Difference between revisions of "Courage" - New World Encyclopedia

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:''For other uses, see [[Courage (disambiguation)]].''
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[[Image:Fortitude.jpg|thumb|right|Fortitudo, by [[Sandro Botticelli]]]]
 
  
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'''Courage''', also known as ''fortitude'', is the ability to confront  [[fear]], [[Pain and nociception|pain]], [[danger]], [[uncertainty]] or [[intimidation]].  It can be divided into "physical courage" — in face of physical pain, hardship, and threat of death — and "moral courage" — in the face of [[shame]], scandal, and discouragement.
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[[Image:Fortitude.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Fortitudo, by [[Sandro Botticelli]]]]
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In the discussions of [[ethics]], '''courage''' is considered to be a moral [[virtue]]. In the history of [[philosophy]], the concept of courage as a moral virtue originates primarily from the virtue ethics of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]. Medieval philosophers, who drew upon the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, integrated courage into their [[theism|theistic]] contexts and conceived it as one of the cardinal virtues (courage or fortitude; wisdom or prudence; temperance; and justice).
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[[Existentialism|Existentialists]] in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries approached courage in relation to man’s attempt to restore his authentic existence. Courage is also popularly recognized and discussed as an important virtue in various aspects of social life.
  
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==Definitions==
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==Plato==
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As a [[virtue]], courage is covered extensively in [[Aristotle]]'s [[Nicomachean Ethics]], its vice of deficiency being [[cowardice]], and its vice of excess being [[recklessness (psychology)|recklessness]].
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In the ''Republic'', [[Plato]] discusses courage in relation to his three parts of the [[soul]] (reason, spiritedness, and appetite). He defines courage as the virtue of the spirited part. Plato also divides his ideal polis into three parts—the moneymakers, the auxiliaries, and the rulers. The virtue of the auxiliaries (whose job is to protect the city) is also courage. Courage is the virtue, then, which controls the appetites (in an individual) or the greed of the moneymakers (in the city). Or, in other words, courage is what allows reason to rule, both in the individual and in society.
  
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It is well understood that physical and moral courage matters in the military, and there are ample illustrations of courage in religion, sometimes to the point of [[martyrdom]].
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==Aristotle==
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[[Aristotle]] provides a more detailed account of the virtues and courage in his ''Nicomachean Ethics''. For Aristotle, a moral [[virtue]] or ''arête'' is a quality or state of excellence in the human soul that leads to good actions and the ultimate fulfillment of the human life, namely, happiness or ''[[Eudaimonism|eudaimonia]]''. This quality of virtue is not a mechanistic instinct or impulse to act in a certain manner; nor is it a pietistic obedience to fixed rules or moral laws. Rather it is the building of a solid and stable disposition within the [[human being]]. Such a disposition is acquired over time through practice and the conscious cultivation of good habits. Ultimately the acquisition of the many virtues leads to a strong and healthy character.  
  
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Courage is one of the Four [[Cardinal Virtues]] of the Catholic Church. "Cardinal" meaning "pivotal" is applied to this virtue because to possess any virtue, a person must be able to sustain it in the face of difficulty.
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In examining specific virtues, such as courage, Aristotle defined them as a “mean” between two extremes. Courage, for example, lies between the vices of cowardliness and rashness. Whereas the coward, when faced with danger, flees, the rash person rushes out headlong into the danger without thoughtful deliberation regarding the best course of action.  
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<blockquote>”Courage is a mean with regard to fear and confidence.” (Aristotle, ''Nicomachean Ethics'' 3.6)</blockquote>
  
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The precise view of what constitutes courage not only varies among [[culture]]s, but among individuals. For instance, some define courage as lacking fear in a situation that would normally generate it. Others, in contrast, hold that courage requires one to ''have'' fear and then overcome it.
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Aristotle links the moral virtues to the intellectual virtue of prudence or practical wisdom, because the fulfillment of the moral action requires the ability to read each specific situation accordingly. The soldier who exemplifies courage, then, is not merely willing to risk his life by rushing forward in battle. Rather he must be sufficiently composed, despite the danger, to choose the appropriate action in light of the circumstances. The virtue of courage, then, is that disposition which allows the soldier to think wisely in the face of danger. Whereas the cowardly or rash soldier will react blindly by either fleeing the danger or rushing toward it, the brave person will remain sufficiently composed so as to perform the courageous act.
  
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There are also more subtle distinctions in the definition of courage. For example, some distinguish between courage and foolhardiness in that a courageous person overcomes a justifiable fear for an even more noble purpose. If the fear is not justifiable or the purpose not noble, then the courage is either false, or foolhardy.
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Also, Aristotle points out that an action is virtuous only if the cause is a noble or worthy one. A mercenary, for instance, is not courageous because his motive for fighting is not the good of the homeland or the welfare of his fellow countrymen; rather, his motivation is for money. So although the mercenary may show a certain strength and clear-sightedness in the heat of the battle, his actions are not courageous. Only the soldier willing to sacrifice his life for the noble cause is courageous.
  
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==Moral courage==
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==Others==
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Moral courage, more than physical courage, is widely debated.  It is frequently regarded as courage in following one's own [[ethics]] which may result in the individual feeling isolated from colleagues, or even family.
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The [[medieval]] schoolman took over [[Aristotle]]’s depiction of courage and the classical view that it is one of the four “cardinal” [[virtue]]s (along with [[wisdom]] or [[prudence]], [[temperance]], and [[justice]]). A cardinal virtue is considered “pivotal” in that the other virtues are more or less derivative from them. Courage, then, is linked to fortitude in being able to hold one’s ground or stand up for one’s convictions regardless of circumstance.  
  
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==Civil courage==
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In modern times courage has been approached in a variety of ways, depending upon the specific ethical system or approach. In [[existentialism]], for example, courage is often connected to the notion of [[authenticity]] in which an individual takes responsibility for the meaning and direction of one’s life and so courageously accepts the existential [[dread|anxiety]] of freedom and choice.
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Civil courage (sometimes also referred to as 'Social courage') is defined by many different standards, but the term is usually referred to when civilians stand up against something that is deemed unjust and [[evil]], knowing that the consequences of their action might lead to their death, injury, or any other negative effect.
 
  
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In many countries, such as [[France]] and [[Germany]], civil courage is enforced by law; this means that if a crime is committed in public, the public is obliged to act, either by alerting the authorities, or by intervening in the conflict. If the crime is committed in a private environment, those that witness the crime are either to report it, or try to stop it.
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==References==
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* Aristotle. ''The Nicomachean Ethics''. Translated by J. A. K. Thomson. New York: Penguin, 1986. ISBN 0140440550
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* Bennett, William J. ''The Book of Virtues: A Treasury of Great Moral Stories.'' New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. ISBN 0671683063
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* Kidder, Rushworth M. ''Moral Courage''. New York: W. Morrow, 2005. ISBN 0060591544 ISBN
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* Plato. ''Republic''. Translated by G. M. A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1992. ISBN 0872201368
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* Tillich, Paul. ''The Courage to Be.'' The Terry lectures. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952.  
  
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===Bystander effect===
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==External links==
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{{main|Bystander effect}}
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All links retrieved January 10, 2024.
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The death of [[Kitty Genovese]] in 1964, Queens, New York, is often cited as a classic example of civil-courage failure. It is said that during a half-hour long attack, Kitty Genovese was raped and murdered in full view of thirty-eight witnesses, while none interfered. (Accounts differ, though;  none of the witnesses claims to have witnessed the entire attack, many claim that they were not aware that Genovese was in danger, and some shouted at the attacker and called authorities.)
 
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Criminologists argue that such passivity is a result of "big-city life," cultural emphasis on individualism, or a common expectation that "someone else" will intervene. Others believe that simple cowardice is another explanation of passivity.
 
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==Symbolism==
 
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Its accompanying animal is the [[lion]]. Often, Fortitude is depicted as having tamed the ferocious lion. Cf. e.g. the [[Tarot]] trump called [[Strength (Tarot card)|Strength]]. It is sometimes seen as a depiction of the Catholic Church's triumph over sin. It also is a symbol in some cultures as a savior of the people who live in a community with sin and a corrupt church or religious body.
 
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==See also==
 
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{{wikiquote}}
 
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* [[Virtue]]
 
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* [[Bushido]], the Japanese warrior code
 
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* [[Chivalry]] and [[knightly virtues]]
 
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==Notes==
 
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<references />
 
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==References and further reading==
 
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*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06147a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' "Fortitude"]
 
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*[http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3.htm ''Summa Theologica'' "Second Part of the Second Part"]  See Questions 123-140
 
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*[http://courage.beagooddoctor.org "The Courage Project"]
 
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[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
 
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[[Category:Virtues]]
 
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[[Category:Warrior code]]
 
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[[de:Tapferkeit]]
 
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[[es:Valor]]
 
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[[fr:Courage]]
 
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[[it:Coraggio]]
 
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[[he:אומץ]]
 
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[[nl:Moed]]
 
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[[pl:Kuraż]]
 
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[[pt:Valor]]
 
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[[sv:Mod]]
 
  
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*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entries:
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**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-ethics-shorter/ Plato's Shorter Ethical Works]
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**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ancient/ Ancient Ethical Theory]
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**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-ethics/ Plato's Ethics: An Overview]
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**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/ Moral Character]
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**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/ Virtue Ethics]
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**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle's Ethics]
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*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03343a.htm Cardinal Virtues] The Catholic Encyclopedia.
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===General Philosophy Sources===
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*[http://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
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*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/ The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
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*[http://www.bu.edu/wcp/PaidArch.html Paideia Project Online]
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*[http://www.gutenberg.org/ Project Gutenberg]
  
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[[category:Philosophy and religion]]
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[[Category:philosophy]]
  
 
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{{credit|98802553}}

Latest revision as of 08:44, 10 January 2024


Fortitudo, by Sandro Botticelli

In the discussions of ethics, courage is considered to be a moral virtue. In the history of philosophy, the concept of courage as a moral virtue originates primarily from the virtue ethics of Plato and Aristotle. Medieval philosophers, who drew upon the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, integrated courage into their theistic contexts and conceived it as one of the cardinal virtues (courage or fortitude; wisdom or prudence; temperance; and justice).

Existentialists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries approached courage in relation to man’s attempt to restore his authentic existence. Courage is also popularly recognized and discussed as an important virtue in various aspects of social life.

Plato

In the Republic, Plato discusses courage in relation to his three parts of the soul (reason, spiritedness, and appetite). He defines courage as the virtue of the spirited part. Plato also divides his ideal polis into three parts—the moneymakers, the auxiliaries, and the rulers. The virtue of the auxiliaries (whose job is to protect the city) is also courage. Courage is the virtue, then, which controls the appetites (in an individual) or the greed of the moneymakers (in the city). Or, in other words, courage is what allows reason to rule, both in the individual and in society.

Aristotle

Aristotle provides a more detailed account of the virtues and courage in his Nicomachean Ethics. For Aristotle, a moral virtue or arête is a quality or state of excellence in the human soul that leads to good actions and the ultimate fulfillment of the human life, namely, happiness or eudaimonia. This quality of virtue is not a mechanistic instinct or impulse to act in a certain manner; nor is it a pietistic obedience to fixed rules or moral laws. Rather it is the building of a solid and stable disposition within the human being. Such a disposition is acquired over time through practice and the conscious cultivation of good habits. Ultimately the acquisition of the many virtues leads to a strong and healthy character.

In examining specific virtues, such as courage, Aristotle defined them as a “mean” between two extremes. Courage, for example, lies between the vices of cowardliness and rashness. Whereas the coward, when faced with danger, flees, the rash person rushes out headlong into the danger without thoughtful deliberation regarding the best course of action.

”Courage is a mean with regard to fear and confidence.” (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 3.6)

Aristotle links the moral virtues to the intellectual virtue of prudence or practical wisdom, because the fulfillment of the moral action requires the ability to read each specific situation accordingly. The soldier who exemplifies courage, then, is not merely willing to risk his life by rushing forward in battle. Rather he must be sufficiently composed, despite the danger, to choose the appropriate action in light of the circumstances. The virtue of courage, then, is that disposition which allows the soldier to think wisely in the face of danger. Whereas the cowardly or rash soldier will react blindly by either fleeing the danger or rushing toward it, the brave person will remain sufficiently composed so as to perform the courageous act.

Also, Aristotle points out that an action is virtuous only if the cause is a noble or worthy one. A mercenary, for instance, is not courageous because his motive for fighting is not the good of the homeland or the welfare of his fellow countrymen; rather, his motivation is for money. So although the mercenary may show a certain strength and clear-sightedness in the heat of the battle, his actions are not courageous. Only the soldier willing to sacrifice his life for the noble cause is courageous.

Others

The medieval schoolman took over Aristotle’s depiction of courage and the classical view that it is one of the four “cardinal” virtues (along with wisdom or prudence, temperance, and justice). A cardinal virtue is considered “pivotal” in that the other virtues are more or less derivative from them. Courage, then, is linked to fortitude in being able to hold one’s ground or stand up for one’s convictions regardless of circumstance.

In modern times courage has been approached in a variety of ways, depending upon the specific ethical system or approach. In existentialism, for example, courage is often connected to the notion of authenticity in which an individual takes responsibility for the meaning and direction of one’s life and so courageously accepts the existential anxiety of freedom and choice.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Aristotle. The Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by J. A. K. Thomson. New York: Penguin, 1986. ISBN 0140440550
  • Bennett, William J. The Book of Virtues: A Treasury of Great Moral Stories. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. ISBN 0671683063
  • Kidder, Rushworth M. Moral Courage. New York: W. Morrow, 2005. ISBN 0060591544 ISBN
  • Plato. Republic. Translated by G. M. A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1992. ISBN 0872201368
  • Tillich, Paul. The Courage to Be. The Terry lectures. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952.

External links

All links retrieved January 10, 2024.

General Philosophy Sources

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