Scripture

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Scriptures are sacred texts used by religious communities to invoke a deeper connection with the divine, to foster communal identity, and to guide spiritual practice. Many religions and spiritual movements believe that their scriptures are wholly divine or inspired in origin. Monotheistic religions often view their sacred texts as the "Word of God" or divine revelation.

The English term "scripture" is derived from the Latin scriptura, meaning "a writing". The Latin term did not originally denote a writing of religious or spiritual significance, as the oldest sources attest. However, by the time the New Testament was written popular usage of "scriptura" implied a work of divine origin or inspiration.

In the English language, the term scripture is used to describe any religion's sacred text, such as Hindu scriptures, Jewish scriptures, etc. However, when capitalized in English literature, the word "Scripture" generally refers to the sacred texts of the Bible, also referred to as Holy Scripture.

Historical evidence suggests the Rigveda of Hinduism was composed between roughly 1500–1300 B.C.E., making it one of the world's oldest religious text. The oldest portions of the Zoroastrian Avesta are believed to have been transmitted orally for centuries before they found written form, and although widely differing dates for Gathic Avestan (the language of the oldest texts) have been proposed, scholarly consensus floats at around 1000 B.C.E. (roughly contemporary to the Brahmana period of Vedic Sanskrit). The first printed scripture for wide distribution to the masses was The Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist scripture, printed in the year 868 C.E.

Understandings of Scripture

Scripture is not a literary genre - indeed, it encompasses almost all varieties of literature. At different times and in different traditions, prose, poetry, histories and instructional manuals were all considered scripture. Thus coming to a definition of scripture that is clear, concise, and accurate is an impossible task. It is crucial to recognize that oral traditions, such as those that exist or have existed in Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and the traditions of the indigenous North and South Americans, among many others, ought to be recognized as a form of scripture, though the usage of the word here is counter-intuitive. Though these oral traditions may have not been recorded until relatively late in their respective histories (if at all), they serve the same role as written scripture. Ultimately, it is left to the members of a religion to decide what is considered scripture within their own tradition.

Scripture in the Western Religions

The Western religions have, in general, been "religions of the book". Scripture plays the central role in the Abrahamic faiths of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Other religions from that region, like Manichaeism and Druze, are no different.

Scripture in the Eastern Religions

Sūtra (सूत्र) (Sanskrit) or Sutta (Pāli) literally means a rope or thread that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. It is derived from the verbal root siv-, meaning to sew (these words, including English to sew and Latinate suture, all derive from PIE *syū-). In Hinduism the 'sutras' form a school of Vedic study, related to and somewhat later than the Upanishads. They served and continue to act as grand treatises on various schools of Hindu Philosophy. They elaborate in succinct verse, sometimes esoteric, Hindu views of metaphysics, cosmogony, the human condition, moksha (liberation), and how to maintain a blissful, dharmic life, in a cosmic spin of karma, reincarnation and desire.

In Buddhism, the term "sutra" refers generally to canonical scriptures that are regarded as records of the oral teachings of Gautama Buddha. In Chinese, these are known as ching. These teachings are assembled in the second part of the Tripitaka which is called Sutra Pitaka. There are also some Buddhist texts, such as the Platform Sutra, that are called sutras despite being attributed to much later authors. The Pali form of the word, sutta is used exclusively to refer to Buddhist scriptures, particularly those of the Pali Canon.

Uses of Scripture

Scripture as Literature and Language

Attitudes to sacred texts differ between religious traditions, and can change over time within a faith group. Some religions make written texts widely available, while others hold that sacred secrets must remain hidden from all but the loyal and the initiate. For instance, in the formative years of Christianity, the Gospels were available only to those who had been baptized and unavailable to the uninitiated. However, in modern Christianity the Gospels are central in proselytizing and conversion, often before baptism. Some religions make texts available gratis or in subsidised form; others require payment and the strict observance of copyright, such as the New Relgious Movement Scientology. References to scriptures profit from standardisation: the Guru Granth Sahib (or Adi Granth) of Sikhism always appears with standardised page numbering while the Abrahamic religions and their offshoots favour chapter and verse pointers.

Most religions promulgate policies defining the limits of the sacred texts and controlling or forbidding changes and additions. Translations of texts may receive official blessing in order to further disseminate doctrine. Buddhism is a prime example of a tradition that encouraged translation - as Buddhism spread texts were translated from Pali and Sanskrit to Tibetan, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, and Vietnamese, among other languages. Many texts exist now only in translation. The need to translate was often a motivating factor in the development of written language - the Tibetan and Thai writing systems were in part developed to record Buddhist works in those languages. However, translation is not always encouraged - an original sacred language often has de facto, absolute or exclusive paramouncy. The Qur'an of Islam is a text that, though translated, is thought to be only truly inspired by God when read in its original Classical Arabic. The Vedas of Hindusim are also strongly connected to their original language (Sanskrit), due to both the importance of sound in Indian spiritual thought, and to the Vedas long preservation only in oral tradition. At times translations can be believed to be just as important and inspired as the original text, as in the case of the Septuagint, a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Koine Greek, revered by Hellenized Jews around the first century B.C.E. Policy regarding translation has an appreciable impact on the growth of a tradition, especially in early stages. Critical points in Protestant Christian history were the translations of the Bible by John Wycliffe and Martin Luther into their respective vernacular languages.

The grammar, vocabulary and style of scripture often becomes the standard against which later language is judged. This is especially true of the Qur'an, which is considered by the Muslim world as the finest use of Arabic, though modern colloquial Arabic is somewhat removed from the language of the Qur'an (as is expected - any language that endures is likely to evolve). In imperial China the Classics (jing 經) were looked upon by educated Confucians as perfected writings, with style to which they would aspire to emulate. Even the King James Bible, itself a translation, is widely revered by many modern English speaking Christians.

Organization and Study of Scripture

Hierographology (Greek ιερος, hieros, "sacred" or "holy", + γραφος, graphos, "writing", + λογος, logos, "word" or "reason") (archaically hierology) is the study of sacred texts.

Increasingly, sacred texts of many cultures are studied within academic contexts, primarily to increase understanding of other cultures, whether ancient or contemporary. Sometimes this involves the extension of the principles of higher criticism to the texts of many faiths. It may also involve a comparative study of religious texts. The hierographology of the Qur'an can be particularly controversial, especially when questioning the accuracy of Islamic traditions about the text.


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References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Monier-Williams, Monier. (1899) A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass. p. 1241

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