Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus
    • Rock Kestrel, Falco (tinnunculus) rupicolus
  • Greater Kestrel, Falco rupicoloides
  • Fox Kestrel, Falco alopex
  • Lesser Kestrel, Falco naumanni
  • Grey Kestrel, Falco ardosiaceus
  • Dickinson's Kestrel, Falco dickinsoni
  • Banded Kestrel, Falco zoniventris
  • Red-necked Falcon, Falco chicquera
    • African Red-necked Falcon, Falco (chicquera) ruficollis
  • Red-footed Falcon, Falco vespertinus
  • Amur Falcon, Falco amurensis
  • Eleonora's Falcon, Falco eleonorae
  • Sooty Falcon, Falco concolor
  • American Kestrel or "Sparrow Hawk," Falco sparverius
  • Aplomado Falcon, Falco femoralis
  • (American) Merlin or "Pigeon Hawk," Falco columbarius
    • Eurasian Merlin, Falco (columbarius) aesalon
  • Bat Falcon, Falco rufigularis
  • Orange-breasted Falcon, Falco deiroleucus
  • Eurasian Hobby, Falco subbuteo
  • African Hobby, Falco cuvierii
  • Oriental Hobby, Falco severus
  • Australian Hobby, Falco longipennis
  • New Zealand Falcon, Falco novaeseelandiae
  • Brown Falcon, Falco berigora
  • Grey Falcon, Falco hypoleucos
  • Black Falcon, Falco subniger
  • Lanner Falcon, Falco biarmicus
  • Laggar Falcon, Falco jugger
  • Saker Falcon, Falco cherrug
  • Gyrfalcon, Falco rusticolus
  • Prairie Falcon, Falco mexicanus
  • Peregrine Falcon or "Duck Hawk," Falco peregrinus
    • Peale's Falcon, Falco peregrinus pealei
    • Pallid Falcon, Falco peregrinus cassini var. kreyenborgi
    • Barbary Falcon, Falco (peregrinus) pelegrinoides
  • Taita Falcon, Falco fasciinucha


Footnotes

  1. ↑ For example, tail color in the common and lesser kestrels is absolutely identical, yet they do not seem too closely related (Groombridge et al. 2002). On the other hand, the fox and greater kestrels can be told apart at first glance by their tail colors, but not by much else; they might be very close relatives and are probably much closer to each other than the lesser and common Kestrels.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Compact Oxford English Dictiorary (COED). 2007. [1] AskOxford.com Oxford University Press.

. [1]


Free Dictionary (FD). 2007. [2][]

[2]. Public release date: 21-Feb-2005 [ Print Article | E-mail Article | Close Window ]

Contact: Dr. Louis Lefebvre Louis.lefebvre@mcgill.ca 514- 398-6457 Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Bird IQ test takes flight

All links retrieved on October 4, 2007

  • Becker, Jonathan J. (1987): Revision of "Falco" ramenta Wetmore and the Neogene evolution of the Falconidae. Auk 104(2): 270-276. PDF fulltext
  • Feduccia, J. Alan (1970): Some birds of prey from the Upper Pliocene of Kansas. Auk 87(4): 795-797. PDF fulltext
  • Griffiths, Carole S. (1999): Phylogeny of the Falconidae inferred from molecular and morphological data. Auk 116(1): 116–130. PDF fulltext
  • Griffiths, Carole S.; Barrowclough, George F.; Groth, Jeff G. & Mertz, Lisa (2004): Phylogeny of the Falconidae (Aves): a comparison of the efficacy of morphological, mitochondrial, and nuclear data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 32(1): 101–109. Digital object identifier (DOI): 10.1016/j.ympev.2003.11.019 (HTML abstract)
  • Groombridge, Jim J.; Jones, Carl G.; Bayes, Michelle K.; van Zyl, Anthony J.; Carrillo, José; Nichols, Richard A. & Bruford, Michael W. (2002): A molecular phylogeny of African kestrels with reference to divergence across the Indian Ocean. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 25(2): 267–277. DOI:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00254-3 (HTML abstract)
  • Helbig, A.J.; Seibold, I.; Bednarek, W.; Brüning, H.; Gaucher, P.; Ristow, D.; Scharlau, W.; Schmidl, D. & Wink, Michael (1994): Phylogenetic relationships among falcon species (genus Falco) according to DNA sequence variation of the cytochrome b gene. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, R.D. (eds.): Raptor conservation today: 593-599. PDF fulltext
  • Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002): Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe. Ninox Press, Prague. ISBN 80-901105-3-8 PDF fulltext
  • Nittinger, F.; Haring, E.; Pinsker, W.; Wink, Michael & Gamauf, A. (2005): Out of Africa? Phylogenetic relationships between Falco biarmicus and other hierofalcons (Aves Falconidae). Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 43(4): 321-331. Digital object identifier (DOI): 10.1111/j.1439-0469.2005.00326.x PDF fulltext
  • Sobolev, D.V. (2003): Новый вид плиоценового сокола (Falconiformes, Falconidae) [A new species of Pliocene falcon (Falconiformes, Falconidae)] Vestnik zoologii 37(6): 85–87. [Russian with English abstract] PDF fulltext
  • Wink, Michael & Sauer-Gürth, Hedi (2000): Advances in the molecular systematics of African raptors. In: Chancellor, R.D. & Meyburg, B.-U. (eds): Raptors at Risk: 135-147. WWGBP/Hancock House, Berlin/Blaine. PDF fulltext
  • Wink, Michael; Seibold, I.; Lotfikhah, F. & Bednarek, W. (1998): Molecular systematics of holarctic raptors (Order Falconiformes). In: Chancellor, R.D., Meyburg, B.-U. & Ferrero, J.J. (eds.): Holarctic Birds of Prey: 29-48. Adenex & WWGBP. PDF fulltext
  • Wink, Michael; Sauer-Gürth, Hedi; Ellis, David & Kenward, Robert (2004): Phylogenetic relationships in the Hierofalco complex (Saker-, Gyr-, Lanner-, Laggar Falcon). In: Chancellor, R.D. & Meyburg, B.-U. (eds.): Raptors Worldwide: 499-504. WWGBP, Berlin. PDF fulltext

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  1. ↑ [3] Science 16 April 1976: Science, Vol 192, Issue 4236, 263-265 Copyright © 1976 by American Association for the Advancement of Science articles Falcon visual acuity R Fox, SW Lehmkuhle, and DH Westendorf + Vol. 192. no. 4236, pp. 263 - 265 + DOI: 10.1126/science.1257767
  2. ↑ [4] AAAS Annual Meeting, 2005.
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