Anti-clericalism
Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes religious (generally Catholic) institutional power and influence, real or imagined, in all aspects of public and political life, and the involvement of religion in the everyday life of the citizen. It suggests a more active and partisan role than mere laïcité, which is the concept of a secular state, that is, the absence of religious interference in government affairs and government interference in religious affairs. The goal of anti-clericalism is to reduce religion to a purely private belief-system with no public profile or influence. At times, its goals have included competed eradication of faith or particular faiths. Anti-clericalism has at times been violent, leading to attacks and seizure of church property.
Anti-clericalism in one form or another has existed through most of Christian history, and is considered to be one of the major popular forces underlying the sixteenth-century Reformation. Some philosophers of the Enlightenment, including Voltaire, attacked the Catholic Church, its leadership and priests claiming moral corruption of many of its clergy. These assaults led, in part, to the suppression of the Jesuits, and played a major part in the wholesale attacks on the very existence of the Church during the French Revolution. With the reaction against the excesses of the Revolution, especially after 1815, the Catholic church began to play a more welcome role in official European life once more, and nation by nation the Jesuits made their way back.
France
Anti-clericalism is particularly discussed in the context of the French Third Republic and its dissensions with the Roman Catholic Church. Prior to the 1905 French law on the separation of Church and State, the Catholic Church enjoyed preferential treatment from the French State (along with the Jewish, Lutheran and Calvinist minority religions). During the nineteenth century, priests were employed as teachers in public schools, and religion was taught in schools (teachers were also obliged to lead the class to Mass). But during the 1880s, Jules Ferry, Minister of Education, then President of the Council, began to expel religious figures from public schools (expelling 5000 on November 29, 1880). Then, in 1881-1882, his government passed the Jules Ferry laws, establishing free education (1881) and mandatory and lay education (1882), giving the basis of French public education. These laws were a crucial step in the grounding of the Third Republic (1871-1940), dominated until the May 16, 1877 crisis by the Catholic Legitimists whom dreamed of a return to the Ancien Régime.
The implementation of the 1905 law on secularism was enacted by strength and vigor by the government of Radical-Socialist Émile Combes, meeting violent protestation by the clergy. Most Catholic schools and educational foundations were closed, except in Alsace-Lorraine which belonged at that time to Germany — and which continues to retain today a derogatory status because of its specific history — and many religious orders were dissolved.
In the Affaire Des Fiches (1904-1905), it was discovered that the militantly anticlerical War Minister under Emile Combes, General Louis André, was determining promotions based on the French Masonic Grand Orient's huge card index on public officials, detailing which were Catholic and who attended Mass, with a view to preventing their promotions.
Republican's anti-clericalism softened after the First World War, as the Catholic right-wing began to accept secularism. However, the theme of private schools in France, which are often Catholics, and which professors are paid by the state, remains a sensitive issue in French politics. Anti-clericalism still is present, however, in a large part of the French left-wing, as shown for example by the publication by Charlie Hebdo in February 2006 of the 12 cartoons, and some others, of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy in support of freedom of expression. They have been sued by the UOIF (Union of Islamic Organizations of France) and the Great Mosque of Paris, both members of the controversial CFCM (French Council of the Muslim Faith).
Italy
Anti-clericalism in Italy is connected with reaction against the absolutism of the Papal States, overthrown in 1870. For a long time, the Pope required Catholics not to participate in the public life of the Kingdom of Italy that had invaded the Papal States to complete the unification of Italy, leaving the pope confined in the Vatican. Some politicians that had played important roles in this process, such as Camillo Cavour, were known to be hostile to the temporal and political power of the Church.
The hostility between the Holy See and the kingdom was finally settled by fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, who sought an agreement with the Church to gain its support: the Lateran treaties were finalized in 1929.
After World War II, anti-clericalism was embodied by the communist and socialist parties, in opposition to the Vatican-endorsed Christian Democracy.
The revision of the Lateran treaties in the 1980s by the socialist prime minister of Italy Bettino Craxi, removed the status of "official religion" of the Catholic Church, but still granted a series of provisions in favor of the Church, such as the eight per thousand law, the teaching of religion in schools, and other privileges.
Recently, the Catholic Church has been taking a more aggressive stance in Italian politics, in particular through Cardinal Camillo Ruini, who often makes his voice heard commenting the political debate and indicating the official line of the Church on various matters. This interventionism has increased with the papacy of Benedict XVI. Anti-clericalism, however, is not the official stance of most parties (with the exception of the Italian Radicals, who, however identify as laicist), as most party leaders consider it an electoral disadvantage to openly contradict the Church: since the demise of the Christian Democracy as a single party, Catholic votes are often swinging between the right and the left wing, and are considered to be decisive to win an election.
Mexico
Following the Revolution of 1860, U.S.-backed President Benito Juárez, issued a decree nationalizing church property, separating church and state, and suppressing religious orders.
Following the revolution of 1910, the New Mexican Constitution of 1917 contained further anti-clerical provisions. Article 3 called for secular education in the schools and prohibited the Church from engaging in primary education; Article 5 outlawed monastic orders; Article 24 forbade public worship outside the confines of churches; and Article 27 placed restrictions on the right of religious organizations to hold property. Most obnoxious to Catholics was Article 130, which deprived clergy members of basic political rights. Many of these laws were resisted, leading to the Cristero Rebellion of 1927 - 1929. The suppression of the Church included the closing of many churches the killing and forced marriage of priests. The persecution was most severe in Tabasco under the strident atheist governor Tomás Garrido Canabal.
The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934, at least 40 priests were killed. Where there were 4,500 priests serving the people before the rebellion, in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve 15 million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, and assassination. It appears that 10 states were left without even a single priest.
Poland
Anti-clericalism has been hard to notice in Poland until it became one of the policies of the communist People's Republic of Poland. It was nonetheless not a policy that gained any significant public support, as the Catholic Church became one of the publicly recognized and respected centers of the opposition to the government. Ironically, this has been reversed following the fall of communism in Poland, when the role of Catholic Church in political life increased. Some priests gained much influence in politics (ex. Henryk Jankowski, Tadeusz Rydzyk) and although their views and actions don't necessarily represent that of the Church, their views are supported by some political parties (ex. League of Polish Families) and groups (ex. Radio Maryja). This has led to the creation of opposition based on anti-clericalism philosophy (ex. Moherowe berety).
Portugal
A first wave of anti-clericalism occurred in 1834 when under the government of Dom Pedro all convents and monasteries in Portugal were abolished, simultaneously closing some of Portugal's primary educational establishments. The fall of the Monarchy in the Republican revolution of 1910 led to another wave of anti-clerical activity. Most church property was put under State control, and the church was not allowed to inherit property. The wearing of religious garb and religious instruction in schools were abolished, as well as religious oaths and church taxes.
Spain
The first instance of anti-clerical violence due to political conflict in c. nineteenth-century Spain occurred during the First Spanish Civil War (1820-1823). During riots in Catalunya, 20 clergymen were killed by members of the liberal movement in retaliation for the Church's siding with absolutist supporters of Ferdinand VII.
In 1836, following the First Carlist War, the new regime abolished the major Spanish Convents and Monasteries. The Radical Alejandro Lerroux distinguished himself by his inflammatory pieces of opinion.
During the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s, and in the context of atrocities on both sides, many of the Republican forces were violently anti-clerical anarchists and Communists, the numerous assaults have been been termed Spain's Red Terror. These included, the sacking and burning monasteries and churches and killing 283 nuns and more than 6,000 priests, including 13 bishops, 4184 diocesan priests, 2365 members of male religious orders, among them 259 Claretians, 226 Franciscans, 204 Piarists, 176 Brothers of Mary, 165 Christian Brothers, 155 Augustinians, 132 Dominicans, and 114 Jesuits. There are accounts of Catholic faithful being forced to swallow rosary beads, thrown down mine shafts, and priests being forced to dig their own graves before being buried alive. [1] The Catholic Church has seen fit to canonize several martyrs of the Spanish Civil War and beatify hundreds more.
Canada
Anti-clerical waves have been seen in Quebec since 1960. The Quiet Revolution is characterized essentially by an opening toward socialism and the objection to the social model dictated by the church and the clergy.
The Role of Freemasonry
Freemasonry has historically been seen, especially by the Catholic churchFrom the official documents of French Masonry contained principally in the official Bulletin and Compte-rendu of the Grand Orient it has been proved that all the anti-clerical measures passed in the French Parliament were decreed beforehand in the Masonic lodges and executed under the direction of the Grand Orient, whose avowed aim is to control everything and everybody in France." From the 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia article "Freemasonry", citing "Que personne ne bougera plus en France en dehors de nous," "Bull. Gr. Or.," 1890, 500 sq. Retrieved December 5, 2007.</ref> as a principal source of anti-Clericalism - especially in, but not limited to,[2] historically Catholic countries. Certain branches of Freemasonry are acknowledged by Masonic sources as a major source of anti-clericalism in Mexico,[3] Italy[4] and France.[5]
Communism
Most Communist governments have been officially anti-clerical, abolishing religious holidays, teaching atheism in schools, closing monasteries, church social and educational institutions and many churches. In the USSR, anti-clericalism was expressed through the state; some have estimated thousands of priests and monks were either executed or sent to forced-labor camps to die during the Stalin era.
Today
Today, traditional anti-clericalism tends to be less common. In Western democratic nations, this is largely due to states recognizing freedom of religion and hence being disinclined to interfere in religious matters. Many states which engaged anti-clericalism in the past would be prohibited by their constitutions from engaging in the meddling in internal Church affairs and in abridging the free exercise of religion as they had previously. Some argue that the involvement of the Roman Catholic Church in public life is relatively limited, causing a decline in anti-clericalism.
Anti-clericalism has recently focused on Islam, particularly its treatment of women, such as segregation of the sexes. Recently, several Western European nations, dealing with cultural clashes between secular, Christian, and Islamic populations, have adopted rules that can be perceived as anti-clerical, or as merely anti-Islamic-clerical. France, for instance, adopted a law banning conspicuous religious symbols in schools, widely perceived to be in response to local Islamic practices of female dress codes.
A notably anti-clericalist party in Israel is Shinui, which actively opposes the presence of rabbis in Israel's political structure.
Notes
- ↑ Beevor, Antony, The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939. New York: Penguin Books, 2006. ISBN 014303765X
- ↑ "But in spite of the failure of the official transactions, there are a great many German and not a few American Masons, who evidently favor at least the chief anti-clerical aims of the Grand Orient party." From the 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia article "Freemasonry", Retrieved December 5, 2007.
- ↑ "After the defeat and exile of the dictator in the 1910 revolution, a succession of Presidents who were Masons and strongly anticlerical ruled the country under the 1917 Constitution that maintained substantially the same liberal principles of 1857." From "Mexican Masonry- Politics & Religion", by Oscar Salinas, Senior Grand Warden-York/Mexico. Retrieved December 5, 2007.
- ↑ “...never before has a Masonic lodge made such a gesture towards the Catholic Church, distancing itself from other irregular Masonic lodges that, with their anti-clericalism, have caused much harm to the image of freemasonry in the world.” Grand Master Fabio Venzi of the Grand Lodge of Ancient Free and Accepted Masons of Italy, quoted in "Catholic priest made chaplain to Italian Masonic lodge", Catholic World News, August 9, 2005. Retrieved December 5, 2007.
- ↑ "We do not think that it would be accurate or just to describe, even the Grand Orient of France as anti-Christian, though it is undoubtedly very strongly anticlerical." Editorial of the Builder August 1928 - Volume XIV - Number 8. Retrieved December 5, 2007.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Bertocci, Philip A. Jules Simon: Republican Anticlericalism and Cultural Politics in France, 1848-1886. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0826202390
- Dykema, Peter A., and Oberman, Heiko A. Anticlericalism in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe. New York: E.J. Brill. 1963. ISBN 978-9004095182
- Sanchez, Jose M. Anticlericalism: A Brief History. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1972. ISBN 978-0268004712
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