Abnormal psychology
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Introduction
Abnormal psychology is the scientific study of abnormal behavior in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology in clinical psychology studies the nature of psychopathology, its causes, and its treatments. Of course, the definition of what constitutes 'abnormal' has varied across time and across cultures. Individuals also vary in what they regard as normal or abnormal behavior. In general, abnormal psychology can be described as an area of psychology that studies people who are consistently unable to adapt and function effectively in a variety of conditions. The four main contributing factors to how well an individual is able to adapt include their genetic makeup, physical condition, learning and reasoning, and socialization.
Nosology
DSM-IV TR
In North America, the 'bible' of abnormal psychology and psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association. The current version of the book is known as DSM IV-TR. It lists a set of disorders and provides detailed descriptions on what constitutes a disorder such as Major Depression or Anxiety Disorder. It also gives general descriptions of how frequent the disorder occurs in the general population, whether it is more common in males or females and other such facts. The diagnostic process uses five dimensions called 'axes' to ascertain symptoms and overall functioning of the individual. These axes are as follows
- Axis I - Particular clinical syndromes
- Axis II - Permanent Problems (Personality Disorders, Mental Retardation)
- Axis III - General medical conditions
- Axis IV - Psychosocial/environmental problems
- Axis V - Global assessment of functioning (often referred to as GAF)
Part of abnormal psychology has to do with phobias. A phobia is a persistent, abnormal, and irrational fear of a specific thing or situation that compels one to avoid it, despite the awareness and reassurance that it is not dangerous. A person suffering from a phobia may find it hard to socialize, work, or go about their everyday life. Phobias belong to a large group of mental problems known as anxiety disorders which includes panic disorders, post-traumatic stress disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Phobias can be diagnosed after extensive interview with a mental health professional or someone specializing in abnormal behavior/psychology.
ICD-10
The major international nosologic system for the classification of mental disorders can be found in the most recent version of the International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision (ICD-10). The ICD-10 has been used by World Health Organization (WHO) Member States since 1994. Chapter five covers some 300 "Mental and behavioural disorders." The ICD-10's chapter five has been influenced by APA's DSM-IV and there is a great deal of concordance between the two. WHO maintains free access to the ICD-10 Online . Below are the main categories of disorders:
- F00-F09 Organic, including symptomatic, mental disorders
- F10-F19 Mental and behavioural disorders due to psychoactive substance use
- F20-F29 Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional disorders
- F30-F39 Mood [affective] disorders
- F40-F48 Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform disorders
- F50-F59 Behavioural syndromes associated with physiological disturbances and physical factors
- F60-F69 Disorders of adult personality and behaviour
- F70-F79 Mental retardation
- F80-F89 Disorders of psychological development
- F90-F98 Behavioural and emotional disorders with onset usually occurring in childhood and adolescence
- F99 Unspecified mental disorder
Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of mental illness or mental distress, or the manifestation of behaviors and experiences which may be indicative of mental illness or psychological impairment.
It is also the name of an academic journal that specialises in the understanding and classification of mental illness in clinical psychiatry.
History
Archaeological discoveries have helped historians recreate some aspects of the culture and beliefs of ancient societies. Most historians surmise that abnormal behavior was considered to be the work of evil spirits on the victim’s mind. Skulls have been found from the Stone Age (half-million years ago) with areas removed by s method of surgery. The procedure involved making holes in the skulls with stone tools called trephine. The purpose for this surgery was to release evil spirits from the mind. [1] Exorcism by priests and shamans was also used to drive out the invading spirits.
During the Greek and Roman period, 500 B.C.E. to C.E. 500, some symptoms of mental disorders were classified into terms such as melancholia, dementia, hysteria, and hallucinations. Hippocrates (460 – 377 B.C.E.), considered to be the father of medicine, referred to brain pathologies as humors caused by yellow bile, black bile, blood, or phlegm. Plato (427 -347 B.C.E.) and Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.E.) also believed that mental disturbances were generated from within the individual not from the influence of outside forces.
In the Middle Ages in Europe, C.E. 500 – 1350, the presence of Christian priests expanded across Europe. Deviant behavior or psychological dysfunction was viewed as created by the conflict between good and evil, God or Satan. Cruel methods of ridding the afflicted person of the devil’s influence were varied and often resulted in death or permanent disabilities. Hospitals to care for the mentally ill began to emerge at the end of the period.
The Renaissance period was a time when science flourished. The German physician, Johann Weyer (1515 – 1588 C.E.), was the first doctor to specialize in mental illness and is consider to be the founder of modern psychopathology. [2] Some progress was made in England and Belgium to care for the sick but this deteriorated by the mid-sixteenth century when asylums began to replace hospitals. The first asylum was founded in Muslim Spain. In 1547, Henry VIII opened Betheleham Hospital (pronounced Bedlam by the locals).
At the time of the French Revolution, Philippe Pinet (1745 - 1826), became the chief physician at La Bicetre asylum in Paris. He believed the patients were sick people in need of kindness and care. The English Quaker, William Tuke (1773 – 1813), started similar reforms in the United States. Dorothea Dix (1802 – 1887) further championed the cause of human public care and took it to the level of political reform. She personally helped to establish 32 state hospitals.
Every time a wave of treatment improved it was followed by a period of decline usually due to over capacity and lack of funding. “By the early years of the twentieth century, the moral treatment movement had ground to a halt in the United States and Europe.” [3] In the early twentieth century, two opposing perspectives emerged: somatogenic and psychogenic. The former held that abnormal behavior had physical origins and the latter held that the causes of such were psychological. Biological science found causes for illness such as syphilis. The study of hypnotism launched the psychological origin (psychogenic) perspective Friederich Mesmer (1734 – 1815) introduced the treatment of hysteria with hypnotherapy but it was not well regarded by doctors of his day. It was not seriously studied until the late 1800s in Vienna. This attracted Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) who later founded psychoanalysis. [4]
Psychopathology as the study of mental illness
Many different professions may be involved in studying mental illness or distress. Most notably, psychiatrists and clinical psychologists are particularly interested in this area and may either be involved in clinical treatment of mental illness, or research into the origin, development and manifestations of such states, or often, both. More widely, many different specialties may be involved in the study of psychopathology. For example, a neuroscientist may focus on brain changes related to mental illness. Therefore, someone who is referred to as a psychopathologist, may be one of any number of professions who have specialized in studying this area.
Psychiatrists in particular are interested in descriptive psychopathology, which has the aim of describing the symptoms and syndromes of mental illness. This is both for the diagnosis of individual patients (to see whether the patient's experience fits any pre-existing classification), or for the creation of diagnostic systems (such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) which define exactly which signs and symptoms should make up a diagnosis, and how experiences and behaviours should be grouped in particular diagnoses (e.g. clinical depression, schizophrenia).
Psychopathology should not be confused with psychopathy, which is a type of personality disorder.
Psychopathology as a descriptive term
The term psychopathology may also be used to denote behaviours or experiences which are indicative of mental illness, even if they do not constitute a formal diagnosis. For example, the presence of an hallucination may be considered as a psychopathological sign, even if there are not enough symptoms present to fulfill the criteria for one of the disorders listed in the DSM.
In a more general sense, any behaviour or experience which causes impairment, distress or disability, particularly if it is thought to arise from a functional breakdown in either the cognitive and neurocognitive systems in the brain, may be classified as psychopathology.
The academic journal Psychopathology
Originally founded in 1897 and named Psychiatria Clinica, the journal changed its name to Psychopathology in 1984. It bills itself as the 'International journal of experimental psychopathology, phenomenology and psychiatric diagnosis' and aims to 'elucidate the complex interrelationships of biology, subjective experience, behavior and therapies'.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Sims, A. (2002) Symptoms in the Mind: An Introduction to Descriptive Psychopathology (3rd ed). Elsevier. ISBN 0-7020-2627-1
External links
- Psychopathology journal by Karger Publishers
- Psychopathology Research Master at the University of Maastricht
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