Difference between revisions of "Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Colophon-Razi's Book of medicine for Mansur.jpg|thumb|Colophon of al-Razi's ''Book of Medicine'']]
 
[[Image:Colophon-Razi's Book of medicine for Mansur.jpg|thumb|Colophon of al-Razi's ''Book of Medicine'']]
  
'''Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi''' ([[Arabic]]: ابو بکر محمد بن زكريا الرازی; [[Persian language|Persian]]: زكريای رازی ''Zakaria ye Razi''; [[Latin]]: '''Rhazes''' or '''Rasis'''). According to [[al-Biruni]] he was born in [[Rayy]], [[Iran]] in the year 865 AD (251 AH), and died there in 925 AD (313 AH).
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'''Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi''' ([[Arabic]]: ابو بکر محمد بن زكريا الرازی; [[Persian language|Persian]]: زكريای رازی ''Zakaria ye Razi''; [[Latin]]: '''Rhazes''' or '''Rasis'''). According to al-Biruni he was born in Rayy, [[Iran]] in the year 865 c.e. (251 AH), and died there in 925 c.e.. (313 AH).
  
Razi was a versatile [[Persian people|Persian]] physician, philosopher, and scholar who made fundamental and enduring contributions to the fields of [[medicine]], [[alchemy]], and [[philosophy]], recorded in over 184 books and articles in various fields of science. He was well versed in [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] medical knowledge and added substantially to it from his own observations. As an alchemist, Razi is credited with the discovery of [[sulfuric acid]], the "work horse" of modern [[chemistry]] and [[chemical engineering]]. He also discovered [[ethanol]] and its refinement and use in [[medicine]]. He was unquestionably one of the greatest thinkers of the [[Caliphate|Islamic World]], and had an enormous influence on European science and medicine.
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Al-Razi was a [[Persian people|Persian]] physician, philosopher, alchemist and scholar who produced over 200 books and articles in various fields of science. He was well versed in [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] medical knowledge and added substantially to it from his own observations. As an alchemist, Razi is credited with the discovery of [[sulfuric acid]], the "work horse" of modern [[chemistry]] and [[chemical engineering]]. He also wrote about [[ethanol]] and its refinement and use in [[medicine]]. His philosophical writings had an impact on the thinkers of the Islamic world, and his medical and scientific texts, translated in to Latin and later into other languages, were widely read throughout Europe.
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Al-Razi was confident of the power of reason; he was regarded by his contemporaries and biographers as liberal and free from prejudice, expressing his ideas without fear of the consequences.  He believed in man, progress and in "God the Wise".
  
Razi was a pure [[rationalist]], extremely confident of the power of reason; he was widely regarded by his contemporaries and biographers as liberal and free from any kind of prejudice, very bold and daring in expressing his ideas without a qualm. He believed in man, progress and in "God the Wise".
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The modern-day ''Razi Institute'' in [[Tehran]], and Razi University in Kermanshah were named after him, and 'Razi Day' ('Pharmacy Day') is commemorated in Iran every August 27th. Razi's portrait adorns the great hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.
 
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== Life ==
He traveled in many lands and rendered service to several princes and rulers especially to [[Baghdad]] where he had his lab. As a teacher in Medicine he attracted a great amount of students of all diciplines and was said to be compassionate, kind, upright, and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor.
 
 
 
The modern-day ''Razi Institute'' in [[Tehran]], and [[Razi University]] in [[Kermanshah]] were named after him, and 'Razi Day' ('Pharmacy Day') is commemorated in Iran every [[August 27]].
 
 
 
==Biography==
 
 
[[Image:Rhazes.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Al-Razi]]
 
[[Image:Rhazes.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Al-Razi]]
In [[Persian language|Persian]], ''Razi'' means "from the city of [[Ray (city)|Rayy]] (also spelled RAY, REY, or RAI, old Persian RAGHA, Latin RHAGAE -formerly one of the great cities of World)", an ancient town on the southern slopes of the Elburz Range that skirts the south of the Caspian Sea, situated near [[Tehran]], [[Iran]]. In this city (like [[Avicenna]]) he accomplished most of his work.
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According to the mathematician al-Biruni, Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi was born in Rayy, [[Iran]] in the year 865 c.e.. In [[Persian language|Persian]], ''Razi'' means "from the city of Rayy (also spelled RAY, REY, or RAI, old Persian RAGHA, Latin RHAGAE), an ancient town on the southern slopes of the Elburz Range that skirts the south of the Caspian Sea, situated near Tehran, Iran. In this city (like [[Avicenna]]) al-Razi produced much of his work.
 
 
In his early life he could have been a jeweller (Baihaqi), a money-changer ([[Cf.]] Ibn abi Usaibi'ah) but more likely a lute-player who changed his interest in music to alchemy (cf. ibn Juljul, Sa'id, [[ibn Khallikan]], Usaibi'ah, al-Safadi). At the age of thirty (Safadi says after forty) he stopped his study of alchemy because its experiments caused an eye-disease (Cf. al-Biruni), obliging him to search for physicians and medicine to cure it. al-Birflni, Baihaqi and others, say this was the reason why he began his medical studies. He was very studious working night and day. His teacher was 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari (''Cf.'' al-Qifti, Usaibi'ah), a physician and philosopher born in Merv about 192/808 (d. approx. 240/855). Al-Razi studied medicine and probably also philosophy with ibn Rabban al-Tabari. Therefore his interest in spiritual philosophy can be traced to this master, whose father was a Rabbinist versed in the Scriptures. According to Prof.Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead, Professor of Chemistry at the Faculty of Science, University of Cairo (''Cf''. the Alchemy Website): " (...) Al-Razi took up the study of medicine after his first visit to Baghdad, when he was at least 30 years old, under the well-known physician [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari|Ali ibn Sahl]] (a Jewish convert to Islam, belonging to the famous medical school of [[Tabaristan]] or [[Hyrcania]]). He showed such a skill in the subject that he quickly surpassed his master, and wrote no fewer than a hundred medical books. He also composed 33 treatises on natural science (not including alchemy),mathematics and astronomy (...)."
 
 
 
Al-Razi became famous in his native city as a physician. He became Director of the hospital of Rayy (''Cf.'' ibn Juljul, al-Qifti, ibn abi Usaibi'ah), during the reign of Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad ibn Asad who was Governor of Rayy from 290-296/902-908 on behalf of his cousin Ahmad ibn Isma'il ibn Ahmad, second Samanian ruler. Razi dedicated his ''al-Tibb al-'Mansuri''to Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad , which was verified in a handwritten manuscript of his book. This was refuted by ibn al-Nadim', but al-Qifti and ibn abi Usaibi'ah confirmed that the named Mansur was indeed Mansur ibn Isma'il who died in 365/975. al-Razi moved from Rayy to Baghdad during Caliph Muktafi's reign (approx.289/901-295/907) where he again held a position as Chief Director of a hospital.
 
 
 
After al-Muktafi's death (295/907) al-Razi allegedly returned to Rayy where he gathered many students around him. As [[Ibn al-Nadim]] relates in ''[[Fihrist]]'', al-Razi was then a ''[[Shaikh]]'' (title given to one entitled to teach) "with a big head similar to a sack", surrounded by several circles of students. When someone arrived with a scientific question, this question was passed on to students of the 'first circle'. if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle'... and so on and on, until at last, when all others had failed to supply an answer, it came to al-Razi himself. We know of at least one of these students who became a physician. Al-Razi was a very generous man, with a humane behavior towards his patients, and acting charitable to the poor. He used to give them full treatment without charging any fee, nor demanding any other payment. When he was not occupied with pupils or patients he was always writing and studying.
 
This fact might have been the cause for the gradual weakening of his sight which finally resulted in becoming blind in both eyes. Some say the cause of his blindness was that he used to eat too many broad beans (''baqilah''). His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The rumor goes that he refused to be treated for cataract, declaring that he "had seen so much of the world that he was tired of it." However, this seems to be an anecdote more than a historical fact. One of his pupils from Tabaristan came to look after him, but, according to al-Biruni, he refused to be treated proclaiming it was useless as his hour of death was approaching. Some days later he died in Rayy, on the 5th of Sha'ban 313/27th of October 925.
 
 
 
==Al-Razi's Masters and Opponents==
 
We already mentioned that Razi studied medicine under [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari|Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari]], however, [[Ibn al-Nadim]] indicates that he studied philosophy under al-Balkhi, who had travelled much and possessed great knowledge of philosophy and ancient sciences. Some even say that al-Razi attributed some of al-Balkhi's books on philosophy to himself. We know nothing about this man called al-Balkhi, not even his full name.
 
 
 
Razi's opponents, on the contrary, are well-known. They are the following:</u>
 
 
 
1. Abu al-Qasim al-Balki, chief of the ''Mu'tazilah'' of Baghdad (d. 319/931), a contemporary of al-Razi who wrote many refutations about al-Razi's books, especially in his ''Ilm al-Ilahi''. His disagreements with al-Razi entailed his thoughts on the concept of 'Time'.
 
 
 
2. Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi, with whom al-Razi had many controversies; one of these was on the concept of 'Pleasure', expounded in his ''Tafdll Ladhdhat al-Nafs'' which abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani quotes in his work ''Siwan al-Hikmah''. Al-Balkhi died prior to 329/940.
 
 
 
3. Abu Hatim al-Razi became the most important of all his opponents (d. 322/933-934) and was one of the greatest Isma'ili missionaries. He published his controversies with al-Razi in his book ''A'lam al-Nubuwwah''. Because of this book, al-Razi's thoughts on Prophets and Religion are preserved for us.
 
 
 
4. Ibn al-Tammar (seemingly being abu Bakr Husain al-Tammar, says Kraus) was a physician and he too had some disputes with al-Razi, which is documented by abu Hatim al-Razi in ''A'lam al-Nubuwwah''. Ibn al-Tammar disagreed with al-Razi's book ''al-Tibb al-Ruhani'' but al-Razi counteracted this. In fact, al-Razi wrote two antitheses:
 
 
 
(a) First refutation of al-Tammar's disagreement with ''Misma'i'' concerning 'Matter'.
 
 
 
(b) Second refutation of al-Tammar's opinion of 'the Atmosphere of subterranean habitations'.
 
 
 
5.Following are authors as described by al-Razi in his writings:
 
 
 
(a) al-Misma'i, a ''Mutakallim'', who opposed 'materialists', counteracted byan al-Razi's treatise.
 
 
 
(b) Jarir, a physician who had a theory about 'The eating of black mulberries after consuming water-melon'.
 
 
 
(c) al-Hasan ibn Mubarik al-Ummi, to whom al-Razi wrote two epistles with commentaries.
 
 
 
(d) al-Kayyal, a ''Mutakallim'': al-Razi wrote a book on about his ''Theory of the Imam''.
 
 
 
(e) Mansur ibn Talhah, being the author of the book "''Being''", which was criticized by al-Razi.
 
 
 
(f) Muhammad ibn al-Laith al-Rasa'ili whose opposition against alchemists was disputed by al-Razi.
 
 
 
6. Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhasi (d. 286/899), was an older contemporary of al-Razi. Al-Razi disagreed with him on the question of 'bitter taste'. He moreover opposed his teacher Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, regarding his writings, in which he discredited alchemists.
 
** We could add more names to this list of all people opposed by al-Razi, specifically the ''Mu'tazilah'' and different ''Mutakallimin''.
 
 
 
==Contributions to medicine==
 
===Smallpox vs. measles===
 
As chief physician of the [[Baghdad]] hospital, Razi formulated the first known description of [[smallpox]]:
 
 
 
:"Smallpox appears when blood 'boils' and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as 'bubbles found in wine' -(as blisters)- ... this disease can also occur at other times -(meaning: not only during childhood)-. The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an [[epidemic]]."
 
  
This diagnosis is acknowledged by the ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopaedia Britannica]]'' (1911), which states: "The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the 9th-century Arabian (=Persian) physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment."
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In his early life he may have been a jeweler, a money-changer, or a lute-player who changed his interest from music to alchemy.  Around the age of thirty or forty he stopped his study of alchemy because conducting experiments caused an eye disease which required medical treatment; some say this was why he began his medical studies. He apparently began to study medicine after his first visit to Baghdad, with 'Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari (808-855 C.E.), a physician and philosopher and a Jewish convert to Islam, belonging to the famous medical school of Tabaristan or Hyrcania.  The scholar Ibn al-Nadim (d. 995) indicates that al-Rasi studied philosophy under a teacher named al-Balkhi, a pupil of Hunayn Ibn Ishaq who had traveled widely and possessed great knowledge of philosophy and the ancient Greek, Persian and Indian systems of medicine.
  
Razi's book: ''al-Judari wa al-Hasbah'' was the first book describing smallpox, and was translated more than a dozen times into [[Latin]] and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its [[Hippocrates|Hippocratic]] reliance on clinical observation shows Razi's medical methods. We quote:
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Al-Razi surpassed his master and became famous in his native city as a physician and a teacher.  During the reign of Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad ibn Asad (Governor of Rayy from 902-908), he was appointed Director of the hospital at Rayy. Al-Razi moved from Rayy to Baghdad during Caliph Muktafi's reign (approx. 901-907), where he was head of the famous Muqtadari Hospital.  He also served as physician at the Samanid court.  One story relates that he determined the location for a new hospital in Baghdad by leaving pieces of meat in various quarters of the city and selecting the  site where the meat rotted most slowly.
  
"The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breath and cough. Additional symtomps are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with 'measles' than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with a very pronounced redness of the gums."
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After al-Muktafi's death in 907, al-Razi allegedly returned to Rayy and gathered many students around him. According to Ibn al-Nadim in ''Fihrist,'' al-Razi was then a ''Shaikh'' (title given to one entitled to teach) "with a big head similar to a sack," surrounded by several circles of students. When someone arrived with a scientific question, this question was passed on to students of the 'first circle'. If they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle, ' and so on, until at last, when all others had failed to supply an answer, the question came to al-Razi himself. Al-Razi was said to be a generous man, who behaved humanely towards his patients, and treated the poor free of charge. When he was not occupied with pupils or patients he was said to always be writing or studying. He produced over one hundred works on medicine alone, and another hundred on alchemy, chemistry, psychology and philosophy.
  
Razi was the first physician to diagnose smallpox and [[measles]] and the first one to distinguish the difference between them.
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Al-Rasi’s sight became weaker; he developed cataracts and finally became blind in both eyes. Some say the cause of his blindness was that he used to eat too many broad beans (''baqilah''). A legend says that he refused to be treated for cataract, declaring that he "had seen so much of the world that he was tired of it." One of his pupils from Tabaristan came to look after him, but, according to al-Biruni, he refused to be treated, saying it was useless as his hour of death was approaching. Some days later he died in Rayy, on October 27, 925 (5th of Sha'ban 313).
  
===Allergies and fever===
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== Thought and Works ==
Razi is also known for having discovered "allergic asthma," and was the first physician ever to write articles on [[allergy]] and [[immunology]]. In the ''Sense of Smelling'' he explains the occurrence of '[[rhinitis]]' after smelling a rose during the Spring:
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Because of the prominence of his medical works Al-Razi is remembered in the West primarily as a physician, although his philosophical works triggered a barrage of criticism from other Muslim scholars and theologians. In both medicine and philosophy, he emphasized the use of reason, careful observation and a well-ordered methodology.  He produced more than two hundred works, half of which were on medicine.  He also wrote twenty-one books on alchemy and helped to prepare the foundations of modern chemistry.  His works on mathematics, astronomy, physics and optics have been lost, but about forty of his manuscripts are extant in museums and libraries in Iran, Paris, Britain, Rampur and Bankipur. A number of his medical works were translated into Latin and European languages, and used as textbooks for several centuries. Al-Razi was considered a foremost authority on medicine through the seventeenth century.
''Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Rhinitis When Smelling Roses in Spring''. In this article he dicusses seasonal 'rhinitis', which is the same as allergic asthma or [[hay fever]]. Razi was the first to realize that [[fever]] is a natural defense mechanism, the body's way of fighting disease.
 
  
===Pharmacy===
 
Rhazes contributed in many ways to the early practice of [[pharmacy]] by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of '[[mercury (element)|mercurial]] ointments' and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.
 
  
===Ethics of medicine===
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=== Influence in Europe ===
On a professional level, Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked [[charlatan]]s and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their [[nostrum]]s and 'cures'. At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of [[cancer]] and [[leprosy]] the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of [[princes]], [[nobility]], and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician.
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Al-Razi was known in Europe by his Latinized name, Rhazes.  Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur (Kitab al- Mansoori), a short general textbook on medicine in ten chapters (dedicated in 903 c.e. to the Samanid prince Abu Salih al-Mansur ibn Ishaq, Governor of Rayy), was translated into Latin during the twelfth century by Gerard of Cremona as Liber ad Almansoris. It became one of the most widely read medieval medical manuals in Europe.  The ninth chapter was frequently published by itself as Liber nonus ad Almansorem, and many editions of it included commentaries by prominent Renaissance physicians, such as Andreas Vesalius.  His Comprehensive Book on Medicine, the Hawi, was translated into Latin in 1279 under the title Continens Liber by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou to translate medical works. ''Al-Judari wa al-Hasbah,'' containing a detailed monograph on smallpox and chickenpox, was published in forty editions between 1498 and 1866. It was first translated into Latin in 1565, and appeared more than a dozen times in European languages.  Several other of al-Razi’s books, including Jami-fi-al-Tib, al-Malooki, Maqalah fi al- Hasat fi Kuli wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitab al-Mafasil, Kitab-al- 'Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-Sa'ah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir also circulated in medieval Europe.  
  
===Books and articles on medicine===
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=== Medicine ===
*'''''The Virtuous Life''''' ('''''al-Hawi''''').
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Al-Razi relied on clinical observation, and was more concerned with remedies and treatments than with detailed classification of the symptoms of illnesses.  He favored curing disease through diet and nutrition before resorting to medicines.  He tested proposed remedies on animals in order to evaluate their effects before using them on humans. He was an expert surgeon and the first to report the use of opium as an anesthesia, and to introduce the use of alcohol (Arabic al-kuhl) for medical purposes.  His books contain the earliest description of an operation to remove cataracts from the eyes, and he was the first to discuss the widening and narrowing of the pupil by small muscles in the eye which respond to the intensity of light. He also gave elaborate descriptions of the intervertebral foramina and the spinal chord, and correctly asserted that an injury either to the brain or spinal chord would lead to paralysis of the parts of the organs whose nerve supply was damaged or destroyed.  
  
::This monumental medical [[encyclopedia]] in nine volumes &mdash; known in Europe also as ''The Large Comprehensive'' or ''Continens Liber'' &mdash;<!--["Embody is a verb, isn't it?] and also as ''The Embody''—> contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]], and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider Razi the greatest medical doctor of the [[Middle Ages]].
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Al-Razi warned that even highly educated doctors could not heal every disease.  He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases, and commented that the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure advanced cases of [[cancer]] and [[leprosy]].   Al- Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information.
  
::The ''al-Hawi'' is not a formal medical encyclopaedia, but a posthumous compilation of Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by [[Faraj ben Salim]], a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by [[Charles of Anjou]], and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe.
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Al-Razi ‘s Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah , Book on Smallpox and Measles, was twice translated into Latin during the eighteenth century.  An ''Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Swellingof the Head When Smelling Roses in Spring,'' in his book, ''Sense of Smelling,'' discusses seasonal 'rhinitis', or [[hay fever]]. Razi was the first to recognize that [[fever]] is a natural defense mechanism of the body when fighting a disease. He wrote “Man la Yahduruhu Tab” as a medical manual for the general public, dedicated to the poor, the traveler, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available.  In its thirty-six chapters, al-Razi described diets and remedies which could be found in a kitchen, market or military camp and gave instructions for their preparation and use. 
*'''''A medical advisor for the general public''''' ('''''Man la Yahduruhu Tab''''')
 
  
::Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home Medical Manual ([[remedial]]) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveler, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book, of course, is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century. Razi described in its 36 chapters, diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results.
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In ''Doubts About Galen'' (''Shukuk 'ala alinusor''), al-Razi challenged the fundamental principles of contemporary medicine, which were based on the theories of Galen.  He criticized Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate humors" (liquid substances), whose balance was the key to health and a natural body-temperature. He reported that his own clinical observations did not support Galen’s descriptions of fever.  Following the ideas of Aristotle, al-Razi rejected the [[mind-body dichotomy]] and emphasized the importance of a sound mind and a positive mental attitude to good physical health. He told physicians to bolster their patients’ determination to resist illness and make a speedy recovery. Al-Razi linked the practice of medicine with philosophy, saying that a good physician must be an independent thinker.  His criticisms of Galen drew accusations of arrogance and ignorance from other physicians, but al-Razi stated that he simply wished to correct what was erroneous.  
  
::Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example, he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of ''duhn'' (oily extract) of [[rose]], to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of [[linen]] cloth is dipped and [[compressed]] on the forehead". He recommended as a [[laxative]], " 7 [[Dram (unit)|dram]]s of dried [[violet (plant)|violet]] flowers with 20 [[pear]]s, [[maceration|macerated]] and well mixed, then strained. Add to this [[filtrate]], 20 drams of [[sugar]] for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either [[poppy|poppies]] or its juice ([[opium]]), [[clover fodder]] (''Curcuma epithymum'') or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised [[myrrh]], [[saffron]], and [[frankincense]], 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of [[yellow arsenic]] formed into [[tablet]]s. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of [[coriander water]] and used as eye drops.
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<blockquote>"I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man [[Galen]] from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published." <\blockquote>
*'''''Doubts About Galen''''' ('''''Shukuk 'ala alinusor''''')
 
  
::Rhazes's independent mind is strikingly revealed in this book and G. Stolyarov II quotes:
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=== Al-Hawi (The Virtuous Life) ==
  
:::"In the manner of numerous Greek thinkers, including [[Socrates]] and Aristotle, Rhazes rejected the [[mind-body dichotomy]] and pioneered the concept of mental health and self-esteem as being essential to a patient's welfare. This "sound mind, healthy body" connection prompted him to frequently communicate with his patients on a friendly level, encouraging them to heed his advice as a path to their recovery and bolstering their fortitude and determination to resist the illness and resulting in a speedy convalescence."
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Shortly after the death of al-Razi,  Ibn al-`Amid, a statesman and scholar, purchased from al-Razi's sister the notes comprising the Hawi, or Comprehensive Book,  and arranged for some of al-Razi’s students to put them in order.  It was a large commonplace book, representing fifteen years of writing, in which al-Razi had collected extracts from earlier authors regarding diseases and therapy and also recorded clinical cases of his own experience. The material was arranged under the names of different diseases and pharmacological topics, and contained all the important information available from Greek and Arab sources, followed by his own comments and conclusions.  The Hawi preserved fragments of early Greek, Arabic and Indian medical works which are now lost, and presented a wide variety of clinical descriptions.
  
::In his book ''Doubts about Galen'', Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his [[cosmology|cosmological]] and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's.
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The twenty volumes of Al-Hawi may be the largest medical work ever written by a single author, and were responsible for  al-Razi’s reputation as the foremost medical authority of the Middle Ages.  The work contained his views on [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]], and expressed innovative opinions on many subjects.   It was first translated into Latin during the thirteenth century and had considerable influence on medicine in medieval Europe. .  
  
::He criticized moreover Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "[[Theory of Humours|humor]]s" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted particularry that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (''Cf.'' I. E. Goodman)
 
  
::This line of criticism essentially had the potentiality to destroy completely Galen's [[Theory of Humours]] including Aristotle's theory of the [[Four Elements]], on which it was grounded. Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or [[inflammability]] and [[salinity]], which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements.
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=== Chemistry and Pharmacology ===
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Al-Razi took a serious interest in chemistry and in the preparation of medicines, and is sometimes referred to as the father of modern pharmacology. He introduced the use of of '[[mercury (element)|mercurial]] ointments' and developed apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.  He also produced alcohol by fermentation of sweet substances, and used it the formulation of medicines.
  
::Razi's challenge to the current fundaments of medical theory were quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his commendable contributions and labors. saying:
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Al-Razi challenged Aristotle’s theory of the [[Four Elements]] (fire, water, earth, and air), saying that his own experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as salinity,  "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability, which were not readily explained by the traditional division of elements into those four categories. He dismissed the idea of potions and reliance on magic symbols, although he did not reject the idea that miracles exist in the sense of unexplained phenomena in nature.  In exploring causality, he relied predominantly on the [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] concept of 'dominant' forms or essences, rather than on intellect or a mechanistic view of the cosmos.
  
:::"I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man [[Galen]] from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published."
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He is known to have perfected methods of [[distillation]] and [[extraction]], which led to his discovery of [[sulfuric acid]] (by dry distillation of vitriol, ''al-zajat''), and [[alcohol]]. These discoveries paved the way for other Islamic alchemists.
  
::Then, Razi aiming to vindicate Galen's greatness and justifing his own criticism, lists four reasons why great men make more errors than lesser ones, due to:
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His books presented a systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. Al-Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones, were ''al-Asrar'' ("The Secrets"), and ''Sirr al-Asrar'' ("The Secret of Secrets").  Kitab-al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), written in response to a request from Razi's friend and former student, [[Abu Mohammed ben Yunis]], classified substances into plants, animals and minerals, laying a foundation for inorganic and organic chemistry. ''Sirr al-Asrar'' ("The Secret of Secrets") identified the drug components of plant, animal and mineral substances and the best type of each for utilization in treatment. It also listed the equipment and tools needed by either an alchemist or apothecary, and described seven [[alchemy|alchemical]] procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of [[mercury (element)|mercury]]; precipitation of sulfur and arsenic; calcination of minerals (gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron); salts; glass; production of talc from animal shells; and waxing.  He also described the use of solvents and heat, and identified which stones contained mineral ores and salts.  His alchemical stockroom contained the products of Persian mining and manufacturing, and included [[Ammonium Chloride|sal ammoniac]], a Chinese discovery.
::# Negligence, as a result of too much self-confidence.
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::# Being unmindful (indifference) which often leads to errors.
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Half a century after his death, Ibn an-Nadim's book ''The Philosophers Stone'' (Lapis Philosophorum in Latin) testified to Al-Razi’s interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to [[silver]] and [[gold]]. Ibn Nadim attributed a series of twelve books on alchemy to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation of [[al-Kindi]]'s (801-873 C.E.) denial of the validity of alchemy. In ''Sirr al-Asrar'' (Secret of Secrets) al-Razi gave procedures for coloring a silver object to imitate gold (gold leafing) and the reverse technique to change its color back to silver. He also described the gilding and silvering of other metals (alum, calcium salts, iron, copper, and zinc) and promised that the colors would last for years without tarnishing or changing.
::# Temptation to follow up on one's own thoughts or impetuosity, being convinced of that what one says or does is correct.
 
::# Crystallization of ancient knowledge, and the refusal to accept the fact that new data and ideas indicate that present day knowledge ultimately might surpass that of previous generations.
 
  
::Razi believed that contemporary scientists and scholars are by far better equipped, more knowledgeable, and more competent than the ancient ones, due to the accumulated knowledge at their disposal. Razi's attempt to overthrow blind acceptance of the unchallenged authority of ancient Sages, encouraged and stimulated research and advances in the arts, technology, and sciences.
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Al- Razi's classification of minerals into six divisions anticipated modern chemistry: four spirits, ''al-arwah'' (mercury, sal ammoniac, sulfur, and arsenic sulphate (orpiment and realgar)); seven bodies, “al-ajsad” (silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (pumbago),  zinc (kharsind), and tin); thirteen stones, ''al-ahjar'' (pyrites, marcasite (''marqashita''), magnesia, malachite, zinc oxide ''(tutiya)'', talcum, lapis lazuli, gypsum, azurite, magnesia , haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide, mica and asbestos and glass);  seven viriols, “al-zajat” (alum (ak-shubub), and white (''qalqadzs''), black , red, and yellow ''(qulqutar),'' vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green ''(qalqand)''; seven borates, (tinkar, natron, and impure sodium borate); eleven salts, ''al-amlah'' (including brine, common table salt, ashes, naphtha, live lime, urine, sodium chloride rock, and sea salts). He defined and described each of these substances and their best quality, best colors and various adulterations.
  
===Books on medicine===
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=== Philosophy ===
This is a partial list of Razi's books and articles in medicine, according to [[Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah]]. Some books may have been copied or printed under different names.
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Al-Razi was well-acquainted with Aristotle and incorporated some of his theory in his worldview. In philosophy, as in medicine, he believed that the task of the serious student was to elevate himself to a higher intellectual level than his predecessors, eliminating doctrines that were unclear or contradictory, and seeking accuracy and a solid intellectual foundation. Asked if a philosopher can follow a prophetically revealed religion, al-Razi frankly replied, ''How can anyone think philosophically while listening to old wives' tales founded on contradictions, which obdurate ignorance, and dogmatism?''
* ''al-Hawi'', ''al-Hawi al-Kabir''. Also known as ''The Virtuous Life'', ''Continens Liber''. The large medical Encyclopedia containing mostly recipes and Razi's notebooks.
 
* ''Isbateh Elmeh Pezeshki'', An Introduction to Medical Science.
 
*''Dar Amadi bar Elmeh Pezeshki''
 
*''Rade Manaategha 'tibb jahez''
 
*''Rade Naghzotibbeh Nashi''
 
*''The Experimentation of Medical Science and its Application''
 
*''Guidance''
 
*''Kenash''
 
*''The Classification of Diseases''
 
*''Royal Medicine''
 
*''For One Without a Doctor''
 
*''The Book of Simple Medicine''
 
*''The Great Book of Krabadin''
 
*''The Little Book of Krabadin''
 
*''The Book of Taj'' or ''The Book of the Crown''
 
*''The Book of Disasters''
 
*''Food and its Harmfulness''
 
* ''al-Judari wa al-Hasbah'', ''The Book of Smallpox and Measles''
 
*''Ketab dar Padid Amadaneh Sangrizeh'' (Stones in the Kidney and Bladder)
 
*''Ketabeh Dardeh Roodeha''
 
*''Ketab dar Dard Paay va Dardeh Peyvandhayyeh Andam''
 
*''Ketab dar Falej''
 
*''The Book of Tooth Aches''
 
*''Dar Hey'ateh Kabed''
 
*''Dar Hey'ateh Ghalb'' (About Heart Ache)
 
*''About the Nature of Doctors''
 
*''About the Earwhole''<!--Is that correct?—>
 
*''Dar Rag Zadan''
 
*''Seydeh neh/sidneh''
 
*''Ketabeh Ibdal''
 
*''Food For Patients''
 
*''Soodhayeh Serkangabin''
 
*''Darmanhayeh Abneh''
 
*''The Book of Surgical Instruments''
 
*''The Book on Oil''
 
*''Fruits Before and After Lunch''
 
*''Book on Medical Discussion'' (with [[Jarir Tabib]])
 
*''Book on Medical Discussion II'' (with [[Abu Feiz]])
 
*''About the Menstrual Cycle''
 
*''Ghi Kardan''
 
*''Snow and Medicine''
 
*''Snow and Thirst''
 
*''The Foot''
 
*''Fatal Diseases''
 
*''About Poisoning''
 
*''Hunger''
 
*''Soil in Medicine''
 
*''The Thirst of Fish''
 
*''Sleep Sweating''
 
*''Warmth in Clothing''
 
*''Spring and Disease''
 
*''Misconceptions of a Doctors Capabilities''
 
*''The Social Role of Doctors''
 
  
===Translations===
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Al-Razi did not accept creation ex nihilo, but asserted that God arranged a universe using pre-existent principles: creator, spirit (soul), matter, space and time.  Both time and matter had an absolute, eternal form that was not related to motion or place and a limited form; unlike Aristotle, time did not exist only in relation to motion. Space, matter and time were the components of the natural world. Like Democritus, al-Razi held that matter existed in the form of indivisible and fathomable [[quanta]]. There also existed a void which was empty of matter.  Space was the relationship between the particles of matter and the void surrounding them.  An object whose atomic particles were dense was heavier and more solid than an object in which there was a larger proportion of void and fewer particles of matter.
Razi's notable books and articles on medicine (in English) include:
 
* ''Mofid al Khavas'', The Book for the Elite.
 
* ''The Book of Experiences''
 
* ''The Cause of the Death of Most Animals because of Poisonous Winds''
 
* ''The Physicians' Experiments''
 
* ''The Person Who Has No Access to Physicians''
 
* ''The Big Pharmacology''
 
* ''The Small Pharmacology''
 
* ''Gout''
 
* ''Al Shakook ala Jalinoos'', The Doubt on Galen
 
* ''Kidney and Bladder Stones''
 
* ''Ketab tibb ar-Ruhani'',''The Spiritual Physik of Rhazes''.
 
  
==Alchemy==
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Al-Razi’s theory of the soul, explained in “The Metaphysics,” was derived from Islam.  He declared that God, out of pity for the desires of the eternal soul, created a physical playground for it.  Once the soul fell into the new realm which God made, it required a further gift of intellect from God in order to find its way  once more to salvation and freedom.  This intellect was a grace endowed by God to the soul; once in possession of intellect, the soul was able to reason and discern the relative value of the other four principles, creator, matter, space and time. Unlike contemporary Neoplatonic or Aristotelian Islamic philosophers, Al-Razi did not consider the intellect to be eternal.
===The Transmutation of Metals===
 
Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of [[transmutation]] of lesser metals to [[silver]] and [[gold]] was attested half a century after his death by [[Ibn an-Nadim]]'s book (''The Philosophers Stone''-Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to [[al-Kindi]]'s denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801-873 B.C.E.) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mum founder of Baghdad, to 'the House of Wisdom' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy.<br /> Finally we will mention Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: ''al-Asrar'' ("The Secrets"), and ''Sirr al-Asrar'' ("The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of the previous work.
 
  
Apparently Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning [[iron]] and [[copper]] into [[gold]]. Biographer [[Khosro Moetazed]] reports in ''Mohammad Zakaria Razi'' that a certain [[General Simjur]] confronted Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied":
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In his ''Philosophical Biography,'' al-Razi defended his personal and philosophical lifestyle, emphasizing that, rather than being self-indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, utilize his intellect and apply justice in his life. According to Al-Razi, "This is what our merciful Creator wants, The One to whom we pray for reward and whose punishment we fear.”  Man should be kind, gentle and just. A person could not escape the fear of death unless he was convinced that his soul would lead a better life after death, and this was possible only through a careful study of religious doctrine. A person who could not believe the religious doctrine but who made a sincere effort would be forgiven by Allah, because Allah did not demand that he do something which he was incapable of achieving. Al-Razi believed that there is a close relationship between spiritual integrity and physical health.  
:"I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible..."
 
  
===Chemical instruments and substances===
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Al-Razi’s ideas drew a barrage of criticism from contemporary Islamic theologians and Islamic philosophers, and many fragments of his lost works are preserved in the books which they wrote to refute him.  Abu Hatim al-Razi (d. 934), one of the greatest Isma'ili missionaries, published his disagreements with al-Razi in his book ''A'lam al-Nubuwwah,'' and preserved al-Razi's thoughts on Prophets and Religion. Abu al-Qasim al-Balki, chief of the ''Mu'tazilah'' of Baghdad (d. 931), wrote many criticisms of al-Razi's works, especially in his book ''Ilm al-Ilahi,'' disagreeing with al-Razi’s  concept of 'time'.  Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi (d. prior to 940), attacked Al-Razi’s concept of pleasure in ''Tafdll Ladhdhat al-Nafs,'' which abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani quotes in his work ''Siwan al-Hikmah.''  Al-Razi protested against his critics in his “The Philosophical Approach.
Razi developed several chemical instruments that remain in use to this day. He is known to have perfected methods of [[distillation]] and [[extraction]], which have led to his discovery of [[sulfuric acid]] (by dry distillation of [[vitriol]], (''al-zajat'') and [[alcohol]]. These discoveries paved the way for other Islamic alchemists, as did the discovery of various other [[mineral acid]]s by [[Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan|Jabir Ibn Hayyam]] (known as Geber in Europe).
 
  
Razi dismissed the idea of potions and dispensed with magic, meaning the reliance on symbols as causes. Although Razi does not reject the idea that miracles exist, in the sense of unexplained phenomena in nature, his alchemical stockroom was enriched with products of Persian mining and manufacturing, even with [[Ammonium Chloride|sal ammoniac]] a Chinese discovery. He relied predominantly on the concept of 'dominant' forms or essences, which is the [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] conception of causality rather than an intellectual approach or a mechanical one. Razi's alchemy brings forward such empiric qualities as salinity and inflammability -the latter associated to 'oiliness' and 'sulphurousness'. These properties are not readily explained by the traditional composition of the elements such as : fire, water, earth and air, as [[al-óhazali]] and others after him were quick to note, influenced by critical thoughts such as Razi had.
 
 
===Major works on alchemy===
 
al-Razi's achievements are of exceptional importance in the history of chemistry, since in his books we find for the first time a systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. Razi's scheme of classification of the substances used in chemistry shows sound research on his part.
 
* '''''The Secret''''' ('''''Al-Asrar''''')
 
 
::This book was written in response to a request from Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, [[Abu Mohammed b. Yunis]] of [[Bukhara]], a Muslim [[mathematician]], philosopher, a highly reputable [[natural science|natural scientist]].<br /> In his book ''Sirr al-Asrar'', Razi divides the subject of "Matter' into three categories as he did in his previous book ''al-Asrar''.
 
::# Knowledge and identification of drug components of plant-, animal- and mineral-origin and the description of the best type of each for utilization in treatment.
 
::# Knowledge of equipment and tools of interest to and used by either alchemist or apothecary.
 
::# Knowledge of seven [[alchemy|alchemical]] procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of [[mercury (element)|mercury]], precipitation of sulfur and arsenic calcination of [[minerals]] ([[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]], [[lead]], and [[iron]]), [[salt]]s, [[glass]], [[talc]], [[animal shell|shell]]s, and [[wax]]ing.
 
 
::This last category contains additionally a description of other methods and applications used in transmutation: <br />* The added mixture and use of solvent vehicles.<br /> * The amount of heat (fire) used, 'bodies and stones', ''('al-ajsad' and 'al-ahjar)'' that can or cannot be transmuted into corporal substances such of metals and Id salts ''('al-amlah')''. <br />* The use of a liquid mordant which quickly and permanently colors lesser metals for more lucrative sale and profit.
 
::Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on amalgams ascribed to Al- Hayan (Jabir), Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring a silver object to imitate gold ([[gold leafing]]) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. [[Gilding]] and [[silvering]] of other metals (alum, calcium salts, iron, copper, and tutty) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. Behind these procedures one does not find a deceptive motive rather a technical and economic deliberation. This becomes evident from the author's quotation of market prices and the expressed triumph of artisan, craftsman or alchemist declaring the results of their efforts "to make it look exactly like gold!". However, another motive was involved, namely, to manufacture something resembling gold to be sold quickly so to help a good friend who happened to be in need of money fast. Could it be Razi's alchemical technique of silvering and gilding metals which convinced many Muslim biographers that he was first a jeweler before he turned to the study of alchemy?
 
 
::Of great interest in the text is Razi's classification of [[mineral]]s into six divisions, showing his discussion a modern chemical connotation:
 
::# Four SPIRITS (''AL-ARWAH'') : [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[sal ammoniac]], [[sulfur]], and [[arsenic]] sulphate (orpiment and realgar).
 
::# Seven BODIES ''(AL-AJSAD)'' : [[silver]], [[gold]], [[copper]], [[iron]], black lead (plumbago), [[zinc]] (Kharsind), and [[tin]].
 
::# Thirteen STONES : (''AL-AHJAR)'' Pyrites [[marcasite]] (''marqashita''), [[magnesia (mineral)|magnesia]], [[malachite]], [[tutty]] Zinc oxide ''(tutiya)'', [[talcum]], [[lapis lazuli]], [[gypsum]], azurite, magnesia , haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide, mica and asbestos and [[glass]] (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal [[Damascene]] is considered the best),
 
::# Seven VIRIOLS (AL-ZAJAT) : [[alum]] ''(ak-shubub)'', and white ''(qalqadzs)'', black , red, and yellow ''(qulqutar)'' [[vitriol]]s (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green ''(qalqand)''.
 
::# Seven [[BORATES]] : [[tinkar]], [[natron]], and impure sodium borate.
 
::# Eleven SALTS ''(AL-AMLAH)'': including brine, common (table) [[salt]], [[wiktionary:ash|ash]]es, [[naphtha]], live [[calcium oxide|lime]], and [[urine]], [[Sodium chloride|rock]], and [[sea salt]]s. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances and their top choice, best colors and various adulterations.
 
 
:: Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy. This consists of 2 classes:
 
 
::# Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the Blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), macerator, stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pesstle), file, shears, descensory and semi-cylindrical iron mould.
 
::# Utensils used to carry out the process of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort, alembic, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers, large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, phials, beakers, glass funnel, crucible, alundel, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish.
 
* '''''Secret of Secrets''''' ('''''Sirr Al-asrar''''')
 
::This is Razi's most famous book which has gained a lot of recognition in the West. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy.
 
 
===Books on alchemy===
 
Here is a list of Razi's known books on alchemy, mostly in [[Persian language|Persian]]:
 
*''Modkhele Taalimi''
 
*''Elaleh Ma'aaden''
 
*''Isbaate Sanaa'at''
 
*''Ketabeh Sang''
 
*''Ketabe Tadbir''
 
*''Ketabe Aksir''
 
*''Ketabe Sharafe Sanaa'at''
 
*''Ketabe Tartib'', ''Ketabe Rahat'', ''The Simple Book''
 
*''Ketabe Tadabir''
 
*''Ketabe Shavahed''
 
*''Ketabe Azmayeshe Zar va Sim'' (''Experimentation on Gold'')
 
*''Ketabe Serre Hakimaan''
 
*''Ketabe Serr'' (''The Book of Secrets'')
 
*''Ketabe Serre Serr'' (''The Secret of Secrets'')
 
*''The First Book on Experiments''
 
*''The Second Book on Experiments''
 
*''Resaale'ei Be Faan''
 
*''Arezooyeh Arezookhah''
 
*''A letter to Vazir Ghasem ben Abidellah''
 
*''Ketabe Tabvib''
 
 
==Philosophy==
 
===On existence===
 
Razi believed that a competent physician must also be a [[philosophy|philosopher]] well versed in the fundamental questions regarding existence:
 
 
:"He proclaimed the absolutism of [[Euclidean]] [[space]] and [[mechanics|mechanical]] time as the natural foundation of the world in which men lived, but resolved the dilemma of existent infinities by synthesizing this outlook with the atomic theory of [[Democritus]], which recognized that matter existed in the form of indivisible and fathomable [[quanta]]. The continuity of space, however, holds due to the existence of [[void]], or a region lacking matter... This is remarkably close to the systems yielded by the discoveries of such later European scientists as [[John Dalton]] and [[Max Planck]], as well as the observational and theoretical works of modern astronomer Halton Arp and Objectivist philosopher [[Michael Miller]]. Progress, in the view of all these men, is not to be obstructed by a jumble of haphazard and contradictory relativistic assertions which result in metaphysical hodge-podge instead of a sturdy intellectual base. Even in regard to the task of the philosopher, Rhazes considered it to be progressing beyond the level of one's teachers, expanding the accuracy and scope of one's doctrine, and individually elevating oneself onto a higher intellectual plane." (G. Stolyarov II)
 
 
Razi is known to have been a free-thinking [[Islam|Islamic]] philosopher, since he was well-trained in ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] sciences although his approach to chemistry was rather naturalistic. Moreover he was well versed in the theory of music, as so many other Islamic scientists of that time.
 
 
===Metaphysics===
 
His ideas on metaphysics were also based on the works of the great Greeks:
 
 
:"The metaphysical [[doctrine]] of al-Razi, insofar as it can be reconstructed, derives from his concept of the five eternal [[principles]]. God, for him, does not 'create' the world from nothing but rather arranges a [[universe]] out of pre-existing principles. His account of the soul features a mythic origin of the world in which God out of pity fashions a physical playground for the soul in response to its own desires; the soul, once fallen into the new realm God has made for it, requires God's further gift of intellect in order to find its way once more to [[salvation]] and [[Freedom (philosophy)|freedom]]. In this scheme, intellect does not appear as a separate principle but is rather a later grace of God to the soul; the soul becomes intelligent, possessed of reason and therefore able to discern the relative value of the other four principles. Whereas the five principles are eternal, intellect as such is apparently not. Such a doctrine of intellect is sharply at odds with that of all of Razi's philosophical contemporaries, who are in general either adherents of some form of Neoplatonism or of Aristotelianism. The remaining three principles, [[space]], matter and [[time]], serve as the non-animate components of the natural world. Space is defined by the relationship between the individual particles of [[matter]], or [[atoms]], and the void that surrounds them. The greater the density of material atoms, the heavier and more solid the resulting object; conversely, the larger the portion of void, the lighter and less solid. Time and matter have both an absolute, unqualified form and a limited form. Thus there is an absolute matter - pure extent - that does not depend in any way on place, just as there is a time, in this sense, that is not defined or limited by [[motion (physics)|motion]]. The absolute time of al-Razi is, like [[matter]], [[infinite]]; it thus transcends the time which Aristotle confined to the measurement of motion. Razi, in the cases of both time and matter, knew well how he differed from Aristotle and also fully accepted and intended the consequences inherent in his anti-Peripatetic positions." (Paul E. Walker)
 
 
It is quite evident that most of his thoughts were derived from the [[Islam]], which is demonstrated clearly in his book: ''The Metaphysics''.
 
 
===Excerpt from ''The Philosophical Approach''===
 
:"(...) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200 books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and [[''hekmat'']] (wisdom). (...) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my medical responsibility and advice. (...) Those who have seen me know, that I did not into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science, people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print), moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection entitled '''Al Hawi'''. It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless, I've never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most curious what they have to say about my scientific achievement. If they consider my approach incorrect, they could present their views and state their points clearly, so that I may study them, and if I determined their views to be right, I would admit it. However, if I disagreed, I would discuss the matter to prove my standpoint. If this is not the case, and they merely disagree with my approach and way of life, I would appreciate they only use my written knowledge and stop interferring with my behaviour."
 
 
:"In the "''Philosophical Biography''", as seen above, he defended his personal and philosophical life style. In this work he laid out a framework based on the idea that there is life after death full of happiness, not suffering. Rather than being self-indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, utilise his intellect and apply justice in his life. <br />According to Al-Razi: "This is what our merciful Creator wants. The One to whom we pray for reward and whose punishment we fear."<br /> In brief, man should be kind, gentle and just. Al-Razi believed that there is a close relationship between spiritual integrity and physical health. He did not implicate that the soul could avoid distress due to his fear of death. He simply states that this psychological state cannot be avoided completely unless the individual is convinced that, after death, the soul will lead a better life. This requires a thorough study of esoteric doctrines and/or religions. He focuses on the opinion of some people who think that the soul perishes when the body dies. Death is inevitable, therefore one should not pre-occupy the mind with it, because any person who continuously thinks about death will become distressed and think as if he is dying when he continuously ponders on that subject. Therefore, he should forget about it in order to avoid upsetting himself. When contemplating his destiny after death, a benevolent and good man who acts according to the ordinances of the Islamic ''Shari`ah'', has afterall nothing to fear because it indicates that he will have comfort and permanent bliss in the Hereafter. The one who doubts the ''Shari`ah'', may contemplate it, and if he dilligently does this, he will not deviate from the right path. If he falls short, Allah will excuse him and forgive his sins because it is not demanded of him to do something which he cannot achieve." (Dr. Muhammad Abdul-Hadi Abu Reidah)
 
 
===Books on philosophy===
 
This is a partial list of Razi's books on philosophy. Some books may have been copied or published under different titles.
 
*''The Small Book on Theism''
 
*''Response to Abu'al'Qasem Braw''
 
*''The Greater Book on Theism''
 
*''Modern Philosophy''
 
*''Dar Roshan Sakhtane Eshtebaah''
 
*''Dar Enteghaade Mo'tazlian''
 
*''Delsoozi Bar Motekaleman''
 
*''Meydaneh Kherad''
 
*''Khasel''
 
*''Resaaleyeh Rahnamayeh Fehrest''
 
*''Ghasideyeh Ilaahi''
 
*''Dar Alet Afarineshe Darandegan''
 
*''Shakkook''
 
*''Naghseh Ketabe Tadbir''
 
*''Naghsnamehyeh Ferforius''
 
*''Do name be Hasanebne Moharebe Ghomi''
 
 
Notable books in English are:<br />
 
* ''Spiritual Medicine''
 
* ''The Philosophical Approach'' (''Al Syrat al Falsafiah'')
 
* ''The Metaphysics''
 
 
==Quotes from Rhazes==
 
: ''Let your first thought be to strengthen your natural vitality.''
 
 
: ''Truth in medicine is an unattainable goal, and the art as described in books is far beneath the knowledge of an experienced and thoughtful physician.''
 
 
Asked if a philosopher can follow a prophetically revealed religion, al-Razi frankly replies:
 
 
: ''How can anyone think philosophically while listening to old wives' tales founded on contradictions, which obdurate ignorance, and dogmatism?''
 
 
: ''Gentility of character, friendliness and purity of mind, are found in those who are capable of thinking profoundly on abstruse matters and scientific minutiae.''
 
 
: ''Man should hasten to protect himself from love before succumbing to it and cleanse his soul from it when he falls.''
 
 
: ''The self-admirer, generally, should not glorify himself nor be so conceited that he elevates himself above his counterparts. Neither should he belittle himself to such an extent that he becomes inferior to his own peers or to those who are inferior both to him and to his fellowmen in the eyes of others. If he follows this advice, he will be freed from self-admiration and feelings of inferiority, and people will call him one who truly knows himself.''
 
 
When questioned on the subject of 'envy', Razi answers:
 
 
: ''It results from an accumulation of stinginess and avarice in the soul, being one of the diseases that cause serious harm to the soul.''
 
 
==Quotes on Rhazes==
 
:"''Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages.''" &ndash; George Sarton
 
 
:"''Rhazes remained up to the 17th century the indisputable authority of medicine.''" &ndash; The Islamic Encyclopaedia
 
 
:"''His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject.''" &ndash; The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (May 1970)
 
 
:"''In today's world we tend to see scientific advance as the product of great movements, massive grant-funded projects, and larger-than-life socio-economic forces. It is easy to forget, therefore, that many contributions stemmed from the individual efforts of scholars like Rhazes. Indeed, pharmacy can trace much of its historical foundations to the singular achievements of this ninth-century Persian scholar.''" &mdash; Michael E. Flannery
 
  
 +
<blockquote>"(...) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200 books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and [[''hekmat'']] (wisdom). (...) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my medical responsibility and advice. (...) Those who have seen me know, that I did not into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science, people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print), moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection entitled '''Al Hawi.''' It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless, I've never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most curious what they have to say about my scientific achievement. If they consider my approach incorrect, they could present their views and state their points clearly, so that I may study them, and if I determined their views to be right, I would admit it. However, if I disagreed, I would discuss the matter to prove my standpoint. If this is not the case, and they merely disagree with my approach and way of life, I would appreciate they only use my written knowledge and stop interfering with my behavior." Al-Razi, ''The Philosophical Approach'' </blockquote>
 
See also: [[List of Persian scientists]]
 
See also: [[List of Persian scientists]]
  
Line 329: Line 81:
 
* Stolyarov II, H. "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", in: ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.(2002) [http://www.geocities.com/rationalargumentator/index6.html]  
 
* Stolyarov II, H. "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", in: ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.(2002) [http://www.geocities.com/rationalargumentator/index6.html]  
  
==Bibliography==
+
 
===Ancient sources===
 
*Ibn al-Nadim, ''Fihrist'', (ed. Flugel), pp. 299 et sqq.
 
*Sa'id al-Andalusi, ''Tabaqat al-Umam'', p. 33
 
*ibn Juljul, ''Tabaqat al-Atibba w-al-Hukama'', (ed. Fu'ad Sayyid), Cairo, 1355/1936, pp. 77-78
 
*al-Biruni, ''Epitre de Beruni, contenant le repertoire des ouvres de Muhammad'' ibn ''Zakariya ar-Razi'', publiee par P. Kraus, Paris, 1936
 
*al-Baihaqi, ''Tatimmah Siwan al-Hikma'', (ed. M. Ghafi), Lahore, 1351/1932
 
*al-Qifti,''Tarikh al-Hukama'', (ed. Lippert), pp. 27-177
 
*ibn abi Usaibi'ah,''Uyun al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba'', Vol. I, pp. 309-21
 
*abu al-Faraj ibn al-'Ibri (Bar-Hebraeus),''Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Duwal'', (ed. A. Salhani), p. 291
 
*[[Ibn Khallikan]], ''Wafayat al-A'yan'',(ed. Muhyi al-Din 'Abd al-Hamid), Cairo, 1948, No. 678, pp. 244-47
 
*al-Safadi, ''Nakt al-Himyan'', pp. 249-50
 
*Ibn al-'Imad, ''Shadharat al-Dhahab'', Vol. II, p. 263
 
*al-'Umari, ''Masalik al-Absar'', Vol. V, Part 2, ff. 301-03 (photostat copy in Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah).
 
  
 
===Modern studies===
 
===Modern studies===

Revision as of 12:56, 6 October 2006

Colophon of al-Razi's Book of Medicine

Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi (Arabic: ابو بکر محمد بن زكريا الرازی; Persian: زكريای رازی Zakaria ye Razi; Latin: Rhazes or Rasis). According to al-Biruni he was born in Rayy, Iran in the year 865 C.E. (251 AH), and died there in 925 c.e.. (313 AH).

Al-Razi was a Persian physician, philosopher, alchemist and scholar who produced over 200 books and articles in various fields of science. He was well versed in Greek medical knowledge and added substantially to it from his own observations. As an alchemist, Razi is credited with the discovery of sulfuric acid, the "work horse" of modern chemistry and chemical engineering. He also wrote about ethanol and its refinement and use in medicine. His philosophical writings had an impact on the thinkers of the Islamic world, and his medical and scientific texts, translated in to Latin and later into other languages, were widely read throughout Europe.

Al-Razi was confident of the power of reason; he was regarded by his contemporaries and biographers as liberal and free from prejudice, expressing his ideas without fear of the consequences. He believed in man, progress and in "God the Wise".

The modern-day Razi Institute in Tehran, and Razi University in Kermanshah were named after him, and 'Razi Day' ('Pharmacy Day') is commemorated in Iran every August 27th. Razi's portrait adorns the great hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.

Life

According to the mathematician al-Biruni, Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi was born in Rayy, Iran in the year 865 c.e.. In Persian, Razi means "from the city of Rayy (also spelled RAY, REY, or RAI, old Persian RAGHA, Latin RHAGAE)” , an ancient town on the southern slopes of the Elburz Range that skirts the south of the Caspian Sea, situated near Tehran, Iran. In this city (like Avicenna) al-Razi produced much of his work.

In his early life he may have been a jeweler, a money-changer, or a lute-player who changed his interest from music to alchemy. Around the age of thirty or forty he stopped his study of alchemy because conducting experiments caused an eye disease which required medical treatment; some say this was why he began his medical studies. He apparently began to study medicine after his first visit to Baghdad, with 'Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari (808-855 C.E.), a physician and philosopher and a Jewish convert to Islam, belonging to the famous medical school of Tabaristan or Hyrcania. The scholar Ibn al-Nadim (d. 995) indicates that al-Rasi studied philosophy under a teacher named al-Balkhi, a pupil of Hunayn Ibn Ishaq who had traveled widely and possessed great knowledge of philosophy and the ancient Greek, Persian and Indian systems of medicine.

Al-Razi surpassed his master and became famous in his native city as a physician and a teacher. During the reign of Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad ibn Asad (Governor of Rayy from 902-908), he was appointed Director of the hospital at Rayy. Al-Razi moved from Rayy to Baghdad during Caliph Muktafi's reign (approx. 901-907), where he was head of the famous Muqtadari Hospital. He also served as physician at the Samanid court. One story relates that he determined the location for a new hospital in Baghdad by leaving pieces of meat in various quarters of the city and selecting the site where the meat rotted most slowly.

After al-Muktafi's death in 907, al-Razi allegedly returned to Rayy and gathered many students around him. According to Ibn al-Nadim in Fihrist, al-Razi was then a Shaikh (title given to one entitled to teach) "with a big head similar to a sack," surrounded by several circles of students. When someone arrived with a scientific question, this question was passed on to students of the 'first circle'. If they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle, ' and so on, until at last, when all others had failed to supply an answer, the question came to al-Razi himself. Al-Razi was said to be a generous man, who behaved humanely towards his patients, and treated the poor free of charge. When he was not occupied with pupils or patients he was said to always be writing or studying. He produced over one hundred works on medicine alone, and another hundred on alchemy, chemistry, psychology and philosophy.

Al-Rasi’s sight became weaker; he developed cataracts and finally became blind in both eyes. Some say the cause of his blindness was that he used to eat too many broad beans (baqilah). A legend says that he refused to be treated for cataract, declaring that he "had seen so much of the world that he was tired of it." One of his pupils from Tabaristan came to look after him, but, according to al-Biruni, he refused to be treated, saying it was useless as his hour of death was approaching. Some days later he died in Rayy, on October 27, 925 (5th of Sha'ban 313).

Thought and Works

Because of the prominence of his medical works Al-Razi is remembered in the West primarily as a physician, although his philosophical works triggered a barrage of criticism from other Muslim scholars and theologians. In both medicine and philosophy, he emphasized the use of reason, careful observation and a well-ordered methodology. He produced more than two hundred works, half of which were on medicine. He also wrote twenty-one books on alchemy and helped to prepare the foundations of modern chemistry. His works on mathematics, astronomy, physics and optics have been lost, but about forty of his manuscripts are extant in museums and libraries in Iran, Paris, Britain, Rampur and Bankipur. A number of his medical works were translated into Latin and European languages, and used as textbooks for several centuries. Al-Razi was considered a foremost authority on medicine through the seventeenth century.


Influence in Europe

Al-Razi was known in Europe by his Latinized name, Rhazes. Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur (Kitab al- Mansoori), a short general textbook on medicine in ten chapters (dedicated in 903 C.E. to the Samanid prince Abu Salih al-Mansur ibn Ishaq, Governor of Rayy), was translated into Latin during the twelfth century by Gerard of Cremona as Liber ad Almansoris. It became one of the most widely read medieval medical manuals in Europe. The ninth chapter was frequently published by itself as Liber nonus ad Almansorem, and many editions of it included commentaries by prominent Renaissance physicians, such as Andreas Vesalius. His Comprehensive Book on Medicine, the Hawi, was translated into Latin in 1279 under the title Continens Liber by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou to translate medical works. Al-Judari wa al-Hasbah, containing a detailed monograph on smallpox and chickenpox, was published in forty editions between 1498 and 1866. It was first translated into Latin in 1565, and appeared more than a dozen times in European languages. Several other of al-Razi’s books, including Jami-fi-al-Tib, al-Malooki, Maqalah fi al- Hasat fi Kuli wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitab al-Mafasil, Kitab-al- 'Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-Sa'ah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir also circulated in medieval Europe.

Medicine

Al-Razi relied on clinical observation, and was more concerned with remedies and treatments than with detailed classification of the symptoms of illnesses. He favored curing disease through diet and nutrition before resorting to medicines. He tested proposed remedies on animals in order to evaluate their effects before using them on humans. He was an expert surgeon and the first to report the use of opium as an anesthesia, and to introduce the use of alcohol (Arabic al-kuhl) for medical purposes. His books contain the earliest description of an operation to remove cataracts from the eyes, and he was the first to discuss the widening and narrowing of the pupil by small muscles in the eye which respond to the intensity of light. He also gave elaborate descriptions of the intervertebral foramina and the spinal chord, and correctly asserted that an injury either to the brain or spinal chord would lead to paralysis of the parts of the organs whose nerve supply was damaged or destroyed.

Al-Razi warned that even highly educated doctors could not heal every disease. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases, and commented that the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure advanced cases of cancer and leprosy. Al- Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information.

Al-Razi ‘s Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah , Book on Smallpox and Measles, was twice translated into Latin during the eighteenth century. An Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Swellingof the Head When Smelling Roses in Spring, in his book, Sense of Smelling, discusses seasonal 'rhinitis', or hay fever. Razi was the first to recognize that fever is a natural defense mechanism of the body when fighting a disease. He wrote “Man la Yahduruhu Tab” as a medical manual for the general public, dedicated to the poor, the traveler, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. In its thirty-six chapters, al-Razi described diets and remedies which could be found in a kitchen, market or military camp and gave instructions for their preparation and use.

In Doubts About Galen (Shukuk 'ala alinusor), al-Razi challenged the fundamental principles of contemporary medicine, which were based on the theories of Galen. He criticized Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate humors" (liquid substances), whose balance was the key to health and a natural body-temperature. He reported that his own clinical observations did not support Galen’s descriptions of fever. Following the ideas of Aristotle, al-Razi rejected the mind-body dichotomy and emphasized the importance of a sound mind and a positive mental attitude to good physical health. He told physicians to bolster their patients’ determination to resist illness and make a speedy recovery. Al-Razi linked the practice of medicine with philosophy, saying that a good physician must be an independent thinker. His criticisms of Galen drew accusations of arrogance and ignorance from other physicians, but al-Razi stated that he simply wished to correct what was erroneous.

"I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man Galen from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published." <\blockquote>

= Al-Hawi (The Virtuous Life)

Shortly after the death of al-Razi, Ibn al-`Amid, a statesman and scholar, purchased from al-Razi's sister the notes comprising the Hawi, or Comprehensive Book, and arranged for some of al-Razi’s students to put them in order. It was a large commonplace book, representing fifteen years of writing, in which al-Razi had collected extracts from earlier authors regarding diseases and therapy and also recorded clinical cases of his own experience. The material was arranged under the names of different diseases and pharmacological topics, and contained all the important information available from Greek and Arab sources, followed by his own comments and conclusions. The Hawi preserved fragments of early Greek, Arabic and Indian medical works which are now lost, and presented a wide variety of clinical descriptions.

The twenty volumes of Al-Hawi may be the largest medical work ever written by a single author, and were responsible for al-Razi’s reputation as the foremost medical authority of the Middle Ages. The work contained his views on Aristotle and Plato, and expressed innovative opinions on many subjects. It was first translated into Latin during the thirteenth century and had considerable influence on medicine in medieval Europe. .


Chemistry and Pharmacology

Al-Razi took a serious interest in chemistry and in the preparation of medicines, and is sometimes referred to as the father of modern pharmacology. He introduced the use of of 'mercurial ointments' and developed apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century. He also produced alcohol by fermentation of sweet substances, and used it the formulation of medicines.

Al-Razi challenged Aristotle’s theory of the Four Elements (fire, water, earth, and air), saying that his own experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as salinity, "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability, which were not readily explained by the traditional division of elements into those four categories. He dismissed the idea of potions and reliance on magic symbols, although he did not reject the idea that miracles exist in the sense of unexplained phenomena in nature. In exploring causality, he relied predominantly on the Neoplatonic concept of 'dominant' forms or essences, rather than on intellect or a mechanistic view of the cosmos.

He is known to have perfected methods of distillation and extraction, which led to his discovery of sulfuric acid (by dry distillation of vitriol, al-zajat), and alcohol. These discoveries paved the way for other Islamic alchemists.

His books presented a systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. Al-Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones, were al-Asrar ("The Secrets"), and Sirr al-Asrar ("The Secret of Secrets"). Kitab-al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), written in response to a request from Razi's friend and former student, Abu Mohammed ben Yunis, classified substances into plants, animals and minerals, laying a foundation for inorganic and organic chemistry. Sirr al-Asrar ("The Secret of Secrets") identified the drug components of plant, animal and mineral substances and the best type of each for utilization in treatment. It also listed the equipment and tools needed by either an alchemist or apothecary, and described seven alchemical procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of mercury; precipitation of sulfur and arsenic; calcination of minerals (gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron); salts; glass; production of talc from animal shells; and waxing. He also described the use of solvents and heat, and identified which stones contained mineral ores and salts. His alchemical stockroom contained the products of Persian mining and manufacturing, and included sal ammoniac, a Chinese discovery.

Half a century after his death, Ibn an-Nadim's book The Philosophers Stone (Lapis Philosophorum in Latin) testified to Al-Razi’s interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to silver and gold. Ibn Nadim attributed a series of twelve books on alchemy to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation of al-Kindi's (801-873 C.E.) denial of the validity of alchemy. In Sirr al-Asrar (Secret of Secrets) al-Razi gave procedures for coloring a silver object to imitate gold (gold leafing) and the reverse technique to change its color back to silver. He also described the gilding and silvering of other metals (alum, calcium salts, iron, copper, and zinc) and promised that the colors would last for years without tarnishing or changing.

Al- Razi's classification of minerals into six divisions anticipated modern chemistry: four spirits, al-arwah (mercury, sal ammoniac, sulfur, and arsenic sulphate (orpiment and realgar)); seven bodies, “al-ajsad” (silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (pumbago), zinc (kharsind), and tin); thirteen stones, al-ahjar (pyrites, marcasite (marqashita), magnesia, malachite, zinc oxide (tutiya), talcum, lapis lazuli, gypsum, azurite, magnesia , haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide, mica and asbestos and glass); seven viriols, “al-zajat” (alum (ak-shubub), and white (qalqadzs), black , red, and yellow (qulqutar), vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green (qalqand); seven borates, (tinkar, natron, and impure sodium borate); eleven salts, al-amlah (including brine, common table salt, ashes, naphtha, live lime, urine, sodium chloride rock, and sea salts). He defined and described each of these substances and their best quality, best colors and various adulterations.

Philosophy

Al-Razi was well-acquainted with Aristotle and incorporated some of his theory in his worldview. In philosophy, as in medicine, he believed that the task of the serious student was to elevate himself to a higher intellectual level than his predecessors, eliminating doctrines that were unclear or contradictory, and seeking accuracy and a solid intellectual foundation. Asked if a philosopher can follow a prophetically revealed religion, al-Razi frankly replied, How can anyone think philosophically while listening to old wives' tales founded on contradictions, which obdurate ignorance, and dogmatism?

Al-Razi did not accept creation ex nihilo, but asserted that God arranged a universe using pre-existent principles: creator, spirit (soul), matter, space and time. Both time and matter had an absolute, eternal form that was not related to motion or place and a limited form; unlike Aristotle, time did not exist only in relation to motion. Space, matter and time were the components of the natural world. Like Democritus, al-Razi held that matter existed in the form of indivisible and fathomable quanta. There also existed a void which was empty of matter. Space was the relationship between the particles of matter and the void surrounding them. An object whose atomic particles were dense was heavier and more solid than an object in which there was a larger proportion of void and fewer particles of matter.

Al-Razi’s theory of the soul, explained in “The Metaphysics,” was derived from Islam. He declared that God, out of pity for the desires of the eternal soul, created a physical playground for it. Once the soul fell into the new realm which God made, it required a further gift of intellect from God in order to find its way once more to salvation and freedom. This intellect was a grace endowed by God to the soul; once in possession of intellect, the soul was able to reason and discern the relative value of the other four principles, creator, matter, space and time. Unlike contemporary Neoplatonic or Aristotelian Islamic philosophers, Al-Razi did not consider the intellect to be eternal.

In his Philosophical Biography, al-Razi defended his personal and philosophical lifestyle, emphasizing that, rather than being self-indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, utilize his intellect and apply justice in his life. According to Al-Razi, "This is what our merciful Creator wants, The One to whom we pray for reward and whose punishment we fear.” Man should be kind, gentle and just. A person could not escape the fear of death unless he was convinced that his soul would lead a better life after death, and this was possible only through a careful study of religious doctrine. A person who could not believe the religious doctrine but who made a sincere effort would be forgiven by Allah, because Allah did not demand that he do something which he was incapable of achieving. Al-Razi believed that there is a close relationship between spiritual integrity and physical health.

Al-Razi’s ideas drew a barrage of criticism from contemporary Islamic theologians and Islamic philosophers, and many fragments of his lost works are preserved in the books which they wrote to refute him. Abu Hatim al-Razi (d. 934), one of the greatest Isma'ili missionaries, published his disagreements with al-Razi in his book A'lam al-Nubuwwah, and preserved al-Razi's thoughts on Prophets and Religion. Abu al-Qasim al-Balki, chief of the Mu'tazilah of Baghdad (d. 931), wrote many criticisms of al-Razi's works, especially in his book Ilm al-Ilahi, disagreeing with al-Razi’s concept of 'time'. Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi (d. prior to 940), attacked Al-Razi’s concept of pleasure in Tafdll Ladhdhat al-Nafs, which abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani quotes in his work Siwan al-Hikmah. Al-Razi protested against his critics in his “The Philosophical Approach.”


"(...) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200 books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and ''hekmat'' (wisdom). (...) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my medical responsibility and advice. (...) Those who have seen me know, that I did not into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science, people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print), moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection entitled Al Hawi. It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless, I've never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most curious what they have to say about my scientific achievement. If they consider my approach incorrect, they could present their views and state their points clearly, so that I may study them, and if I determined their views to be right, I would admit it. However, if I disagreed, I would discuss the matter to prove my standpoint. If this is not the case, and they merely disagree with my approach and way of life, I would appreciate they only use my written knowledge and stop interfering with my behavior." Al-Razi, The Philosophical Approach

See also: List of Persian scientists

References and further reading

  • M. M. Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy
  • Paul Kraus, Opera Philosophica: this is the only edition of al-Razi's philosophical books and fragments still extant. Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii Zachariae Raghensis or Opera Philosophica, fragmentaque quae superssunt. Collegit et edidit Paulus Kraus. Pars Prior. Cahirae MCMXXXIX. Only the first volume was published since Kraus's suicide prevented the publication of the second volume for which he already had gathered a great amount of material. This material was transferred, after his death, to the Institut Francais d'Archeologie Orientale, in Cairo; it still remains to be published.
  • Walker, P. "The Political Implications of al-Razi's Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.) The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 61-94.(1992)
  • Motazed, K. Mohammad Zakaria Razi
  • Stolyarov II, H. "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", in: The Rational Argumentator, Issue VI.(2002) [1]


Modern studies

  • G. S. A. Ranking, The Life and Works of Rhazes, in Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Congress of Medicine, London, 1913, pp. 237-68.
  • J. Ruska, Al-Biruni als Quelle fur das Leben und die Schriften al-Razi's, Isis, Vol. V, 1924, pp. 26-50.
  • Al-Razi als Bahnbrecher einer neuer Chemie, Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1923, pp. 118-24.
  • Die Alchemie al-Razi's der Islam, Vol. XXII,pp. 283-319.
  • Uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Razi-Forschung, Archivio di stori della scienza, 1924, Vol. V, pp. 335-47
  • H. H. Shader, ZDMG, 79, pp. 228-35 (see translation into Arabic by Abdurrahman Badawi in al-Insan al-Kamil,Islamica, Vol. XI, Cairo, 1950, pp. 37-44).
  • E. O. von Lippmann, Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, Vol. II, p. 181.
  • S. Pines, Die Atomenlehre ar-Razi's in Beitrage zur islamischen Atomenlehre, Berlin, 1936, pp. 34-93.
  • Dr. Mahmud al-Najmabadi, Shah Hal Muhammad ibn Zakariya, (1318/1900) *Encyclopaedie des Islams, s. v. (by Ruska).
  • Gamil Bek, Uqud al-Jauliar, Vol. I, pp. 118-27.
  • Izmirli Haqqi, Ilahiyat, Fak. Macm., Vol. I, p. 151; Vol. II, p. 36, Vol. III, pp. 177 et seq.
  • Abdurrahman Badawi, Min Tarlkh al-Ilhad fi al-Islam Islamica, Vol. II, Cairo, 1945, pp. 198-228.
  • Hirschberg,Geschichte der Augenheilkunde, p. 101.
  • E. G.Browne, Arabian Medicine, Cambridge, 1921, pp. 44-53.
  • M. Meyerhof, Legacy of Islam, pp. 323 et seq.
  • F. Wüstenfeld, Geschichte der Arabischen Arzte und Naturforscher, ftn. 98.
  • L. Leelerc, Histoire de la medicine arabe, Paris, 1876, Vol. I, pp. 337-54.
  • H. P. J. Renaud, A propos du millenaire de Razes, in bulletin de la Societe Irancaise d'Histoire de la medicine, Mars-avril, 1931, pp. 203 et seq.
  • A. Eisen, Kimiya al-Razi, RAAD, DIB, 62/4.
  • Aldo Mieli, La science arabe, Leiden, 1938, pp. 8, 16.

Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, see. Razes: The Secret of Secrets, p.273, also pp.197-200, and Anawati: L'Alchemie arabe in Rased.

  • A.J. Arberry (transl.), The spiritual Physik of Rhazes (London, John Murray 1950).

Editions of philosophical works

See C. Brockelmann for the manuscript of al-Razi's extant books in general, see Brockelmann,GAL, I, pp. 268-71 (second edition), Suppl., Vol. I, pp. 418-21. Cf. Paul Kraus: Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii Zachariae Raghensis, Opera Philosophica, fragmentaque quae superssunt. Collegit et edidit Paulus Kraus. Pars Prior. Cahirae MCMXXXIX.

See also

  • List of Iranian scientists

External links

ar:أبوبكر الرازي da:Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi de:Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi es:Al-Razi fa:محمد زکریای رازی fr:Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi id:Al-Razi it:Rhazes he:אל ראזי la:Rhazes ms:Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Zakaria al-Razi sv:Al-Razi

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