Difference between revisions of "Romeo and Juliet" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Romeo and juliet brown.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Romeo and Juliet'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]]]]
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[[Image:Romeo and juliet brown.jpg|thumb|right|''Romeo and Juliet'' in the famous balcony scene by [[Ford Madox Brown]]]]
  
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'''''Romeo and Juliet''''' is a world-renowned [[tragedy]] by [[William Shakespeare]] concerning two young "[[Star-crossed|star-cross'd lovers]]" and the role played by their tragic [[suicide]]s in ending a long-running [[feud|family feud]]. It is one of the most famous of Shakespeare's plays, one of his earliest theatrical triumphs, and is thought to be the most [[archetype|archetypal]] love story of the [[Renaissance]] and indeed in the history of [[Western culture]].
  
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''''' The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet''''' is a [[tragedy]] by [[William Shakespeare]] concerning the fate of two young "[[Star-crossed|star-cross'd lovers]]". It is one of the most famous of Shakespeare's plays, one of his earliest theatrical triumphs, and is thought to be the most [[archetype|archetypal]] love story of the [[Renaissance]] and indeed the history of Western culture.
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Although ''Romeo and Juliet'' belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back at least as far as the Ancient Greeks, it is based on an Italian tale, the earliest known version dating to 1476. In 1562, Arthur Brooke translated one of the Italian tales into English, which was then retold in prose by [[William Painter]]. Brooke's poem and Painter's short story are considered to be Shakespeare's sources for ''Romeo and Juliet''. Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both, but developed their minor characters, such as [[Mercutio]] and [[Count Paris]], in order to expand the plot. Although it is unknown exactly when the play was written, most scholars agree on 1595-1596. The first know publication of the play was in Shakespeare's [[First Quarto]], published in 1597. Later editions, such as the [[Second Quarto]] corrected the first version to make it more in line with Shakespeare's original text.
  
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==Sources==
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Scholarly analysis of the play has praised the play in many areas: Shakespeare's use of dramatic structure, especially his expansion of minor characters and use of subplots to embellish the story. With language, Sheakespeare ascribes different poetic skills to different characters as they develop. Romeo, for example, grows more adept in the sonnet form as they play continues. No overarching theme for the play has been agreed upon by scholars. Still, analysis frequently focuses on a few non-encompassing themes, such as love and fate.
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[[Image:Verona01a.jpg|thumb|left|A bronze statue of Juliet below the famous balcony at Villa Capelletti in [[Verona]], [[Italy]] ]]
 
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''Romeo and Juliet'' is a dramatisation of [[Arthur Brooke]]'s narrative poem ''[[The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet]]'' (1562). Shakespeare followed Brooke's poem closely<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Sources of Romeo and Juliet|author=Arthur J. Roberts|journal=Modern Language Notes|volume=17|issue=2|year=Feb 1902|pages=41-44}}</ref> but enriched its texture by adding extra detail to both major and minor characters, in particular the Nurse and [[Mercutio]]. Shakespeare also knew ''"The goodly History of the true and constant love of Rhomeo and Julietta"'', a prose retelling of the story by [[William Painter]].<ref>N. H. Keeble "York Notes on Romeo and Juliet" (Longman, 1980) p.18</ref>
 
  
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Brooke's poem was not original either, being a translation and adaptation of [[Giuletta e Romeo]], by [[Matteo Bandello]], included in his ''Novelle'' of 1554.  This was in turn an adaptation of [[Luigi da Porto]]'s [[Giulietta e Romeo]], included in his [[Istoria novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti]] (c. 1530).<ref>Moore, Olin. "Bandello and Clizia." ''Modern Language Notes'' 52 (1937): 38-44.</ref> This is the version that gave the story much of its modern form, including the names of the lovers, the rival families of Montecchi and Capuleti, and the location in [[Verona]], in the [[Veneto]]. However, the earliest-known version of the tale is the 1476 story of Mariotto and Gianozza of [[Siena]] by [[Masuccio Salernitano]], in [[Il Novellino]] (Novella XXXIII).<ref>Hosley, Richard, editor. ''Romeo and Juliet''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 168.</ref>
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''Romeo and Juliet'' has been adapted several times.
  
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Bandello's story was the most famous and was translated into French (and into English by Brooke). It was also adapted by Italian theatrical troupes, some of whom performed in London at the time that Shakespeare was writing his plays. Although nothing is known of the repertory of these itinerant troupes, it is possible that they performed a version of the story.<ref>[[Madeline Doran]], ''Endeavors of Art''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1954: 132.</ref>  
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==Sources==
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[[Image:Arthur Brooke Tragicall His.jpg|left|thumb|Frontispiece of Brooke's poem, ''Romeus and Juliet''.]]
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''Romeo and Juliet'' is a dramatization of [[Arthur Brooke]]'s narrative poem ''[[The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet]]'' (1562). Shakespeare followed Brooke's poem closely<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Sources of Romeo and Juliet|author=Arthur J. Roberts|journal=Modern Language Notes|volume=17|issue=2|year=Feb 1902|pages=41-44}}</ref> but enriched its texture by adding extra detail to both major and minor characters, in particular the Nurse and [[Mercutio]]. Shakespeare also knew ''"The goodly History of the true and constant love of Rhomeo and Julietta"'', a prose retelling of the story by [[William Painter]], published in a compilation of Italian tales entitled ''Palace of Pleasure'' (1582).<ref>N. H. Keeble "York Notes on Romeo and Juliet" (Longman, 1980) p.18</ref> Painter's version was part of a common theme among writers and playwrights in publishing works based on Italian ''novelles''. At the time of Shakespeare's ''Romeo and Juliet'', Italian tales were very popular among theater-goers.  Gibbons considers Shakespeare took advantage of this, as evidenced by his writing of ''[[All's Well That Ends Well]]'' and ''[[Measure for Measure]]'' along with ''Romeo and Juliet''. Critics of the day even complained of how often such Italian tales were borrowed to please the crowds.  The stories were so popular that the tale of ''Romeo and Juliet'' had been played on stage before Shakespeare wrote his version of it.<ref>Gibbons, Brian. ''Romeo and Juliet''. London: Methuen, 1980.  pg. 32-33. ISBN 0-416-17850-2</ref>
  
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This story of ill-fated lovers had obvious parallels with similar tales told throughout history, including those of [[Hero and Leander]], [[Pyramus and Thisbe]], [[Floris and Blanchefleur]], [[Troilus and Cressida]], [[Antony and Cleopatra]], [[Layla and Majnun]], [[Tristan and Iseult]], [[Chosroes and Shirin|Shirin and Farhad]] and [[Hagbard and Signy]]. Shakespeare was familiar with these stories, some of which were included in his other plays.  The tale of Pyramus and Thisbe appears in comic mode in [[A Midsummer Night's Dream]], while the Trojan War lovers, Troilus and Cressida, were given a history play of their own.
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<!-- [[Image:Romeo e Giulietta Da porto.jpg|right|thumb|Frontispiece of Luigi da Porto's ''Giulietta e Romeo'', c. 1530 - one of the earliest known renderings of the tale.]] —>
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In keeping with this tradition of borrowing from Italy, Arthur Brooke's poem was actually a translation and adaptation of the Italian ''Giuletta e Romeo'', by [[Matteo Bandello]], included in his ''Novelle'' of 1554.<ref name = moore>Moore, Olin. "Bandello and Clizia." ''Modern Language Notes'' 52 (1937): 38-44.</ref> Bandello's story was the most famous and was translated into French (and into English by Brooke). It was also adapted by Italian theatrical troupes, some of whom performed in London at the time that Shakespeare was writing his plays.  Although nothing is known of the repertory of these itinerant troupes, it is possible that they performed a version of the story.<ref>[[Madeleine Doran]], ''Endeavors of Art''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1954: 132.</ref>
  
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Bandello's version was in turn an adaptation of [[Luigi da Porto]]'s ''Giulietta e Romeo'', included in his ''Istoria novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti'' (c. 1530).<ref name = moore/> Da Porto's version gave the story much of its modern form, including the names of the lovers, the rival families of Montecchi and Capuleti, and the location in [[Verona]], in the [[Veneto]].<ref name = Hosley>Hosley, Richard, editor. ''Romeo and Juliet''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 168.</ref> [[Image:Pyramus and Thisbe.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pyramus and Thisbe]]: Their tragic story seems to have connections with Shakespeare's ''Romeo and Juliet''.]] Da Porto also is probably the source of the traditions that ''Romeo and Juliet'' is based on a true story.<ref name = tradition>Gibbons, pg. 34</ref> The names of the families (in Italian, the Montecchi and Capelletti) were actual political factions of the thirteenth century.<ref>Moore, Olin H. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0038-7134%28193007%295%3A3%3C264%3ATOOTLO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V "The Origins of the Legend of Romeo and Juliet in Italy"] ''Speculum.'' (July 1930) 5.3 pgs. 264-277</ref> To this day the tomb and balcony of Guilietta are still a popular tourist spot in Verona, although scholars have disputed all claims that the story really occurred.<ref name = tradition/> Before Da Porto, the earliest known version of the tale is the 1476 story of Mariotto and Gianozza of [[Siena]] by [[Masuccio Salernitano]], in ''[[Il Novellino]]'' (Novella XXXIII).<ref name = Hosley/>
  
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==Date and Text==
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Further back, ''Romeo and Juliet'' borrows from a tradition of tragic love stories going back at least as far as the [[Ancient Greeks]]. The story of [[Pyramus and Thisbe]], for example, is thought by many scholars to have influenced da Porto's version of the story. This tale contains parallels in the hatred of the two lovers' parents for each other, as well as Pyramus' falsely believing his mistress Thisbe is dead.<ref>Furness, Henry Howard (ed). ''A New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet''. New York:Dover Publications, Inc. 1963.</ref> [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Geoffrey Chaucer's]] ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' also had an effect on Arthur Brooke's ''Romeus and Juliet'', with Brooke adjusting the Italian translation to reflect parts of this English classic. The ''[[Ephesian Tale|Ephisiaca]]'' of [[Xenophon]] of [[Ephesus]], written in the [[third century]], also contains several similarities to the play, such as a separation of lovers, and a potion which causes a deathlike sleep. [[Christopher Marlowe|Christopher Marlowe's]] ''[[Hero and Leander]]'' and ''[[Dido, Queen of Carthage]]'' are similar stories written much closer to Shakespeare's day, but are thought to be less of a direct influence, although they may have created an atmosphere in which tragic love stories could thrive.<ref>Gibbons, pgs. 36-37</ref>
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[[Image:Romeo and juliet title page.jpg |thumb|300px|right|Title page of the Second Quarto of ''Romeo and Juliet'' (published 1599)]]
 
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Shakespeare's ''Romeo and Juliet'' was published in two distinct [[book size|quarto]] editions prior to the publication of the [[First Folio]] of 1623. These are referred to as [[First quarto|Q1]] and [[Second quarto|Q2]].
 
  
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Q1, the first printed edition, appeared in 1597, printed by John Danter. Because its text contains numerous differences from the later editions, it is labelled a '[[bad quarto]]': the twentieth century editor T. J .B. Spencer described it as "a detestable text, probably a reconstruction of the play from the imperfect memories of one or two of the actors."<ref>T. J. B Spencer (ed.) The New Penguin Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" (Penguin, London, 1967) "An account of the Text" p.284</ref>
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==Date and text==
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[[Image:Romeo and juliet title page.jpg |thumb|right|Title page of the Second Quarto of ''Romeo and Juliet'' (published 1599)]]
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The exact date in which Shakespeare wrote ''Romeo and Juliet'' is unknown.  Scholars estimate that it may have been written in 1595 or 1596, though some argue for the year 1591. Juliet's nurse refers to an earthquake which occurred eleven years ago. An earthquake had occurred in England in 1580, dating that statement to 1591. The play's stylistic similarities with ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', as well as evidence of performances at the time (the play was becoming popular at around 1595), place the play in 1595 or 1596. Most agree that he may have begun a draft in 1591, which he completed in 1595-6.<ref>Draper, John W. "The Date of Romeo and Juliet." ''The Review of English Studies'' (Jan 1949) 25.97 pgs. 55-57</ref><ref>Gibbons, pgs. 26-31</ref>
  
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The superior [[Second quarto|Q2]] followed in [[1599]], published by Cuthbert Burby and printed by Thomas Creede. It is a much more complete and reliable text, and was reprinted in 1609 (Q3), 1622 (Q4) and 1637 (Q5).<ref>T. J. B Spencer (ed.) The New Penguin Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" (Penguin, London, 1967) "An account of the Text" p.286</ref> Its title page describes it as "Newly corrected, augmented and amended". Scholars believe that this text was based on Shakespeare's pre-performance draft, since there are textual oddities such as variable tags for characters and "false starts" for speeches that were presumably struck through by the author but erroneously preserved by the typesetter.<ref>T. J. B Spencer (ed.) The New Penguin Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" (Penguin, London, 1967) "An account of the Text" p.280</ref> Q2 contains 800 lines missing from [[first quarto|Q1]]. Q2 also has an interestingly defective stage direction: it reads "Enter [[William Kempe|Will Kempe]]" instead of "Enter Peter" in IV,v,102.
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Shakespeare's ''Romeo and Juliet'' was published in two distinct [[book size|quarto]] editions prior to the publication of the [[First Folio]] of 1623. These are referred to as [[First quarto|Q1]] and [[Second quarto|Q2]]. Q1, the first printed edition, appeared in 1597, printed by John Danter. Because its text contains numerous differences from the later editions, it is labelled a '[[bad quarto]]': the twentieth century editor T. J .B. Spencer described it as "a detestable text, probably a reconstruction of the play from the imperfect memories of one or two of the actors."<ref name = quartos>T. J. B Spencer (ed.) The New Penguin Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" (Penguin, London, 1967) "An account of the Text" p.284</ref> Q1 indicates that, along with many other playwrights of the time, Shakespeare's plays were probably heavily edited before performances by playing companies, and ''Romeo and Juliet'' is no exception.<ref name = Jay>Halio, Jay. Romeo and Juliet. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998. pg. 1 ISBN 0-313-30089-5</ref>
  
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The First Folio text of 1623 seems to be based primarily on Q3, with some clarifications and corrections possibly coming from a theatrical promptbook.<ref>T. J. B Spencer (ed.) The New Penguin Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" (Penguin, London, 1967) "An account of the Text" p.286</ref>
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The superior [[Second quarto|Q2]] called the play ''The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedie of Romeo and Juliet''. It was printed in [[1599]], published by Cuthbert Burby and printed by Thomas Creede. Q2 is about 800 lines longer than [[first quarto|Q1]].<ref name = Jay/> Its title page describes it as "Newly corrected, augmented and amended". Scholars believe that this text was based on Shakespeare's pre-performance draft, (called his [[foul papers]]), since there are textual oddities such as variable tags for characters and "false starts" for speeches that were presumably struck through by the author but erroneously preserved by the typesetter. It is a much more complete and reliable text, and was reprinted in 1609 (Q3), 1622 (Q4) and 1637 (Q5).<ref name = quartos/> In fact, all later Quartos and Folios of ''Romeo and Juliet'' are based on Q2, offering little additional information on Shakespeare's original work.<ref>Jay, pg. 2</ref>
  
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The greater part of ''Romeo and Juliet'' is written in [[iambic pentameter]].  However, the play is also notable for its copious use of [[rhyme]]d verse, notably in the [[sonnet]] contained in Romeo and Juliet's dialogue in the scene where they first meet (Act I, Scene v, Lines 95-108).
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The First Folio text of 1623 seems to be based primarily on Q3, with clarifications and corrections possibly coming from a theatrical promptbook or Q1.<ref name = quartos/><ref>Gibbons, pg. 21</ref> Other [[Folio]] editions of the play were printed in 1632 (F2), 1664 (F3), and 1685 (F4).<ref>Gibbons, ix</ref> Modern versions considering several of the Folios and Quartos began printing with [[Nicholas Rowe|Nicholas Rowe's]] 1709 edition, followed by [[Alexander Pope|Alexander Pope's]] 1723 version. Pope began a tradition of editing the play to add information such as stage directions missing in Q2 by locating them in Q1. This tradition continued late into the Romantic period. Fully annotated editions began printing in the Victorian period and continue to this day, printing the text of the play with footnotes describing the sources and culture behind the play.<ref>Jay, pg. 8-9</ref>
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==Performance history==
 
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''Romeo and Juliet'' was a popular play in Shakespeare's lifetime. Gary Taylor measures it as the sixth most popular of Shakespeare's plays, in the period after the death of [[Christopher Marlowe|Marlowe]] and [[Thomas Kyd|Kyd]] but before the ascendancy of [[Ben Jonson|Jonson]] during which Shakespeare was London's dominant playwright.<ref>Gary Taylor "Shakespeare Plays on Renaissance Stages" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p.18. The five more popular plays, in descending order, are [[Henry VI, Part 1]], [[Richard III (play)|Richard III]], [[Pericles, Prince of Tyre|Pericles]], [[Hamlet]] and [[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]</ref>
 
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After the theatres re-opened in the [[English Restoration|Restoration]], Sir [[William Davenant]] staged a 1662 production in which [[Henry Harris]] played Romeo, [[Thomas Betterton]] was Mercutio, and Betterton's wife [[Mary Saunderson]] played Juliet.<ref>Van Lennep, William, editor. ''The London Stage, 1660-1800''. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1965: 1:48.</ref> [[Thomas Otway]]'s adaptation ''The History and Fall of Caius Marius'', one of the more extreme of the Restoration versions of Shakespeare, debuted in 1679. The scene is shifted from Renaissance Verona to ancient Rome; Romeo is Marius, Juliet is Lavinia, the feud is between patricians and plebians; Juliet/Lavina wakes from her potion before Romeo/Marius dies. Otway's version was a hit, and was acted for the next seventy years. [[Theophilus Cibber]] mounted his own adaptation in 1744, followed by [[David Garrick]]'s in 1748. Both Cibber and Garrick used variations on Otway's innovation in the tomb scene.<ref>Jean I. Marsden "Shakespeare from the Restoration to Garrick" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) pp.26-27</ref>
 
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In 1750 came the so-called "Battle of the Romeos," with [[Spranger Barry]] and [[Susannah Maria Arne]] (Mrs. Theophilus Cibber) at [[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden]] versus [[David Garrick]] and [[George Anne Bellamy]] at [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane|Drury Lane]].<ref>Pedicord, Harry William. ''The Theatrical Public in the Time of David Garrick''. New York: King's Crown Press, 1954: 14.</ref> Shakespeare's original returned to the stage in 1845 in the United States (with the sisters [[Charlotte Saunders Cushman|Charlotte]] and Susan Cushman as Romeo and Juliet),<ref>[[Charlotte Saunders Cushman]] played Romeo 54 years before [[Sarah Bernhardt]] played Hamlet.</ref><ref>Penny Gay "Women and Shakespearean Performance" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p.162</ref> and in 1847 in Britain ([[Samuel Phelps]] at [[Sadler's Wells Theatre|Sadler's Wells]]).<ref>F. E. Halliday, ''A Shakespeare Companion 1564-1964,'' Baltimore, Penguin, 1964; pp. 125, 365, 420.</ref>
 
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[[Henry Irving]]'s 1882 production at the [[Lyceum Theatre, London|Lyceum Theatre]] is considered an archetype of his "pictorial" style, placing the action on elaborate sets. Irving hmself played Romeo, and [[Ellen Terry]] played Juliet.<ref>Richard W. Scooch "Pictorial Shakespeare" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) pp.62-63</ref>
 
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In one of the most notable twentieth century performances, staged by [[John Gielgud]] at the [[Noël Coward Theatre|New Theatre]] in 1934, Gielgud and [[Laurence Olivier]] played the roles of Romeo and Mercutio, exchanging roles six weeks into the run, with [[Peggy Ashcroft]] as Juliet.<ref>Robert Smallwood "Twentieth-century Performance" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p.102</ref>
 
  
 
==Characters==
 
==Characters==
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[[Image:Leighton - Reconciliation watercolor.jpg|thumb|270px|right|''The Reconciliation of the Montagues and Capulets'' (1854) by [[Frederic Leighton]]]]
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[[Image:Romeo Montague with poison.jpg|thumb|right|[[Romeo (character)|Romeo]] (here portrayed by [[actor]] Jacob Blumenfeld)]]
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[[Image:Juliet - Philip H. Calderon.jpg|thumb|right|''Juliet'' by [[Philip H. Calderon]]]]
 
'''Ruling house of Verona
 
'''Ruling house of Verona
 
'''
 
'''
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*'''[[Prince Escalus]]''': Prince of Verona
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*'''[[Prince Escalus]]''': Prince of [[Verona]]
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*'''[[Count Paris]]''': Kinsman of Prince Escalus; desires to marry Juliet.
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*'''[[Count Paris]]''': Kin of Prince Escalus; desires to marry Juliet.
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*'''[[Mercutio]]''': Another kinsman of Prince Escalus; a friend of Romeo.
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*'''[[Mercutio]]''': Another kinsman of Prince Escalus and friend of Romeo. His name derives from [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]].
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'''[[Capulets]]'''
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'''Capulets'''
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*'''[[Lord Capulet]]''': Patriarch of the house of Capulet.
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*'''[[Lord Capulet]]''': Head of the house of Capulet.
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*'''[[Capulet family|Lady Capulet]]''': Matriarch of the house of Capulet; wishes Juliet to marry Paris.
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*'''[[Capulet family|Lady Capulet]]''': Wife of Lord Capulet; wishes Juliet to marry Paris.
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*'''[[Juliet Capulet|Juliet]]''': Daughter of the Capulets; the female protagonist.
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*'''[[Juliet Capulet|Juliet]]''': Thirteen-year-old daughter of the Capulets; the female protagonist.
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*'''[[Tybalt]]''': Cousin of Juliet, nephew of Lady Capulet.
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*'''[[Tybalt]]''': Cousin of Juliet; angry and pugnacious. His nickname of ''"the Prince of Cats"'' may refer to the quarrelsome and vicious character of Tybalt the Cat in the fable cycle [[Reynard the Fox]], which would have been well-known to Shakespeare's audience.
 
 
'''Capulet Servants'''
 
'''Capulet Servants'''
 
*'''Nurse''': Juliet's personal attendant and confidante: a comic figure who took care of little Juliet ever since she was an [[infant]].
 
*'''Nurse''': Juliet's personal attendant and confidante: a comic figure who took care of little Juliet ever since she was an [[infant]].
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*'''Peter''': Capulet servant, assistant of the nurse.
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*'''Peter''': Capulet servant, assistant to the nurse, iliterate
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*'''Sampson''': Capulet servant; eager to fight the Montagues.
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*'''Sampson''': Capulet servant.
 
*'''Gregory''': Capulet servant.
 
*'''Gregory''': Capulet servant.
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'''Montagues'''
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'''[[Montagues]]'''
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*'''[[Montagues|Montague]]''': Head of the house of Montague.
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*'''[[Lord Montague]]''': Patriach of the house of Montague.
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*'''[[Montagues|Lady Montague]]''': Wife of Lord Montague
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*'''[[Montagues|Lady Montague]]''': Matriarch of the house of Montague
 
*'''[[Romeo Montague|Romeo]]''': Son of the Montagues; the male protagonist.
 
*'''[[Romeo Montague|Romeo]]''': Son of the Montagues; the male protagonist.
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*'''[[Benvolio]]''': Cousin of Romeo. His name means "good-will".
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*'''[[Benvolio]]''': Cousin and friend of Romeo.  
 
'''Montague Servants'''
 
'''Montague Servants'''
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*'''Abram''': Montague servant.
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*'''Abraham''': Montague servant.
 
*'''Balthasar''': Romeo's personal servant.
 
*'''Balthasar''': Romeo's personal servant.
 
'''Others'''
 
'''Others'''
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*'''[[Friar Lawrence]]''': a Franciscan friar and Romeo's confidant; he marries Romeo and Juliet. He makes potions from herbs.
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*'''[[Friar Lawrence]]''': a Franciscan friar and Romeo's confidant.
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*'''Friar John''': Another friar sent by Friar Lawrence to tell Romeo that Juliet awaits him; fails in this mission.
 
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*'''Apothecary''': Druggist who reluctantly sells Romeo the poison.
 
 
*'''Chorus''', who gives the opening [[prologue]] and one other speech, both in the form of a [[Shakespearean sonnet]].
 
*'''Chorus''', who gives the opening [[prologue]] and one other speech, both in the form of a [[Shakespearean sonnet]].
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*'''[[Rosaline]]''', an [[unseen character]] with whom Romeo briefly falls in love with before meeting Juliet.
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*'''Friar John''': Another friar who is sent to deliver Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo.
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*'''[[Apothecary]]''': Druggist who reluctantly sells Romeo poison.
  
 
==Synopsis==
 
==Synopsis==
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{{Spoiler}}
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{{quote|"Two Households, both alike in dignity ..."|Chorus}}
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[[Image:Francesco Hayez 053.jpg|thumb|right|275px|''Romeo and Juliet'' by [[Francesco Hayez]]]]
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[[Image:Francesco Hayez 053.jpg|thumb|right|''Romeo and Juliet'' by [[Francesco Hayez]]]]
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The play begins with a 14-line [[prologue]] by a Chorus in the form of a [[Shakespearean sonnet]].
 
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The Chorus explains to the audience that the story concerns two noble families of [[Verona]], the
 
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[[Capulets]] and the [[Montagues]], that have [[feud]]ed for generations. The prologue also explains that
 
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the lovers' tragic [[suicide]]s "bury their parents' strife."
 
  
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The action proper starts with a street-battle between the two families' servants.  The Prince of [[Verona]], [[Prince Escalus|Escalus]], finally intervenes with his men.  The Prince declares that the heads of the two families will be held personally accountable for any further breach of the peace, and disperses the crowd.  
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The play begins with a street-battle between two families, the Montagues and the Capulets.  The Prince of [[Verona]], [[Prince Escalus|Escalus]], intervenes with his men and declares that the heads of the two families will be held personally accountable for any further breach of the peace.
  
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[[Count Paris]], a young nobleman, talks to Capulet about marrying his thirteen-year-old daughter, [[Juliet Capulet|Juliet]]. Capulet demurs, citing the girl's tender age, and invites him to attract the attention of Juliet during a [[Masquerade ball|ball]] that the family is to hold that night. Meanwhile Juliet's mother tries to persuade her young daughter to accept Paris' wooing during their coming ball. Young Juliet admits to not having considered marriage, but accedes to her mother's wishes as a dutiful daughter. This scene also introduces Juliet's nurse, the comic relief of the play.
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Later, [[Count Paris]], a young nobleman, talks to Lord Capulet about marrying his thirteen-year-old daughter, [[Juliet Capulet|Juliet]]. Capulet demurs, citing the girl's tender age, and invites him to attract the attention of Juliet during a [[Masquerade ball|ball]] that the family is to hold that night. Meanwhile, Juliet's mother tries to persuade her daughter to accept Paris' wooing during their coming ball. Juliet states that she will make an effort to love him, but will not go after what is not there. In this scene Juliet's nurse is introduced as a talkative and humorous character who has raised Juliet from infancy.
  
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Meantime, [[Benvolio]] queries his cousin [[Romeo Montague|Romeo]], Montague's son, to find out the source of his melancholy. He discovers that it stems from an unrequited love of a girl named [[Rosaline]], (an [[unseen character]]). Despite the playful taunts of nobleman and friend [[Mercutio]], Romeo decides to attend the masquerade at the Capulet house, in hope of meeting Rosaline.
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Meantime, [[Benvolio]] queries his cousin [[Romeo Montague|Romeo]], Lord Montague's son, to find out the source of his melancholy. He discovers that it stems from an unrequited love for a girl named [[Rosaline]]. Upon the insistence of Benvolio and another friend, [[Mercutio]], Romeo decides to attend the masquerade at the Capulet house, in hope of meeting Rosaline.
  
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Alongside his masked friends, Romeo attends the ball as planned, but falls instead for Juliet, and she with him. In the famous [[balcony scene]], the two eloquently declare their love for each other. This scene contains arguably the most famous line of Romeo and Juliet, "Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?" spoken by Juliet to the darkness ("wherefore" means "why" not "where" &mdash; Juliet is lamenting that Romeo is a Montague, and thus her enemy).
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Alongside his masked friends, Romeo attends the ball as planned, but instead falls for Juliet, and she with him. After discovering that the lovers are of feuding blood, Romeo and Juliet meet on Juliet's balcony. Despite their families' feud, the two declare their love for each other and their intent to marry. With the help of the [[Franciscan]] [[Friar Lawrence]], who hopes to reconcile the two families through their children's union, the two are [[marriage|married]] secretly the next day.
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The young lovers decide to marry without informing their parents, with the Nurse as an intermediary.
 
  
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With the help of the [[Franciscan]] [[Friar Lawrence]], who hoped to reconcile the two families through their children's union, the two are [[marriage|married]] that next day.
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All seems well until [[Tybalt]], Juliet's hot-blooded [[cousin]], challenges Romeo to a [[duel]] for appearing in the Capulets' ball disguised. Though no one is aware of the marriage yet, Romeo refuses to fight Tybalt since they are now kinsmen.  Mercutio is incensed by Tybalt's insolence, and accepts on Romeo's behalf. In the ensuing duel, Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo tries to intervene. Romeo, angered by his friend's death, pursues and slays Tybalt, then flees.
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[[Image:Leighton - Reconciliation watercolor.jpg|thumb|left|''The Reconciliation of the Montagues and Capulets'' (1854) by [[Frederic Leighton]]]]
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Despite his promise to call for the head of the wrong-doers, the Prince merely [[exile]]s Romeo from Verona, reasoning that Tybalt first killed Mercutio, and Romeo merely carried out a just punishment to Tybalt, although without legal authority. Meanwhile, the Capulets engage their unwilling daughter to marry Paris in three days' time, threatening to disown her if she does not. The Nurse, once Juliet's confidante, now tells her she should discard the exiled Romeo and comply. Juliet desperately visits Friar Lawrence for help. He offers her a [[drug]] which will put her into a death-like coma for forty-two hours. She is to take it, and, when discovered apparently dead, she will be laid in the family [[crypt]]. While in her sleep, the Friar will send a messenger to inform Romeo, so that she can rejoin him when she awakes.
  
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Events take a darker turn in Act Three. [[Tybalt]], Juliet's hot-blooded [[cousin]], challenges Romeo to a [[duel]] for appearing in the Capulets' ball disguised. Romeo refuses to fight Tybalt as they are now kinsmen by marriage, but Mercutio, Romeo's companion, who is also unaware of the marriage, is incensed by Tybalt's insolence and accepts instead. In the ensuing duel, Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo tries to intervene. Romeo, angered by his friend's death, pursues and slays Tybalt, then flees.  
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The messenger, however, does not reach Romeo. Romeo instead learns of Juliet's "death" from his servant Balthasar. Grief-stricken, he buys strong [[poison]] from an [[apothecary]], returns to Verona in secret, and visits the Capulets' crypt. He encounters Paris, who has come to mourn Juliet privately. Paris confronts Romeo, believing him to be a vandal, and in the ensuing battle, Romeo kills Paris. Romeo says his final words to the comatose Juliet and drinks the poison in [[suicide]]. Juliet then awakes. Friar Lawrence arrives and, aware of the cause of the tragedy, begs Juliet to leave, but she refuses. At the side of Romeo's dead body, she stabs herself with her lover's dagger.
  
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A grieving Prince proclaims his judgement: he fines the head of each house heavily, and [[exile]]s Romeo from Verona, in recognition that Tybalt had first killed Mercutio, who had not only been Romeo's friend but a kinsman of the Prince.
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The feuding families and the Prince meet at the tomb to find three of their families' dead. In explanation, Friar Lawrence recounts the story of the two lovers. Montague reveals that his wife has died of grief after hearing of her son's exile. The families are reconciled by their children's deaths and agree to end their violent feud.  The play ends with the Prince's brief [[elegy]] for the lovers. The Capulets erect a statue of Romeo and the Montagues will erect one of Juliet. The Prince makes his parting words: "For never was a story of more woe Than this of Juliet and her Romeo."
  
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Meanwhile the Capulets had engaged their unwilling daughter to marry Paris in three days' time, threatening to disown her if she does not. The Nurse, once her confidante, tells Juliet she should discard the exiled Romeo and comply.
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==Analysis==
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[[Image:Johann Heinrich Füssli 060.jpg|left|thumb|275px|Romeo at Juliet's Deathbed, by [[Johann Heinrich Füssli]]]]
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[[Image:Johann Heinrich Füssli 060.jpg|right|thumb|Romeo at Juliet's Deathbed, by [[Johann Heinrich Füssli]]]]
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Juliet visits Friar Lawrence, who comes up with a plan: he hands her a [[drug]] which will put her into a death-like coma for "two and forty hours" (Act IV. Scene I); she is to take it and when discovered apparently dead, she will be laid in the family [[crypt]]. Meanwhile, the Friar will send a messenger to inform Romeo, so that she can rejoin him when she awakes.
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===Dramatic structure===
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The enforced messenge does not reach Romeo, however, due to a [[plague]] quarantine. Romeo learns of Juliet's supposed "death" from his servant Balthasar. Grief-stricken, he buys strong [[poison]] from an [[apothecary]], returns to Verona in secret, and visits the Capulets' crypt, encountering Paris, who has come to mourn Juliet privately. Paris confronts Romeo, believing him to be a vandal. In the ensuing battle, Romeo kills Paris in the darkness. After burying Paris within the Capulet monument, Romeo says his final words to the comatose Juliet and drinks the poison in [[suicide]].
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Shakespeare shows his dramatic skill freely in ''Romeo and Juliet'', providing intense moments of shift between comedy and tragedy, and weaving plots and subplots to paint a clearer picture of the story.  Before Mercutio's death in Act three, the play is largely a comedy.<ref>Shapiro, Stephen A. "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0010-0994%28196404%2925%3A7%3C498%3ARAJRCT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O Romeo and Juliet: Reversals, Contraries, Transformations, and Ambivalence]." ''College English''. 25.7 (Apr 1964) pp. 498-501 doi:10.2307/373235</ref> After his accidental demise, the play suddenly becomes very serious and takes on more of a tragic tone. Still, the fact that Romeo is banished, rather than executed, offers a hope that things will work out. When Friar Laurence offers Juliet a plan to reunite her with Romeo the audience still has a reason to believe that all will end well. They are in a "breathless state of suspense" by the opening of the last scene in the tomb: If Romeo is delayed long enough for the Friar to arrive, he and Juliet may yet be saved.<ref>Bonnard, Georges A. "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0034-6551%28195110%292%3A2%3A8%3C319%3ARAJAPS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F Romeo and Juliet: A Possible Significance?]." ''The Review of English Studies: New Series.'' 2.8 (Oct 1951) pp. 319-327</ref> This only makes it all the more tragic when everything falls apart in the end.<ref name = plot>Halio, pgs. 20-30</ref>
  
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At this point Juliet awakes. Friar Lawrence arrives, and aware of the tragedies which have ensued from misunderstanding, tries to convince Juliet to leave, but she refuses. Discovering her lover's dead body, she stabs herself fatally with Romeo's dagger.
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Subplots offer a clearer view of the actions of the main characters, and provide an axis around which the main plot turns. For example, when the play begins, Romeo is in love with Rosaline, who has refused all of his advances.  Romeo's infatuation with her stands in obvious contrast to his later love for Juliet. This provides a comparison through which the audience can see the seriousness of Romeo and Juliet's love and marriage. Paris' love for Juliet also sets up a contrast between Juliet's feelings for him and her feelings for Romeo. The formal language she uses around Paris, as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo. Beyond this, the sub-plot of the Montague-Capulet feud overarches the whole play, providing an atmosphere of hate that is the main contributor to the play's tragic end<ref name = plot/>
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[[Image:JulietandNurse.gif|thumb|left|Shakespeare gave Juliet's nurse a unique style of [[blank verse]] in her dialogue.]]
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The two feuding families and the Prince meet at the tomb and are horrified to find three new casualties. A captured Friar Lawrence then recounts the love and secret marriage of Romeo and Juliet, and how the tragedies occurred. It is revealed by Montague that his wife has died of grief after hearing of her son's exile, thus completing the cycle of two family members from each house being lost. The families are reconciled by their children's deaths and agree to end their violent feud, as foretold by the prologue. The play ends with the Prince's brief [[elegy]] for the lovers. {{endspoiler}}
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===Language===
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Shakespeare uses a large variety of poetic forms throughout the play. The play begins with a 14-line [[prologue]] by a Chorus in the form of a [[Shakespearean sonnet]]. The greater part of ''Romeo and Juliet'' is written in [[iambic pentameter]]. Though the most common form is [[blank verse]], Shakespeare uses it less often in this play than in his later plays.  Shakespeare matches the forms to the characters who use them. Friar Laurence, for example, uses [[sermon]] and [[sententiae]] forms, and the Nurse uses a unique [[blank verse]] form that closely matches colloquial speech. The forms are also molded and matched to characters and to the emotion of the scene they occupy.  For example, when Romeo talks about Rosaline earlier in the play, he uses the [[Petrarchan sonnet]] form. Petrarchan sonnets classically were used by men to exaggerate the beauty of women who were impossible for them to attain, much like Romeo's situation with Rosaline.  This sonnet form is also used by Lady Capulet to describe Count Paris to Juliet as a handsome (though not unattainable) man.  When Romeo and Juliet meet, the poetic form changes from the Petrarchan (which was becoming archaic in Shakespeare's day) to a more contemporary sonnet form, using the language of "pilgrims" and "saints". Finally, when the two meet on the balcony, Romeo attempts to use the sonnet form to pledge his love to her, but Juliet breaks it by saying "Dost thou love me?"<ref>II.ii.90</ref> By doing this, she is searching for the reality, rather than the exaggeration of their love. Other forms include an [[epithalamium]] by Juliet, a [[rhapsody]] in Mercutio's [[Queen Mab]] speech, and an [[elegy]] by Paris. Shakespeare also uses a prose style, most often for the common people in the play, though at times for other characters, such as Mercutio.<ref name = lang>Halio, pgs. 48-60</ref>
  
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==Adaptations and cultural references==
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===Themes and motifs===
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===Plays===
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Scholars have found it extremely difficult to assign one specific, over-arching theme to the play. Bowling considers the main theme to be "the discovery" by the characters that human beings are neither wholly good nor wholly evil, but instead are "more or less alike".<ref name= "Bowling">Bowling, Lawrence Edward. "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0030-8129%28194903%2964%3A1%3C208%3ATTFORA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W The Thematic Framework of Romeo and Juliet]." ''PMLA.'' 64.1 (Mar 1949) pp. 208-220 doi:10.2307/459678</ref> Numerous other attempts have proposed that the theme is awaking out of a dream and into reality, or the danger of hasty action, or the power of tragic fate.  None of these have widespread support. However, even if an overall theme cannot be found it is clear that the play is full of several small, thematic elements which intertwine in complex ways. Several of those which are most often debated by scholars are discussed below.<ref>Halio, pg. 65</ref>
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====Love====
 
[[Image:Romeo and Juliet.jpg|thumb|right|Romeo and Juliet statue in [[Central Park]] in [[New York City]].]]
 
[[Image:Romeo and Juliet.jpg|thumb|right|Romeo and Juliet statue in [[Central Park]] in [[New York City]].]]
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Adaptations of Romeo and Juliet have used modern settings. For instance, a version of the play which had Romeo as a [[Palestinian]] and Juliet as a [[Jew]] in [[Israel]] and the [[Palestinian territories]] were made, which criticizes the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].<ref>Pape, Ilan. "Post-Zionist Critique on Israel and the Palestinians Part III: Popular Culture." ''Journal of Palestine Studies'' 26 (1997): 69.</ref> Similarly, versions have also been devised dealing with [[apartheid]] in [[South Africa]], in which Romeo is black and Juliet is white.<ref>Quince, Rohan. ''Shakespeare in South Africa: Stage Productions During the Apartheid Era''. New York: Peter Lang, 2000: 121-125</ref>
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''Romeo and Juliet'' is sometimes considered to have no unifying theme, save that of young love.<ref name= "Bowling"/> In fact, the characters in it have become emblems all who die young for their lovers. Several scholars have pointed out the different ways Shakespeare describes love in the play. On their first meeting, Romeo and Juliet use a form of communication recommended by many love advisers in Shakespeare's day: metaphor.  By using the metaphor of saints and sins, Romeo can test Juliet's feelings for him in a non-threatening way. This method was recommended by [[Baldassare Castiglione]] (whose works had been translated into English by this time), because the woman could pretend she didn't understand the metaphor, and the man could take the hint and back away without losing his honor. Juliet, however, makes it clear that she is interested in Romeo, and plays along with his metaphor. Later, in the balcony scene, Shakespeare has Romeo overhear Juliet's declaration of love for him. In Brooke's version of the story, her declaration is done in her bedroom, alone. By bringing Romeo to eavesdrop, Shakespeare breaks from the normal sequence of courtship. Usually, a woman was required to play hard to get, in order to be sure that her suitor was sincere. His breaking the sequence, however, serves to speed along the plot. The lovers are able to skip a lengthy part of wooing, and move on to straight talk about their relationship—developing into an agreement to be married after knowing each other for only one night.<ref>Honegger, T. "'Wouldst thou withdraw love's faithful vow?' The negotiation of love in the orchard scene - (Romeo and Juliet Act II)" ''Journal of Historical Pragmatics''. 2006 7.1 pgs. 73-88</ref>
  
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A Native American version called "Kino and Teresa" was first produced in 2005 by Native Voices at the Autry in Los Angeles.  Written by James Lujan, the historical play was set in 17th Century Santa Fe, seventeen years after the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 and revolved around the conflict between the Pueblo Indians and Spanish colonists.<ref>{{cite web|last=Klugman|first=Deborah|url=http://www.laweekly.com/index.php?option=com_lsd&task=film&Itemid=109&id=81675|title=Kino and Teresa review|publisher=[[LA Weekly]]|accessdate=2007-02-17}}</ref>
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The play arguably equates love and sex with death. Throughout it, both Romeo and Juliet fantasize about [[Death (personification)|death]], often equating him with a lover. Capluet, when first discovering Juliet's faked death, describes Death as having deflowered his daughter. Juliet even compares Romeo to death in an erotic way.  One of the strongest examples of this in the play is in Juliet's suicide, when she says, grabbing Romeo's dagger, "O happy dagger! / ...This is thy sheath / there rust, and let me die." The dagger here can be a sort of [[phallus]] of Romeo, with Juliet being its sheath in death, a strong sexual symbol intertwined with death.<ref>C. G., MacKenzie. "Love, sex and death in 'Romeo and Juliet'." ''English Studies'' (Feb 2007) 88.1 pgs. 22-42</ref>
  
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===Opera===
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In the middle ages, Love was considered to be a powerful god and force of nature with power over all humanity.  In this final suicide scene, there is a  contradiction in the message - in Christianity, suiciders are condemned to hell, whereas people who die to be with their loves under the "[[Courtly love|Religion of Love]]" are joined with their loves in paradise.  Romeo and Juliet's love seems to be expressing the "Religion of Love" view rather than the Christian view.  Another point is that although their love is passionate, it is only consummated in marriage, which prevents them from losing the audience's sympathy.<ref>Christianity and the Religion of Love</ref>
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The story was converted into the [[opera]] ''[[Roméo et Juliette]]'' by [[Charles Gounod]] in [[1867]] with a [[libretto]] written by [[Jules Barbier]] and [[Michel Carré]].
 
  
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The ''Romeo and Juliet'' story was also the subject of [[Vincenzo Bellini]]'s opera ''[[I Capuleti e i Montecchi]]'', although Bellini and his librettist, [[Felice Romani]], worked from Italian sources, and these were only distantly related to Shakespeare's work.
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====Fate and chance====
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Scholars are divided on the role of fate in the play.  No consensus exists on whether the characters are truly fated to die together no matter what they do, or whether these event take place by a series of unlucky chances.  In one argument, Romeo and Juliet are star-crossed, they are fated never to be together.  In attempting to defy this fate, they ensure it. These arguments often refer to the description of the lovers as "star-cross'd", a phrase in the play that seems to hint that the stars have determined the lovers' fates.<ref>Evans, Bertrand. "The Brevity of Friar Laurence." ''PMLA'' 65.5 (September 1950): 841-865.</ref> One scholar of the fate persuasion, Draper, points out that several parallels can be drawn between the Elizabethan belief in [[Humorism|humours]] and the main characters of the play (for example, Tybalt as a choleric). Interpreting the text in the light of the Elizabethan-era science of humourism reduces the amount of the plot that is attributed to chance by a modern audience. Still, some scholars see the play as a mere series of unlucky chances to such a degree that it is not a tragedy at all, but an emotional melodrama.<ref name= "Draperhumorism">Draper, J. W. "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0034-6551%28193901%291%3A15%3A57%3C16%3AS%22L%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C Shakespeare's 'Star-Crossed Lovers']." ''The Review of English Studies.'' 15.57 (Jan 1939) pp. 16-34</ref> One scholar highlighting the role of chance in the play, Nevo, believes the high degree to which chance is stressed in the narrative makes Romeo and Juliet a "lesser tragedy" of chance, not of character.  Romeo's challenging Tybalt is not impulsive, it is, after Mercutio's death, the expected action to take.  In this scene, Nevo reads Romeo as being aware of the dangers of flouting social norms, identity and commitments. He makes the choice to kill, not because of a [[tragic flaw]], but because of circumstance.<ref name="Nevo Tragic Form"/>
  
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In 2004 American composer [[Lee Hoiby]] also adapted ''Romeo and Juliet'' to write an opera of the same name.
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====Light and dark====
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{{pquote|"In ''Romeo and Juliet''...the dominating image is light, every form and manifestation of it; the sun, moon, stars, fire, lightning, the flash of gunpowder, and the reflected light of beauty and of love; while by contrast we have night, darkness, clouds, rain, mist, and smoke."|Caroline Spurgeon|<ref name = parker>Parker, D. H. "Light and Dark Imagery in Romeo and Juliet." ''Queen's Quarterly.'' 1968 75.4 pgs. 663-674</ref>}}
  
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"[[Butterfly Lovers]]", a [[Chinese Opera]], is commonly known as the Chinese version of Romeo and Juliet.
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Scholars have long noted Shakespeare's widespread use of light and dark imagery throughout the play. The light theme was initially taken to be "symbolic of the natural beauty of young love", an idea beginning in Caroline Spurgeon's work ''Shakespeare's Imagery and What It Tells Us,'' although the perceived meaning has since its publication branched in several directions.<ref name="Nevo Tragic Form"/><ref name = parker/> The play contrasts light and dark in several ways.  For example, both Romeo and Juliet see the other as light in a surrounding darkness. Romeo describes Juliet as being like the sun,<ref>II.ii</ref> brighter than a torch,<ref>I.v.42</ref> a jewel sparkling in the night,<ref>I.v.44-45</ref> and a bright angel among dark clouds.<ref>II.ii.26-32</ref>  Even when she lies apparently dead in the tomb, he says her "beauty makes / This vault a feasting presence full of light."<ref>I.v.85-86</ref> Juliet describes Romeo as "day in night" and "Whiter than snow upon a raven's back."<ref>III.ii.17-19</ref><ref>Halio, pgs. 55-56</ref> This contrast of light and dark can be expanded as contrasting love and hate, youth and age in a metaphoric way.<ref name="Nevo Tragic Form">Nevo, Ruth. "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0039-3657%28196921%299%3A2%3C241%3ATFIRAJ%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O Tragic Form in Romeo and Juliet]." ''Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900: Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama.'' 9.2  (Spring 1969) pp. 241-258 doi:10.2307/449778</ref> Sometimes the metaphor creates a dramatic irony.  For example, Romeo and Juliet's love is a light in the midst of the darkness of the hate around them, but all of their activity together is done in night and darkness, while all of the feuding is done in broad daylight. This paradox of imagery adds to the moral dillema facing the two lovers: loyalty to family or loyalty to love. This in turn adds significant dramatic effect and emotion to the story. At the end of the story, when the morning is gloomy and the sun hiding its face for sorrow, light and dark has been returned to its proper place, the outward darkness, reflecting the true, inner darkness of the family feud, out of sorrow for the lovers.  All characters now recognize their folly in light of recent events, and things return to the natural order, thanks to the love of Romeo and Juliet.<ref name = parker/>  The "light" theme in the play is also heavily connected to the theme of time, since light was a convienient way for Shakespeare to express the passage of time through descriptions of the sun, moon, and stars.<ref name="time"/>
  
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===Ballet===
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====Time====
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Several [[ballet]] adaptations of the story have been made, the first written in the 18th century.  The best known feature music by [[Sergei Prokofiev]], and a variety of choreographers have used this music. The first version featuring Prokofiev's music was performed in [[1938]]. See: [[Romeo and Juliet (Prokofiev)]]
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Time plays an important role in the language and plot of the play. Both Romeo and Juliet refer to their struggle to maintain an imaginary world void of time and full of love in the face of the harsh realities of unstoppable time that surround them. For instance, when Romeo attempts to swear his love to Juliet by the moon, Juliet tells him not to, as it is known to be inconstant over time, and she does not desire this of him. From the very beginning, the lovers are designated as "star-cross'd"<ref>Prologue</ref> referring to an [[astrology|astrologic]] belief which is heavily connected to time. Stars were thought to control the fates of men, and as time passed, stars would move along their course in the sky, also charting the course of human lives below. Romeo speaks of a foreboding he feels in the stars movements' early in the play, and when he learns of Juliet's death, he defies the stars' course for him.
  
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===Musical===
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A "haste theme" can be considered as fundamental to the play.<ref name = time>Tanselle, G. Thomas. "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-3222(196423)15%3A4%3C349%3ATIRAJ%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z Time in Romeo and Juliet]." ''Shakespeare Quarterly.'' 15.4 (Autumn 1964) pp. 349-361 doi:10.2307/2868092</ref> For example, the action of ''Romeo and Juliet'' is generally considered to span a period of four to six days, in contrast to Brooke's poem spanning nine months.  Scholars such as Tanselle believe that time was "especially important to Shakespeare" in this play, as he used references to "short-time" for the young lovers as opposed to references to "long-time" for the "older generation" to highlight "a headlong rush towards doom".<ref name = time/> Romeo and Juliet repeatedly attempt to fight the effects of time in the world around them in their desire for their love to last forever. In the end, the only way they see to defeat time is through a timeless death which makes them noteworthy enough to be made immortal through art.<ref name = luck>Lucking, D. "Uncomfortable time in Romeo and Juliet." ''English Studies.'' (Apr 2001) 82.2 pgs. 115-26. ISSN: 0013-838X</ref>
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''Romeo and Juliet'' has been adapted in many ways over the years quite subtly. It is the basis for many famous musicals, most famously ''[[West Side Story]]''.
 
  
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The "[[Romeo and Juliet (Tchaikovsky)|Romeo and Juliet Fantasy Overture]]" (1869, revised 1870, 1880), by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Peter Tchaikovsky]], contains one of the world's most famous melodies. The tremendously famous love theme in the middle of this long symphonic poem has been used countless times in commercials and movies.
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Time is heavily connected to the theme of light and dark, as well.  Shakespeare's play is said in the Prologue to be about two hours long, creating a paradox for any playwright.<ref name = luck/> In Shakespeare's day, plays were often performed at noon in broad daylight, requiring the playwright to create his own methods for the illusion of passing time in his plays. Shakespeare uses references to the light and dark of night and day, the stars, the moon, and the sun to create this illusion.  He also has characters frequently refer to days of the week and specific hours of the day to help the audience understand that time has passed in the story. All in all, no fewer than 103 specific references to time are found in the play, adding to this illusion of its passage.<ref>Halio, pgs. 55-58</ref><ref>Driver, Tom F. "The Shakespearian Clock: Time and the Vision of Reality in Romeo and Juliet and the Tempest." ''Shakespeare Quarterly.'' (Oct 1964) 15.4 pgs. 363-370</ref>
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*Draper also finds significance in the summer setting of the play, whereas Brooke's poem opens in winter and spanned nine months. Draper considers the summer setting of the play to contribute to the escalating conflicts in the narrative, due to the Elizabethan science of humorism.<ref name= "Draperhumorism"/> —>
  
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In 1957, the [[Musical theater|musical]] ''[[West Side Story]]'' debuted on Broadway, with music by [[Leonard Bernstein]] and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]]. This version of "Romeo and Juliet" updated the setting to mid-[[20th century]] [[New York City]] and the warring families to ethnic gangs. ''West Side Story'' opened on the West End in London in 1958 and then was released as a film in 1961.  
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===Other approaches===
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====Psychoanalytic====
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[[Psychoanalytic criticism|Psychoanalytic critics]] focus largely on Romeo's depressive state with Rosaline before he meets Juliet, as well as the function of hate in their relationship as a result of the family feud. The looming image of inevitable death is explored as well. This line of criticism argues that Shakespeare is in love with Juliet because she is to him the all-present, all-powerful mother which he needs to fill a void he feels in his own mother. The feud between the families provides a source of phallic expression for the male Capulets and Montagues This sets up a system where patriarchal order is in power. When the sons are married, rather than focusing on the wife, they are still owed an obligation to their father and family.  This conflict between obligation to the father (the family name) and the wife (the feminine), determines the course of the play. Some critics argue this hatred is the sole cause of Romeo and Juliet's passion for each other. The fear of death and the knowledge of the danger of their risking a relationship is in this view channeled into a romantic passion.<ref>Halio, pgs. 81-87</ref>
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[[Image:Romeo and Juliet with Friar Laurence - Henry William Bunbury.jpg|thumb|Feminist literary critics have pointed out Juliet's dependence on male characters, such as Friar Laurence and Romeo.]]
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====Feminist====
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[[Feminist literary criticism|Feminist critics]] also point out that the blame for the family feud lies in the patriarchal order of society in Verona. The strict, masculine code of violence imposed on Romeo is the main force driving the tragedy to its end.  When Tybalt kills Mercutio, for example, Romeo shifts into this violent mode, regretting that Juliet has made him so "effeminate".<ref>III.i.112</ref> Juliet also submits to a female code of docility by allowing others, such as the Friar, to solve her problems for her. Other critics, such as Dympna Callaghan, look at the play's feminism from a more [[historicist]] angle.  They take into account the fact that the play is written during a time when the patriarchal order was being challenged by several forces, most notably the rise of Puritanism, which viewed marriage and sexuality as less of a necessary evil than other philosophies had done. For example, when Juliet dodges her father's attempt to force her to marry Paris in an attempt to stay with the man she really has feelings for, she is successfully challenging the patriarchal order in a way that would not have been possible at an earlier time.<ref>Halio, pg. 87-92</ref>
  
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In 1999, [[Terrence Mann]]'s rock musical ''William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet'', co-written with Jerome Korman, premiered at the Ordway Theatre in St. Paul, Minnesota. It was not a critical success.
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====Gender studies====
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[[Gender studies|Gender studies critics]] largely question the sexuality of two characters, Mercutio and Romeo. The argument centers around the difference between sexual love and friendship, a difference which, in this view, Shakespeare discusses heavily in the play. Mercutio's friendship with Romeo, for example, leads to several friendly conversations, including ones on the subject of Romeo's [[phallus]]. This would seem to suggest traces of homoeroticism.<ref>Halio, pgs. 85-87</ref> Romeo, as well, admits traces of the same in his love for Rosaline and Juliet. Rosaline, it seems, is distant and unavailable except in the mind, bringing no hope of offspring.  As Benvolio argues, she is best replaced by someone who will reciprocate.  Shakespeare's [[procreation sonnets]] describe another young man who, like Romeo, is having trouble finding such a person, and who (possibly also like Romeo) is homosexual. In this view, when Juliet says "...that which we call a rose / By any other name would smell as sweet",<ref>Act 2 Scene 2</ref> she may be raising the question of whether there is any difference between the beauty of a man and the beauty of a woman.<ref name = queer>Goldberg, Jonathan. ''Queering the Renaissance.'' Durham: Duke University Press (1994), 221-227. ISBN 0-8223-1385-5</ref>
  
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''[[Roméo et Juliette, de la Haine à l'Amour]]'', a musical by [[Gérard Presgurvic]], premiered on January 19, 2001 in the Palais de Congrès in Paris, France. By 2005, it had already attracted some six million people.
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==Performances and adaptations==
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===Stage history===
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[[Image:Richard Burbage Portrait at Dulwich Picture gallery.jpg|thumb|right|[[Richard Burbage]], probably one of the first actors to portray [[Romeo Montague|Romeo]].<ref>Halio, 97</ref>]]''Romeo and Juliet'' was a popular play in Shakespeare's lifetime. Gary Taylor measures it as the sixth most popular of Shakespeare's plays, in the period after the death of [[Christopher Marlowe|Marlowe]] and [[Thomas Kyd|Kyd]] but before the ascendancy of [[Ben Jonson|Jonson]] during which Shakespeare was London's dominant playwright.<ref>Gary Taylor "Shakespeare Plays on Renaissance Stages" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p.18. The five more popular plays, in descending order, are [[Henry VI, Part 1]], [[Richard III (play)|Richard III]], [[Pericles, Prince of Tyre|Pericles]], [[Hamlet]] and [[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]</ref> The exact date of the first performance of Shakespeare's ''Romeo and Juliet'', however, is unknown. The First Quarto, printed in 1597, says that "it hath been often (and with great applause) plaid publiquely," setting the first performance prior to that date. The [[Lord Chamberlain's Men]] were certainly the first to perform it. Besides their strong connections with Shakespeare, the Second Quarto actually names one of its actors, [[Will Kemp]], instead of Peter in a line in Act five. Thus, [[Richard Burbage]] was probably the first Romeo, being the company's leading actor, and Master Robert Goffe (a male) the first Juliet.<ref>Halio, 97</ref>
  
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"[[Once on This Island]]" is another musical adaptation that takes on the Romeo and Juliet theme.  These star crossed lovers, Ti Moune and Daniel, were fated to love one another even with the pressures of their class and ethnic backgrounds upon them. However, it was only through death that they could be together.
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After the theatres re-opened in the [[English Restoration|Restoration]], Sir [[William Davenant]] staged a 1662 production in which [[Henry Harris]] played Romeo, [[Thomas Betterton]] was Mercutio, and Betterton's wife [[Mary Saunderson]] played Juliet.<ref>Van Lennep, William, editor. ''The London Stage, 1660-1800''. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1965: 1:48.</ref> (Mrs. Saunderson was probably the first female to play Juliet professionally.<ref>Halio, 100</ref>) This play was criticized by [[Samuel Pepys]] as the worst he had ever heard. Versions immediately following this were changed to tragicomedies, where the two lovers did not die in the end.<ref>Halio, 100</ref> [[Thomas Otway]]'s adaptation ''The History and Fall of Caius Marius'', one of the more extreme of the Restoration versions of Shakespeare, debuted in 1680. The scene is shifted from Renaissance Verona to ancient Rome; Romeo is Marius, Juliet is Lavinia, the feud is between patricians and plebians; Juliet/Lavina wakes from her potion before Romeo/Marius dies. Otway's version was a hit, and was acted for the next seventy years. It altered the sexual language of the play as well, toning down the Queen Mab speech, for example.<ref>Halio, 100</ref> [[Theophilus Cibber]] mounted his own adaptation in 1744, followed by [[David Garrick]]'s in 1748. Both Cibber and Garrick used variations on Otway's innovation in the tomb scene.<ref>Jean I. Marsden "Shakespeare from the Restoration to Garrick" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) pp.26-27</ref> These versions also eliminated elements deemed inappropriate for the time. For example, Garrick's version transferred all language describing Rosaline to Juliet, in order to heighten the idea of faithfulness and downplay the love-at-first-sight theme.<ref>Branam, George C. "The Genesis of David Garrick's Romeo and Juliet." Shakespeare Quarterly 35.2 (July 1984): 170-179.</ref><ref>Stone, George Winchester, Jr. "Romeo and Juliet: The Source of its Modern Stage Career." Shakespeare Quarterly 15.2 (April 1964): 191-206.</ref> In 1750 a "Battle of the Romeos" began, with [[Spranger Barry]] and [[Susannah Maria Arne]] (Mrs. Theophilus Cibber) at [[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden]] versus [[David Garrick]] and [[George Anne Bellamy]] at [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane|Drury Lane]].<ref>Pedicord, Harry William. ''The Theatrical Public in the Time of David Garrick''. New York: King's Crown Press, 1954: 14.</ref>
  
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===Film===
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Garrick's altered version of the play was very popular, and ran for nearly a century.<ref>Halio, 101</ref> Not until 1845 did Shakespeare's original returned to the stage in the United States (with the sisters [[Charlotte Saunders Cushman|Charlotte]] and Susan Cushman as Romeo and Juliet),<ref>[[Charlotte Saunders Cushman]] played Romeo 54 years before [[Sarah Bernhardt]] played Hamlet.</ref><ref>Penny Gay "Women and Shakespearean Performance" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p.162</ref> and in 1847 in Britain ([[Samuel Phelps]] at [[Sadler's Wells Theatre|Sadler's Wells]]).<ref>F. E. Halliday, ''A Shakespeare Companion 1564-1964,'' Baltimore, Penguin, 1964; pp. 125, 365, 420.</ref> Saunders actively reverted Garrick's additions and changes to the original, and adhered to Shakespeare's version, beginning a string of eighty-four performances. Her portrayal of Romeo was considered genius by many, as she called more attention to Romeo's character than other's, making the play largely his tragedy. Cushman's success broke the Garrick tradition and paved the way for later plays.<ref>Halio, 102</ref> [[Henry Irving]]'s 1882 production at the [[Lyceum Theatre, London|Lyceum Theatre]] is considered an archetype of his "pictorial" style, placing the action on elaborate sets. Irving hmself played Romeo, and [[Ellen Terry]] played Juliet.<ref>Richard W. Scooch "Pictorial Shakespeare" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) pp.62-63</ref> In 1895, actor [[Forbes-Robertson]] took over for Irving, and laid the groundwork for a more natural portrayal of Shakespeare that remains popular today. Forbes-Robertson avoided the showiness of Irving and instead portrayed a down-to-earth Romeo, expressing the poetic dialogue as realistic prose and avoiding melodramatic flourish. Meanwhile,, American theaters began performing the play, eventually rivaling their British counterparts with the likes of [[Edwin Booth]] (brother to [[John Wilkes Booth]]) and [[Mary McVicker]] as Romeo and Juliet. The play found popularity throughout continental Europe, as well.<ref>Halio, 104-105</ref>
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''See also [[Shakespeare on screen#Romeo and Juliet|Shakespeare on screen (Romeo and Juliet)]]
 
  
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====Film performances====
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In one of the most notable twentieth century performances, staged by [[John Gielgud]] at the [[Noël Coward Theatre|New Theatre]] in 1935, Gielgud and [[Laurence Olivier]] played the roles of Romeo and Mercutio, exchanging roles six weeks into the run, with [[Peggy Ashcroft]] as Juliet.<ref>Robert Smallwood "Twentieth-century Performance" in [[Stanley Wells]] and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p.102</ref>
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There have been over forty movie versions of the tale, with the first made in [[France]] in [[1900]].  Some of the more notable adaptations include:
 
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;1908 - ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1908 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'',  a [[silent film]] made by [[Vitagraph Studios]].
 
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:The first [[United States|American]] production, it was directed by [[J. Stuart Blackton]], the film starred [[Paul Panzer]] as Romeo and [[Florence Lawrence]] as Juliet.
 
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;1936 - ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1936 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'', produced by [[Irving Thalberg]] and directed by  [[George Cukor]]
 
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:The 1936 screen version was one of the more notable of [[Classical Hollywood cinema|Classical Hollywood]]. Thalberg spared no expense, and showcased his wife, [[Norma Shearer]], in the lead role. Romeo was played by [[Leslie Howard (actor)|Leslie Howard]], [[John Barrymore]] was Mercutio, and [[Andy Devine]] was Peter, the servant to Juliet's nurse. However, the film was criticized because Howard and Shearer were both considerably older than the scripted roles.
 
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:[[Academy Awards]] nominations:
 
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:*[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] - [[Irving Thalberg]], producer
 
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:*Best Actor in a Supporting Role - [[Basil Rathbone]] - as Tybalt
 
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:*[[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] - [[Norma Shearer]]
 
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:*Best Art Direction - [[Cedric Gibbons]], [[Fredric Hope]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]]
 
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;1954 - ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1954 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'' directed by [[Renato Castellani]].
 
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:A notable British/Italian production with a colourful setting. The cast includes [[Laurence Harvey]] as Romeo, [[Susan Shentall]] as Juliet, [[Flora Robson]] as the Nurse and [[Mervyn Johns]] as Friar Laurence.
 
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;1968 - ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1968 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'', directed by [[Franco Zeffirelli]]
 
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:Filmed in [[Italy]], the performance of the young [[Olivia Hussey]] as Juliet is a defining feature. It won [[Academy Awards|Oscar]]s for [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|best cinematography]] and [[Academy Award for Costume Design|best costume design]], and was nominated for [[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]] and [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]. It also starred [[Leonard Whiting]] as Romeo - he was seen as 'the next big thing' in film at the time, but his career did not match up to expectations.
 
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;1978 - ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1978 movie)|Romeo and Juliet]]'', directed by [[Alvin Rakoff]]
 
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:for the [[BBC Television Shakespeare]] series. This production is generally unregarded due to its inexperienced stars and low production values, although [[Alan Rickman]]'s Tybalt is notable.
 
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;1983 - ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1983 movie)|Romeo and Juliet]]'', directed by [[William Woodman]]
 
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:This film features an excellent set of costumes. The cast includes  [[Alex Hyde-White]], [[Blanche Baker]],  [[Esther Rolle]], [[Dan Hamilton]], and  [[Frederic Hehne]].
 
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;1996 - ''[[William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet|Romeo + Juliet]]'', directed by [[Baz Luhrmann]]
 
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:Starring [[Leonardo DiCaprio]] and [[Claire Danes]] in the title roles, Luhrmann gave the famous tale a modern setting. The production uses Luhrmann's signature flamboyant color and stylization. Besides the modernization it is notable for significantly tweaking the ending, so that Romeo and Juliet get a final scene alive together.
 
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:At the [[Berlin International Film Festival]] [[1997]], it won:
 
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:* Best Actor (Leonardo DiCaprio) 
 
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:* Alfred Bauer Prize
 
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:[[Academy Awards]] [[1996]] nominations:
 
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:* Best Art Direction and Set Decoration ([[Catherine Martin]] and [[Brigitte Broch]])
 
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;1996 - ''[[Tromeo and Juliet]]'', directed by [[Lloyd Kaufman]]
 
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:The [[Troma]] team put their own inimitable spin on the story, setting it in [[Manhattan]] in a [[punk subculture|punk]] milieu. [[Lemmy]] from [[Motörhead]] narrates.
 
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;2000 - ''[[Romeo Must Die]]'', directed by [[Andrzej Bartkowiak]]
 
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:With [[Jet Li]] as Han Ling (the Romeo of the story) who is out to avenge his brother's murder. He meets and eventually falls in love with Trish O'Day (the Juliet of the story, played by [[Aaliyah]]) who is the daughter of a rival American mob boss. Apart from the main characters being the son and daughter of bitter rivals, the plot has practically nothing to do with Romeo and Juliet the play.
 
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;2005 - ''[[Romeo & Juliet (2005 H&M advertisement)|Romeo & Juliet]]'' directed by [[David LaChapelle|Dave LaChapelle]]
 
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:Featuring [[Tamyra Gray]] as Juliet, [[Gus Carr]] as Romeo, and [[Mary J. Blige]], this is a 10-minute promotional advertisement for the [[H&M]] clothing company. Released in September 2005, this commercial was shown online ([http://www.hm.com/corporate/inspiration/campaigns/denim/index.jsp?clang=us&version=2005-44b H&M website]) and during the trailers of certain theatrical films, and featured the new "&denim" selection. In this musical remake which features background music provided by [[Tamyra Gray]] and [[Mary J. Blige]] (both songs are from the musical ''[[Dreamgirls]]''), Romeo is gunned down in a [[drive-by shooting]] and Juliet sings over his body while he bleeds to death on the street. Due to complaints that the commercial glamorized gang violence and was [[H&M|H&M's]] attempt to use [[gun culture]] to sell their jeans to teenagers, H&M subsequently withdrew the ad from Canadian & U.S. markets and issued an apology.
 
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;2005 - ''[[O Casamento de Romeu e Julieta]]'', directed by [[Bruno Barreto]].
 
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:This is a Brazilian adaptation of the text that is actually a romantic comedy set amid a bitter soccer rivalry. It is about two rival soccer clubs, the Palmeiras and the Corinthians. It is set in Sao Paulo with various twists and divergences from the original Romeo and Juliet story. Directed by Bruno Barreto and staring Brazilian actress/model Luana Piovani and Marco Ricca.
 
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;2006 - ''[[Romeo & Juliet (2006 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'', directed by Yves Desgagnés.
 
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:This is a Canadian, [[québecois]] adaptation. The two principal roles are played by the newly discovered actors Thomas Lalonde and Charlotte Aubin, who were both chosen during auditions. It was due for release on 15 December 2006.
 
  
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====Film adaptations====
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Other notable twentieth century productions include [[Guthrie McClintic|Guthrie McClintic's]] [[1934]] [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] staging in which [[Katharine Cornell]] had a triumph as Juliet opposite [[Basil Rathbone]] as Romeo and [[Edith Evans]] (who also played the role in the [[John Gielgud|Gielgud]] production) as the Nurse. Cornell later revived the production with [[Maurice Evans (actor)|Maurice Evans]] as Romeo and [[Ralph Richardson]] as Mercutio, both making their [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] debuts. [[Franco Zeffirelli]] mounted a legendary staging for the [[Old Vic]] in 1960 with [[John Stride]] and [[Judi Dench]] that served as the basis for his [[Romeo and Juliet (1968 film)|1968 film]].<ref>Levinson, Jill, ed. ''Romeo and Juliet'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000): 87.</ref>
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*The film ''[[West Side Story (film)|West Side Story]]'' was released in 1961 following the success of the musical on stage in New York and London. It was set in a 1960s [[New York City]] gang culture and was loosely based on the story of Romeo and Juliet, with the Montagues becoming the Jets and the Capulets becoming the Sharks.
 
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*The film ''[[West Bank Story]]'' set, unsurprisingly, in the contemporary West Bank is a musical comedy parody based on West Side Story. West Bank Story won the 2006 best Live Action Short at the Academy Awards (Oscars).<ref>http://www.westbankstory.com/</ref>
 
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*The film ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'' is a fictional account of how Shakespeare writes the play against the clock inspired by his love for a noble woman. The movie also describes the start of ''[[Twelfth Night]],'' inspired by the same woman's ultimate fate.
 
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*[[Love Is All There Is]], starring Angelina Jolie and Lannie Kazan, is a comedic take on the tragic story. It takes place in the Bronx, New York and involves two Italian immigrant families who own opposing restaurants. The two families hate each other and have tried to run each other out of business for years. When their children secretly fall in love, the families are forced to deal with it. Instead of the tragic Shakespearean ending, the movie makes the story a bit more light-hearted.
 
  
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===Television===
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===Stage adaptations===
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The Canadian-produced animated television special ''[[Romie-0 and Julie-8]]'' (1979) is a [[science fiction]] adaptation of the play, recasting the lead characters as robots.
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When Romeo and Juliet is adapted for the stage, it is sometimes set in a modern or well-known historical setting, enabling audiences to understand, and perhaps to reflect upon, the underlying conflicts. For example, adaptations have been set in the midst of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]],<ref>Pape, Ilan. "Post-Zionist Critique on Israel and the Palestinians Part III: Popular Culture." ''Journal of Palestine Studies'' 26 (1997): 69.</ref> in the [[apartheid]] era in [[South Africa]],<ref>Quince, Rohan. ''Shakespeare in South Africa: Stage Productions During the Apartheid Era''. New York: Peter Lang, 2000: 121-125</ref> and in the aftermath of the [[Pueblo Revolt]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Klugman|first=Deborah|url=http://www.laweekly.com/index.php?option=com_lsd&task=film&Itemid=109&id=81675|title=Kino and Teresa review|publisher=[[LA Weekly]]|accessdate=2007-02-17}}</ref> Among the most famous of such adaptations is [[Peter Ustinov]]'s 1956 comic adaptation, [[Romanoff and Juliet]], set in a fictional mid-European country in the depths of the [[Cold War]].<ref>Taylor, John Russell. ''The Angry Theatre: New British Drama''. (New York: Hill and Wang, 1962): 18.</ref>
  
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The 2005 television movie "[[Pizza My Heart]]" is also based on ''Romeo and Juliet''. This story takes place in Verona, New Jersey and is centered around the lives of two feuding pizzeria owners, the Prestolanis and the Montebellos.
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===Music===
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[[Image:KasarvinaLifarRG2.jpg|thumb|Several ballet versions of the play have developed, including this one starring Tamara Kasarvina and Serge Lifar.]]
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At least 24 [[opera]]s and plays have been based on Romeo and Juliet, the best known being [[Charles Gounod|Gounod's]] ''[[Roméo et Juliette]]'' (1867) and [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini's]] opera ''[[I Capuleti e i Montecchi]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Measure for Measure: Shakespeare and Music|journal=Music Educators Journal|volume=54|issue=7|year=Mar 1968|author=Eve R. Meyer|page=36-38}}</ref> The [[libretto]] in Gounod's play was by [[Jules Barbier]] and [[Michel Carré]].<ref>Sadie, Stanley. ''The New Grove Dictionary of Opera'' (London: Macmillan, 1992): 31.</ref> Bellini's opera has rarely been judged favorably, in part because of its perceived liberties with Shakespeare; however, Bellini and his librettist, [[Felice Romani]], worked from Italian sources, with no intention to adapt Shakespeare's play.<ref>Collins, Michael, "The Literary Background of Bellini's I Capuleti e i Montecchi," ''Journal of the American Musicological Society'' 35 (1982): 532-8.</ref> In 2004 American composer [[Lee Hoiby]] also adapted ''Romeo and Juliet'' to write an opera of the same name.<ref>"[http://www.schott-musik.de/news/archiv/show,434.html Lee Hoiby Signs To Schott Music]." Press release, 1 July 2006.</ref>
  
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The [[Japan]]ese animation studio [[Gonzo (studio)|Gonzo]] has adapted ''Romeo and Juliet'' into an [[anime]] television series entitled ''[[Romeo x Juliet]]'', the very first of its kind. Set in a dystopian world on a supernatural, aerial city known as Neo Verona, the series premiered from April 2007.
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Since the 18th century, several [[ballet]] versions have been composed; among the better-known is [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev's]] ''[[Romeo and Juliet (Prokofiev)|Romeo and Juliet]]'', first performed in [[1938]].<ref>Nestyev, Israel. ''Prokofiev'', Florence Jonas, trans (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960): 261.</ref>
  
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''[[Romeo and Juliet in Sarajevo]]'' - Though the “story” does not bear much resemblance to that of the original Shakespearean play, the characters and outcome are quite similar. The characters in both the play and the film (Romeo and Juliet and Admira and Boško) simply want to live their lives and be allowed to love one another, yet are tragically prevented from doing so, instead succumbing to an untimely death.
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[[Roméo et Juliette (symphony)|Roméo et Juliette]] by [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]] is a "symphonie dramatique", a large scale work in three parts for mixed voices, chorus and orchestra, premiered in 1839.<ref>Bloom, Peter, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Berlioz'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000): 178.</ref> [[Romeo and Juliet (Tchaikovsky)|The Romeo and Juliet Fantasy Overture]] (1869, revised 1870 and 1880), by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]] is a long symphonic poem, containing the famous melody known as the "love theme".<ref>Stites, Richard, ed. ''Culture and Entertainment in Wartime Russia'' (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1995): 5.</ref>
  
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==Trivia==
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The play led to a number of [[musical theatre]] adaptations, the most famous of which was ''[[West Side Story]]'' with music by [[Leonard Bernstein]] and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]]. It debuted on Broadway in 1957 and in London's West End in 1958, and became a popular film in 1961. This version updated the setting to mid-20th century [[New York City]], and the warring families to ethnic gangs.<ref>Rodriguez, Clara, editor. ''Latin Looks: Images of Latinas and Latinos in the U.S. Media'' (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997): 74).</ref> Other musical adaptations include [[Terrence Mann]]'s 1999 rock musical ''William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet'', co-written with Jerome Korman,<ref>Ehren, Christine, "[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/47546.html Sweet Sorrow: Mann-Korman's Romeo and Juliet Closes Sept. 5 at MN's Ordway]" Playbill.com 3 September 1999.</ref> [[Gérard Presgurvic]]'s 2001 ''[[Roméo et Juliette, de la Haine à l'Amour]]'' and [[Riccardo Cocciante]]'s 2007 ''[[Giulietta e Romeo (musical)|Giulietta & Romeo]]''.<ref>Arafay, Mireia, ed. ''Books in Motion: Adaptation, Adaptability, Authorship'' (Amsterdam: Editions Rodolpi, 2005): 186.</ref>
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{{cleanup-laundry}}
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* Romeo and Juliet in music
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===Screen===
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** The 1956 song ''[[Fever (1956 song)|Fever]]'' contains the lyrics "Romeo loved Juliet/Juliet, she felt the same/When he put his arms around her/He said, "Julie baby, you're my flame."
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[[Image:RomeoGiuliettaZeffirelli.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Leonard Whiting]] as Romeo and [[Olivia Hussey]] as Juliet in Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 film version.]]
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** ''Romeo and Juliet in Sarajevo'' is the name of a song from [[Eric Bogle]]'s 1997 album Small Miracles, presumably inspired by the above documentary.
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** The [[disco]] group Festival had a minor hit with a song called "Romeo and Juliet" which used as its lyrics the text of the prologue.
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{{main|Romeo and Juliet on screen}}
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** [[Arctic Monkeys]]' song '[[I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor]] contains the lyrics 'Oh there ain't no love no, Montagues or Capulets/Just banging tunes in DJ sets'  
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** [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna's]] [[1989]] album [[Like a Prayer]]'s third single, [[Cherish (Madonna song)|Cherish]], a song about appreciation towards a lover, has a line that says "Romeo and Juliet, they never felt this way, I bet."
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<!--This is a SUMMARY. Please don't add new information or details here, but instead at the main article [[Romeo and Juliet on screen]]!-->
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** [[Dire Straits]]' [[1980]] album ''[[Making Movies]]'' had a popular song "[[Romeo and Juliet (song)|Romeo and Juliet]]", in which the singer looks back on a failed relationship. It was inspired by [[Mark Knopfler]]'s broken romance with [[Holly Vincent]]. [[The Indigo Girls]] covered this song on their album ''[[Rites of Passage (album)|Rites of Passage]]''.
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In putting Romeo and Juliet on [[Shakespeare on screen|screen]], the director must set the action in a social context that illuminates the characters, and mediates between the Renaissance play and modern audiences.<ref>Tatspaugh, Patricia "The Tragedy of Love on Film" in Jackson, Russell "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film" (Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-63975-1) p.135</ref> [[George Cukor]], in 1970, commented on why his "stately" and "stodgy" [[Romeo and Juliet (1936 film)|1936 film]] had not stood the test of time, saying that if he had the opportunity to make it again he would "get the garlic and the mediterranean into it".<ref>Tatspaugh,  p.136</ref> Yet that performance (featuring [[Norma Shearer]] and [[Leslie Howard (actor)|Leslie Howard]], with a combined age over 75, as the teenage lovers) had garnered no fewer than four [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nominations.<ref>Tatspaugh, p.136</ref>
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** The album ''Romeo Unchained'' by [[Tonio K]] includes a song called "Romeo Loves [[Jane Porter (Tarzan)|Jane]]", describing a romance between well-known fictional characters (perhaps as a satire of celebrity relationships).  Another song, "Impressed", includes Romeo and Juliet in a long list of what the singer considers bad examples of how love should work.
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** The [[Lou Reed]] song, "Romeo had Juliette" was included on the 1989 album ''New York''.
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The films' openings highlight each director's care to establish authenticity: Cukor introduces his characters in a shot of a scene played on a [[proscenium]] stage; [[Renato Castellani]]'s [[Romeo and Juliet (1954 film)|1954 version]] opens with [[John Gielgud]], famous as a stage Romeo, as the Prologue in Elizabethan doublet and hose; Zeffirelli sets his scene with an overview of Verona, and his Prologue, in voiceover, was another famous stage Romeo: [[Laurence Olivier]]. In contrast, [[William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet|Romeo + Juliet]] in 1996 was targeted at a young audience, and opens with images of television and print journalism.<ref>Tatspaugh, p.136</ref>
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** The [[2003]] musical remake of ''[[Reefer Madness (musical)|Reefer Madness]]'' featured a song "Romeo and Juliet" in which a pair of young lovers compare themselves to Romeo and Juliet, having only read the first half of the play, and mistakenly assume the ending to be happy.
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** The [[Radiohead]] song "[[Exit Music (For a Film)]]" was written for the closing credits of the Baz Luhrmann version. The lyrics describe a Romeo-like character entreating his sleeping lover to run away, inspired by Act III.
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A particular difficulty for the screen-writer arises towards the end of the fourth act, where Shakespeare's play requires considerable compression to be effective on the big screen, without giving the impression of "cutting to the chase".<ref>Jackson, Russell "From play-script to screenplay" in Jackson, Russell "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film" (Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-63975-1) p.30</ref> In [[Franco Zeffirelli]]'s [[Romeo and Juliet (1968 film)|1968 version]], Juliet's return home from the Friar's cell, her submission to her father and the preparation for the wedding are drastically abbreviated, and similarly the tomb scene is cut short: Paris does not appear at all, and Benvolio (in the Balthazar role) is sent away but is not threatened.<ref>Russell, p.30</ref> In [[Baz Luhrmann]]'s [[William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet|Romeo + Juliet]], the screenplay allows Juliet to witness Romeo's death, and the role of the watch is cut, permitting Friar Lawrence to remain with Juliet and to be taken by surprise by her sudden suicide.<ref>Russell, p.31</ref>
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** The [[Delta Goodrem]] song "[[I Don't Care]]" contains the lyrics "they tried to keep Romeo and Juliet apart..."
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** The [[Blue Öyster Cult]] song "[[(Don't Fear) The Reaper]]" mentions Romeo and Juliet as being "Together in eternity".
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Including the four major theatrical releases already mentioned, Shakespeare's play has been filmed numerous times.<ref>Romeo and Juliet at imdb.[http://www.imdb.com/find?s=tt&q=romeo+juliet]</ref> Several of the adaptations of the story have also been filmed, most notably [[West Side Story]], [[Romeo and Juliet (Prokofiev)|Prokofiev's ballet]] and [[Romanoff and Juliet]]. Also, several theatrical films, such as [[Shakespeare in Love]] and [[Romeo Must Die]], consciously use elements of Shakespeare's plot.
−
** The song ''Ampersand'' by [[The Dresden Dolls]], in which the singer rebuffs her former lover, features the lines "and I may be romantic, and I may risk my life for it/but I ain't gonna die for you/you know I ain't no Juliet."
 
−
** The band [[Genesis]] uses the names Romeo and Juliet for characters in the song 'The Cinema Show' from their album [[Selling England by the Pound]]
 
−
** The [[Big Audio Dynamite]] [[1985]] album ''[[This is Big Audio Dynamite]]'' has in the song "The Bottom Line" a reference to Romeo (as well as a reference to the famous soliloquy in ''Hamlet'').
 
−
** The [[Ash (band)|Ash]] song "Starcrossed" is a reference to Romeo and Juliet.
 
−
** The [[Bob Dylan]] song [["Desolation Row"]], from the 1965 album ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]'', contains the lyric "And in comes Romeo, he's moaning..."
 
−
** The American band The Reflections reference the play in their song called "(Just Like) Romeo & Juliet" which has been covered by [[Sha Na Na]] and the Australian band [[Mental As Anything]].
 
−
**[[HIM (band)|HIM]] frontman [[Ville Valo]] has stated their song "Join Me in Death" was inspired by ''Romeo and Juliet''.
 
−
** The [[Bon Jovi]] song "I'd Die For You" contains the lyrics "In a world that don't know Romeo and Juliet".
 
−
** Danish musician Sebastian has a song on the album Dejavu, entitled Romeo. The first line goes (translated from Danish): "There's something about this scene reminding me of Romeo and Juliet."
 
−
**The [[My Chemical Romance]] song [[Our Lady of Sorrows (song)|Our Lady of Sorrows]] off their debut album [[I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love]], contains the line "...and die like star-crossed lovers when we fight...". Their song [[The Sharpest Lives]] also mentions the two in the line "Juliet loves the beat and the lust it commands, drop the dagger and lather the blood on your hands, Romeo."
 
−
**The [[Sponge Cola]] song [[Gemini (song)|Gemini]] from their debut album [[Palabas]] is the theme song of the Metropolitan Guild Theater's Romeo & Juliet, as seen in its music video.
 
−
** The [[Semisonic]] song "Singing in my Sleep" alludes to the infamous balcony scene in the lines "I've been living in your cassette / It's the modern equivalent / Singing up to a Capulet on a balcony in your mind."
 
−
**The [[A Change of Pace]] song "Prepare the Masses" from the album of the same name is about Romeo and Juliet. "Sing me to sleep tonight/sweet Juliet/two star-crossed lovers marry looking for regrets/by daybreak I'll be gone and searching for your kiss/leave me a drop of poison waiting on your lips."
 
−
**The Reflections reached #6 on the pop charts in the summer of [[1964]] with the song "(Just Like) Romeo & Juliet".
 
−
**An [[Escape the Fate]] song called "Not Good Enough for Truth in Cliché" where the chorus reads: "...finger in the trigger to my dear Juliet. / Out from the window see her back drop silhouette, / This blood on my hands is something I cannot forget..."
 
−
* In games
 
−
** The game ''[[The Sims 2]]'' includes a neighborhood, Veronaville (a parody of Verona) in which two characters named Romeo Monty and Juliette Capp fall in love. The neighborhood's story is a parody of the play itself, including the feud between the Monty (Montague) and the Capp (Capulet) families.
 
−
** In the card game [[Magic: The Gathering]], a card called [[Dark Banishing]] displays a quote from Romeo and Juliet:
 
−
::''Ha, banishment? Be merciful, say 'death,'''
 
−
::''For exile hath more terror in his look,''
 
−
::''Much more than death.''
 
−
** The Konami game ''[[Silent Hill 3]]'' contains a puzzle with excerpts from five tragedies, including ''Romeo and Juliet''.  The player must identify which tragedy each quote is from and thereby arrange books in a particular order.
 
−
** In the [[MMORPG]] [[World of Warcraft]]: The Burning Crusade, in a dungeon named Karazhan, one of the three possible play based boss encounters features two bosses with names slightly altered from Romeo & Juliet's.
 
−
**In the popular online game [[RuneScape]], one of the non-member quests is based on the story of Romeo and Juliet.
 
−
*In film and television
 
−
** ''[[Sea Prince and the Fire Child]]'' (1981), an anime movie by [[Sanrio]] (based on a story by Sanrio founder, [[Shintaro Tsuji]]), was inspired by Romeo & Juliet (the main scharacters are from different races, sea spirits and fire spirits).
 
−
**[[Romeo x Juliet]] is a 2007 anime based on Shakespeare's Romeo and Juiliet.
 
−
**In the anime [[Shakugan no Shana]], Shana, the main female character recites two lines from Romeo and Juliet in English. The lines were ''That which we call a rose/ By any other name would smell as sweet.''
 
−
** Immediately following the end credits in certain episodes of ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'', [[Plucky Duck]] would say "Parting is such sweet sorrow!"
 
−
** There was an episode of ''[[DuckTales]]'' entitled ''[[Bubbeo and Juliet]]''.
 
−
** ''[[Mario and Joliet]]'', an episode of ''[[The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!]]''.
 
−
** One of [[Ranma 1/2]] episodes was about a school play "Romeo and Juliet"
 
−
** In the "School Play" episode of ''[[Hey Arnold!]]'', Arnold's class puts on the play ''Romeo and Juliet'', with Arnold as Romeo and Helga as Juliet.
 
−
** A brief mention of the play is made in a ''[[Histeria!]]'' song about the works of Shakespeare, with [[Toast (Histeria!)|Toast]] and [[Pepper Mills]] portraying the title characters.
 
−
** In the musical adaptation of the manga and anime ''[[Air Gear]]'', two members of the rival team Bacchus are named Romeo and Juliet. Because of the all male cast, both roles were portrayed by men.  
 
−
*In literature
 
−
** John "the Savage" quotes ''Romeo and Juliet'' to Helmholtz Watson in [[Aldous Huxley]]'s famous novel ''[[Brave New World]]''.
 
−
** In the [[Harry Potter]] series, there is a minor Dark wizard with the surname "Montague."
 
−
** A book details the inter-racial difficulties of a teen-age couple and their community'' controversies, entitled "Romiette and Julio", by Sharon M. Draper.
 
−
*Products
 
−
** Two [[cigar]] brands exist that bear the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] version of the play's title, [[Romeo y Julieta (cigar brand)|Romeo y Julieta]].
 
−
** Car maker [[Alfa Romeo]] one produced a model called the Giulietta (Italian for Juliet)
 
−
*Other
 
−
** The [[NATO phonetic alphabet]] for J and R are Juliet and Romeo, respectively.
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 
{{reflist|3}}
 
{{reflist|3}}
 +
 +
===Further reading===
 +
*Levin, Harry. "Form and Formality in Romeo and Juliet." ''Shakespeare Quarterly''. 11.1 (Winter 1960) pp. 3-11 doi:10.2307/2867423.
 +
*Martin, Jennifer L. "Tights vs. Tattoos: Filmic Interpretations of 'Romeo and Juliet'." ''The English Journal.'' 92.1 ''Shakespeare for a New Age'' (Sep 2002) pp. 41-46 doi:10.2307/821945.
 +
*Lehmann, Courtney. "Strictly Shakespeare? Dead Letters, Ghostly Fathers, and the Cultural Pathology of Authorship in Baz Luhrmann's 'William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet'." ''Shakespeare Quarterly''. 52.2 (Summer 2001) pp. 189-221.
 +
*Siegel, Paul N. "Christianity and the Religion of Love in Romeo and Juliet." ''Shakespeare Quarterly''. 12.4 (Autumn 1961) pp. 371-392 doi:10.2307/2867455
 +
*Kahn, Coppelia. "Coming of Age in Verona." ''Modern Language Studies.'' 8.1 (Winter 1977-1978) pp. 5-22 doi:10.2307/3194631
  
 
==External links==   
 
==External links==   
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{{wikiquote}}
 
{{wikiquote}}
 
{{commonscat|Romeo and Juliet}}    
 
{{commonscat|Romeo and Juliet}}    
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*[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/1112 Romeo and Juliet] - plain vanilla text from [[Project Gutenberg]]
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*[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/1112 Romeo and Juliet] - plain vanilla text from [[Project Gutenberg]]
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*[http://librivox.org/romeo-and-juliet-by-william-shakespeare/ Romeo and Juliet] - Free downloadable audio reading of the play from [[LibriVox]]
+
*[http://shakespeare.mit.edu/romeo_juliet/ Romeo and Juliet] - HTML version at MIT
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*[http://wikisummaries.org/Romeo_and_Juliet Romeo and Juliet summary] - Free wiki of scene summaries, character profiles and study questions.
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*[http://romeoandjuliet.publicliterature.org/ Romeo and Juliet] - Full text with audio.
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*[http://shakespeare.mit.edu/romeo_juliet/ Romeo and Juliet] - HTML version at MIT  
+
*[http://www.webcom.com/pweller/romeo/broke/BrookeIndex.html Arthur Brooke's ''Romeus and Juliet'']
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*[http://www.italicon.it/index.asp?codpage=risorse01&lettera=M&autore=34&titolo=51&npag=tx37 ''Il Novellino, Novella XXXIII, by Masuccio Salernitano] - The electronic text in Italian of the original story (requires free registration)
 
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*[http://www.webcom.com/pweller/romeo/broke/BrookeIndex.html Arthur Brooke's ''Romeus and Juliet'']
 
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*[http://www.dramaticpublishing.com/AuthorsCornerDet.cfm?titlelink=9731&artnumber=1 A history of the Italian sources of ''Romeo and Juliet'']
 
 
*[http://www.amrep.org/articles/4_3a/romeus.html Essay: ''How Romeus Became Romeo''] Comparing Brooke's work with Shakespeare's
 
*[http://www.amrep.org/articles/4_3a/romeus.html Essay: ''How Romeus Became Romeo''] Comparing Brooke's work with Shakespeare's
 
*[http://www.theatrehistory.com/british/romeoandjuliet001.html Analysis of Romeo and Juliet] at Theatrehistory.com  
 
*[http://www.theatrehistory.com/british/romeoandjuliet001.html Analysis of Romeo and Juliet] at Theatrehistory.com  
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*[http://www.webenglishteacher.com/romeoandjuliet.html Lesson plans for teaching Romeo and Juliet] at Web English Teacher
 
 
   
 
   
 
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{{Shakespeare}}
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[[category:Art, music, literature, sports and leisure]]
 
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Revision as of 19:39, 9 August 2007


Romeo and Juliet in the famous balcony scene by Ford Madox Brown
For other uses, see Romeo and Juliet (disambiguation).

Romeo and Juliet is a world-renowned tragedy by William Shakespeare concerning two young "star-cross'd lovers" and the role played by their tragic suicides in ending a long-running family feud. It is one of the most famous of Shakespeare's plays, one of his earliest theatrical triumphs, and is thought to be the most archetypal love story of the Renaissance and indeed in the history of Western culture.

Although Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back at least as far as the Ancient Greeks, it is based on an Italian tale, the earliest known version dating to 1476. In 1562, Arthur Brooke translated one of the Italian tales into English, which was then retold in prose by William Painter. Brooke's poem and Painter's short story are considered to be Shakespeare's sources for Romeo and Juliet. Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both, but developed their minor characters, such as Mercutio and Count Paris, in order to expand the plot. Although it is unknown exactly when the play was written, most scholars agree on 1595-1596. The first know publication of the play was in Shakespeare's First Quarto, published in 1597. Later editions, such as the Second Quarto corrected the first version to make it more in line with Shakespeare's original text.

Scholarly analysis of the play has praised the play in many areas: Shakespeare's use of dramatic structure, especially his expansion of minor characters and use of subplots to embellish the story. With language, Sheakespeare ascribes different poetic skills to different characters as they develop. Romeo, for example, grows more adept in the sonnet form as they play continues. No overarching theme for the play has been agreed upon by scholars. Still, analysis frequently focuses on a few non-encompassing themes, such as love and fate.

Romeo and Juliet has been adapted several times.

Sources

Frontispiece of Brooke's poem, Romeus and Juliet.

Romeo and Juliet is a dramatization of Arthur Brooke's narrative poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet (1562). Shakespeare followed Brooke's poem closely[1] but enriched its texture by adding extra detail to both major and minor characters, in particular the Nurse and Mercutio. Shakespeare also knew "The goodly History of the true and constant love of Rhomeo and Julietta", a prose retelling of the story by William Painter, published in a compilation of Italian tales entitled Palace of Pleasure (1582).[2] Painter's version was part of a common theme among writers and playwrights in publishing works based on Italian novelles. At the time of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Italian tales were very popular among theater-goers. Gibbons considers Shakespeare took advantage of this, as evidenced by his writing of All's Well That Ends Well and Measure for Measure along with Romeo and Juliet. Critics of the day even complained of how often such Italian tales were borrowed to please the crowds. The stories were so popular that the tale of Romeo and Juliet had been played on stage before Shakespeare wrote his version of it.[3]

In keeping with this tradition of borrowing from Italy, Arthur Brooke's poem was actually a translation and adaptation of the Italian Giuletta e Romeo, by Matteo Bandello, included in his Novelle of 1554.[4] Bandello's story was the most famous and was translated into French (and into English by Brooke). It was also adapted by Italian theatrical troupes, some of whom performed in London at the time that Shakespeare was writing his plays. Although nothing is known of the repertory of these itinerant troupes, it is possible that they performed a version of the story.[5]

Bandello's version was in turn an adaptation of Luigi da Porto's Giulietta e Romeo, included in his Istoria novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti (c. 1530).[4] Da Porto's version gave the story much of its modern form, including the names of the lovers, the rival families of Montecchi and Capuleti, and the location in Verona, in the Veneto.[6]

File:Pyramus and Thisbe.jpg
Pyramus and Thisbe: Their tragic story seems to have connections with Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.

Da Porto also is probably the source of the traditions that Romeo and Juliet is based on a true story.[7] The names of the families (in Italian, the Montecchi and Capelletti) were actual political factions of the thirteenth century.[8] To this day the tomb and balcony of Guilietta are still a popular tourist spot in Verona, although scholars have disputed all claims that the story really occurred.[7] Before Da Porto, the earliest known version of the tale is the 1476 story of Mariotto and Gianozza of Siena by Masuccio Salernitano, in Il Novellino (Novella XXXIII).[6]

Further back, Romeo and Juliet borrows from a tradition of tragic love stories going back at least as far as the Ancient Greeks. The story of Pyramus and Thisbe, for example, is thought by many scholars to have influenced da Porto's version of the story. This tale contains parallels in the hatred of the two lovers' parents for each other, as well as Pyramus' falsely believing his mistress Thisbe is dead.[9] Geoffrey Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde also had an effect on Arthur Brooke's Romeus and Juliet, with Brooke adjusting the Italian translation to reflect parts of this English classic. The Ephisiaca of Xenophon of Ephesus, written in the third century, also contains several similarities to the play, such as a separation of lovers, and a potion which causes a deathlike sleep. Christopher Marlowe's Hero and Leander and Dido, Queen of Carthage are similar stories written much closer to Shakespeare's day, but are thought to be less of a direct influence, although they may have created an atmosphere in which tragic love stories could thrive.[10]

Date and text

Title page of the Second Quarto of Romeo and Juliet (published 1599)

The exact date in which Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet is unknown. Scholars estimate that it may have been written in 1595 or 1596, though some argue for the year 1591. Juliet's nurse refers to an earthquake which occurred eleven years ago. An earthquake had occurred in England in 1580, dating that statement to 1591. The play's stylistic similarities with A Midsummer Night's Dream, as well as evidence of performances at the time (the play was becoming popular at around 1595), place the play in 1595 or 1596. Most agree that he may have begun a draft in 1591, which he completed in 1595-6.[11][12]

Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet was published in two distinct quarto editions prior to the publication of the First Folio of 1623. These are referred to as Q1 and Q2. Q1, the first printed edition, appeared in 1597, printed by John Danter. Because its text contains numerous differences from the later editions, it is labelled a 'bad quarto': the twentieth century editor T. J .B. Spencer described it as "a detestable text, probably a reconstruction of the play from the imperfect memories of one or two of the actors."[13] Q1 indicates that, along with many other playwrights of the time, Shakespeare's plays were probably heavily edited before performances by playing companies, and Romeo and Juliet is no exception.[14]

The superior Q2 called the play The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedie of Romeo and Juliet. It was printed in 1599, published by Cuthbert Burby and printed by Thomas Creede. Q2 is about 800 lines longer than Q1.[14] Its title page describes it as "Newly corrected, augmented and amended". Scholars believe that this text was based on Shakespeare's pre-performance draft, (called his foul papers), since there are textual oddities such as variable tags for characters and "false starts" for speeches that were presumably struck through by the author but erroneously preserved by the typesetter. It is a much more complete and reliable text, and was reprinted in 1609 (Q3), 1622 (Q4) and 1637 (Q5).[13] In fact, all later Quartos and Folios of Romeo and Juliet are based on Q2, offering little additional information on Shakespeare's original work.[15]

The First Folio text of 1623 seems to be based primarily on Q3, with clarifications and corrections possibly coming from a theatrical promptbook or Q1.[13][16] Other Folio editions of the play were printed in 1632 (F2), 1664 (F3), and 1685 (F4).[17] Modern versions considering several of the Folios and Quartos began printing with Nicholas Rowe's 1709 edition, followed by Alexander Pope's 1723 version. Pope began a tradition of editing the play to add information such as stage directions missing in Q2 by locating them in Q1. This tradition continued late into the Romantic period. Fully annotated editions began printing in the Victorian period and continue to this day, printing the text of the play with footnotes describing the sources and culture behind the play.[18]

Characters

File:Romeo Montague with poison.jpg
Romeo (here portrayed by actor Jacob Blumenfeld)
Juliet by Philip H. Calderon

Ruling house of Verona

  • Prince Escalus: Prince of Verona
  • Count Paris: Kinsman of Prince Escalus; desires to marry Juliet.
  • Mercutio: Another kinsman of Prince Escalus; a friend of Romeo.

Capulets

  • Lord Capulet: Patriarch of the house of Capulet.
  • Lady Capulet: Matriarch of the house of Capulet; wishes Juliet to marry Paris.
  • Juliet: Daughter of the Capulets; the female protagonist.
  • Tybalt: Cousin of Juliet, nephew of Lady Capulet.

Capulet Servants

  • Nurse: Juliet's personal attendant and confidante: a comic figure who took care of little Juliet ever since she was an infant.
  • Peter: Capulet servant, assistant to the nurse, iliterate
  • Sampson: Capulet servant.
  • Gregory: Capulet servant.

Montagues

  • Lord Montague: Patriach of the house of Montague.
  • Lady Montague: Matriarch of the house of Montague
  • Romeo: Son of the Montagues; the male protagonist.
  • Benvolio: Cousin and friend of Romeo.

Montague Servants

  • Abraham: Montague servant.
  • Balthasar: Romeo's personal servant.

Others

  • Friar Lawrence: a Franciscan friar and Romeo's confidant.
  • Chorus, who gives the opening prologue and one other speech, both in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet.
  • Rosaline, an unseen character with whom Romeo briefly falls in love with before meeting Juliet.
  • Friar John: Another friar who is sent to deliver Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo.
  • Apothecary: Druggist who reluctantly sells Romeo poison.

Synopsis

"Two Households, both alike in dignity ..."

Chorus
Romeo and Juliet by Francesco Hayez

The play begins with a street-battle between two families, the Montagues and the Capulets. The Prince of Verona, Escalus, intervenes with his men and declares that the heads of the two families will be held personally accountable for any further breach of the peace.

Later, Count Paris, a young nobleman, talks to Lord Capulet about marrying his thirteen-year-old daughter, Juliet. Capulet demurs, citing the girl's tender age, and invites him to attract the attention of Juliet during a ball that the family is to hold that night. Meanwhile, Juliet's mother tries to persuade her daughter to accept Paris' wooing during their coming ball. Juliet states that she will make an effort to love him, but will not go after what is not there. In this scene Juliet's nurse is introduced as a talkative and humorous character who has raised Juliet from infancy.

Meantime, Benvolio queries his cousin Romeo, Lord Montague's son, to find out the source of his melancholy. He discovers that it stems from an unrequited love for a girl named Rosaline. Upon the insistence of Benvolio and another friend, Mercutio, Romeo decides to attend the masquerade at the Capulet house, in hope of meeting Rosaline.

Alongside his masked friends, Romeo attends the ball as planned, but instead falls for Juliet, and she with him. After discovering that the lovers are of feuding blood, Romeo and Juliet meet on Juliet's balcony. Despite their families' feud, the two declare their love for each other and their intent to marry. With the help of the Franciscan Friar Lawrence, who hopes to reconcile the two families through their children's union, the two are married secretly the next day.

All seems well until Tybalt, Juliet's hot-blooded cousin, challenges Romeo to a duel for appearing in the Capulets' ball disguised. Though no one is aware of the marriage yet, Romeo refuses to fight Tybalt since they are now kinsmen. Mercutio is incensed by Tybalt's insolence, and accepts on Romeo's behalf. In the ensuing duel, Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo tries to intervene. Romeo, angered by his friend's death, pursues and slays Tybalt, then flees.

The Reconciliation of the Montagues and Capulets (1854) by Frederic Leighton

Despite his promise to call for the head of the wrong-doers, the Prince merely exiles Romeo from Verona, reasoning that Tybalt first killed Mercutio, and Romeo merely carried out a just punishment to Tybalt, although without legal authority. Meanwhile, the Capulets engage their unwilling daughter to marry Paris in three days' time, threatening to disown her if she does not. The Nurse, once Juliet's confidante, now tells her she should discard the exiled Romeo and comply. Juliet desperately visits Friar Lawrence for help. He offers her a drug which will put her into a death-like coma for forty-two hours. She is to take it, and, when discovered apparently dead, she will be laid in the family crypt. While in her sleep, the Friar will send a messenger to inform Romeo, so that she can rejoin him when she awakes.

The messenger, however, does not reach Romeo. Romeo instead learns of Juliet's "death" from his servant Balthasar. Grief-stricken, he buys strong poison from an apothecary, returns to Verona in secret, and visits the Capulets' crypt. He encounters Paris, who has come to mourn Juliet privately. Paris confronts Romeo, believing him to be a vandal, and in the ensuing battle, Romeo kills Paris. Romeo says his final words to the comatose Juliet and drinks the poison in suicide. Juliet then awakes. Friar Lawrence arrives and, aware of the cause of the tragedy, begs Juliet to leave, but she refuses. At the side of Romeo's dead body, she stabs herself with her lover's dagger.

The feuding families and the Prince meet at the tomb to find three of their families' dead. In explanation, Friar Lawrence recounts the story of the two lovers. Montague reveals that his wife has died of grief after hearing of her son's exile. The families are reconciled by their children's deaths and agree to end their violent feud. The play ends with the Prince's brief elegy for the lovers. The Capulets erect a statue of Romeo and the Montagues will erect one of Juliet. The Prince makes his parting words: "For never was a story of more woe Than this of Juliet and her Romeo."

Analysis

Romeo at Juliet's Deathbed, by Johann Heinrich Füssli

Dramatic structure

Shakespeare shows his dramatic skill freely in Romeo and Juliet, providing intense moments of shift between comedy and tragedy, and weaving plots and subplots to paint a clearer picture of the story. Before Mercutio's death in Act three, the play is largely a comedy.[19] After his accidental demise, the play suddenly becomes very serious and takes on more of a tragic tone. Still, the fact that Romeo is banished, rather than executed, offers a hope that things will work out. When Friar Laurence offers Juliet a plan to reunite her with Romeo the audience still has a reason to believe that all will end well. They are in a "breathless state of suspense" by the opening of the last scene in the tomb: If Romeo is delayed long enough for the Friar to arrive, he and Juliet may yet be saved.[20] This only makes it all the more tragic when everything falls apart in the end.[21]

Subplots offer a clearer view of the actions of the main characters, and provide an axis around which the main plot turns. For example, when the play begins, Romeo is in love with Rosaline, who has refused all of his advances. Romeo's infatuation with her stands in obvious contrast to his later love for Juliet. This provides a comparison through which the audience can see the seriousness of Romeo and Juliet's love and marriage. Paris' love for Juliet also sets up a contrast between Juliet's feelings for him and her feelings for Romeo. The formal language she uses around Paris, as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo. Beyond this, the sub-plot of the Montague-Capulet feud overarches the whole play, providing an atmosphere of hate that is the main contributor to the play's tragic end[21]

File:JulietandNurse.gif
Shakespeare gave Juliet's nurse a unique style of blank verse in her dialogue.

Language

Shakespeare uses a large variety of poetic forms throughout the play. The play begins with a 14-line prologue by a Chorus in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet. The greater part of Romeo and Juliet is written in iambic pentameter. Though the most common form is blank verse, Shakespeare uses it less often in this play than in his later plays. Shakespeare matches the forms to the characters who use them. Friar Laurence, for example, uses sermon and sententiae forms, and the Nurse uses a unique blank verse form that closely matches colloquial speech. The forms are also molded and matched to characters and to the emotion of the scene they occupy. For example, when Romeo talks about Rosaline earlier in the play, he uses the Petrarchan sonnet form. Petrarchan sonnets classically were used by men to exaggerate the beauty of women who were impossible for them to attain, much like Romeo's situation with Rosaline. This sonnet form is also used by Lady Capulet to describe Count Paris to Juliet as a handsome (though not unattainable) man. When Romeo and Juliet meet, the poetic form changes from the Petrarchan (which was becoming archaic in Shakespeare's day) to a more contemporary sonnet form, using the language of "pilgrims" and "saints". Finally, when the two meet on the balcony, Romeo attempts to use the sonnet form to pledge his love to her, but Juliet breaks it by saying "Dost thou love me?"[22] By doing this, she is searching for the reality, rather than the exaggeration of their love. Other forms include an epithalamium by Juliet, a rhapsody in Mercutio's Queen Mab speech, and an elegy by Paris. Shakespeare also uses a prose style, most often for the common people in the play, though at times for other characters, such as Mercutio.[23]

Themes and motifs

Scholars have found it extremely difficult to assign one specific, over-arching theme to the play. Bowling considers the main theme to be "the discovery" by the characters that human beings are neither wholly good nor wholly evil, but instead are "more or less alike".[24] Numerous other attempts have proposed that the theme is awaking out of a dream and into reality, or the danger of hasty action, or the power of tragic fate. None of these have widespread support. However, even if an overall theme cannot be found it is clear that the play is full of several small, thematic elements which intertwine in complex ways. Several of those which are most often debated by scholars are discussed below.[25]

Love

Romeo and Juliet statue in Central Park in New York City.

Romeo and Juliet is sometimes considered to have no unifying theme, save that of young love.[24] In fact, the characters in it have become emblems all who die young for their lovers. Several scholars have pointed out the different ways Shakespeare describes love in the play. On their first meeting, Romeo and Juliet use a form of communication recommended by many love advisers in Shakespeare's day: metaphor. By using the metaphor of saints and sins, Romeo can test Juliet's feelings for him in a non-threatening way. This method was recommended by Baldassare Castiglione (whose works had been translated into English by this time), because the woman could pretend she didn't understand the metaphor, and the man could take the hint and back away without losing his honor. Juliet, however, makes it clear that she is interested in Romeo, and plays along with his metaphor. Later, in the balcony scene, Shakespeare has Romeo overhear Juliet's declaration of love for him. In Brooke's version of the story, her declaration is done in her bedroom, alone. By bringing Romeo to eavesdrop, Shakespeare breaks from the normal sequence of courtship. Usually, a woman was required to play hard to get, in order to be sure that her suitor was sincere. His breaking the sequence, however, serves to speed along the plot. The lovers are able to skip a lengthy part of wooing, and move on to straight talk about their relationship—developing into an agreement to be married after knowing each other for only one night.[26]

The play arguably equates love and sex with death. Throughout it, both Romeo and Juliet fantasize about death, often equating him with a lover. Capluet, when first discovering Juliet's faked death, describes Death as having deflowered his daughter. Juliet even compares Romeo to death in an erotic way. One of the strongest examples of this in the play is in Juliet's suicide, when she says, grabbing Romeo's dagger, "O happy dagger! / ...This is thy sheath / there rust, and let me die." The dagger here can be a sort of phallus of Romeo, with Juliet being its sheath in death, a strong sexual symbol intertwined with death.[27]

In the middle ages, Love was considered to be a powerful god and force of nature with power over all humanity. In this final suicide scene, there is a contradiction in the message - in Christianity, suiciders are condemned to hell, whereas people who die to be with their loves under the "Religion of Love" are joined with their loves in paradise. Romeo and Juliet's love seems to be expressing the "Religion of Love" view rather than the Christian view. Another point is that although their love is passionate, it is only consummated in marriage, which prevents them from losing the audience's sympathy.[28]

Fate and chance

Scholars are divided on the role of fate in the play. No consensus exists on whether the characters are truly fated to die together no matter what they do, or whether these event take place by a series of unlucky chances. In one argument, Romeo and Juliet are star-crossed, they are fated never to be together. In attempting to defy this fate, they ensure it. These arguments often refer to the description of the lovers as "star-cross'd", a phrase in the play that seems to hint that the stars have determined the lovers' fates.[29] One scholar of the fate persuasion, Draper, points out that several parallels can be drawn between the Elizabethan belief in humours and the main characters of the play (for example, Tybalt as a choleric). Interpreting the text in the light of the Elizabethan-era science of humourism reduces the amount of the plot that is attributed to chance by a modern audience. Still, some scholars see the play as a mere series of unlucky chances to such a degree that it is not a tragedy at all, but an emotional melodrama.[30] One scholar highlighting the role of chance in the play, Nevo, believes the high degree to which chance is stressed in the narrative makes Romeo and Juliet a "lesser tragedy" of chance, not of character. Romeo's challenging Tybalt is not impulsive, it is, after Mercutio's death, the expected action to take. In this scene, Nevo reads Romeo as being aware of the dangers of flouting social norms, identity and commitments. He makes the choice to kill, not because of a tragic flaw, but because of circumstance.[31]

Light and dark

""In Romeo and Juliet...the dominating image is light, every form and manifestation of it; the sun, moon, stars, fire, lightning, the flash of gunpowder, and the reflected light of beauty and of love; while by contrast we have night, darkness, clouds, rain, mist, and smoke.""
—Caroline Spurgeon[32]

Scholars have long noted Shakespeare's widespread use of light and dark imagery throughout the play. The light theme was initially taken to be "symbolic of the natural beauty of young love", an idea beginning in Caroline Spurgeon's work Shakespeare's Imagery and What It Tells Us, although the perceived meaning has since its publication branched in several directions.[31][32] The play contrasts light and dark in several ways. For example, both Romeo and Juliet see the other as light in a surrounding darkness. Romeo describes Juliet as being like the sun,[33] brighter than a torch,[34] a jewel sparkling in the night,[35] and a bright angel among dark clouds.[36] Even when she lies apparently dead in the tomb, he says her "beauty makes / This vault a feasting presence full of light."[37] Juliet describes Romeo as "day in night" and "Whiter than snow upon a raven's back."[38][39] This contrast of light and dark can be expanded as contrasting love and hate, youth and age in a metaphoric way.[31] Sometimes the metaphor creates a dramatic irony. For example, Romeo and Juliet's love is a light in the midst of the darkness of the hate around them, but all of their activity together is done in night and darkness, while all of the feuding is done in broad daylight. This paradox of imagery adds to the moral dillema facing the two lovers: loyalty to family or loyalty to love. This in turn adds significant dramatic effect and emotion to the story. At the end of the story, when the morning is gloomy and the sun hiding its face for sorrow, light and dark has been returned to its proper place, the outward darkness, reflecting the true, inner darkness of the family feud, out of sorrow for the lovers. All characters now recognize their folly in light of recent events, and things return to the natural order, thanks to the love of Romeo and Juliet.[32] The "light" theme in the play is also heavily connected to the theme of time, since light was a convienient way for Shakespeare to express the passage of time through descriptions of the sun, moon, and stars.[40]

Time

Time plays an important role in the language and plot of the play. Both Romeo and Juliet refer to their struggle to maintain an imaginary world void of time and full of love in the face of the harsh realities of unstoppable time that surround them. For instance, when Romeo attempts to swear his love to Juliet by the moon, Juliet tells him not to, as it is known to be inconstant over time, and she does not desire this of him. From the very beginning, the lovers are designated as "star-cross'd"[41] referring to an astrologic belief which is heavily connected to time. Stars were thought to control the fates of men, and as time passed, stars would move along their course in the sky, also charting the course of human lives below. Romeo speaks of a foreboding he feels in the stars movements' early in the play, and when he learns of Juliet's death, he defies the stars' course for him.

A "haste theme" can be considered as fundamental to the play.[40] For example, the action of Romeo and Juliet is generally considered to span a period of four to six days, in contrast to Brooke's poem spanning nine months. Scholars such as Tanselle believe that time was "especially important to Shakespeare" in this play, as he used references to "short-time" for the young lovers as opposed to references to "long-time" for the "older generation" to highlight "a headlong rush towards doom".[40] Romeo and Juliet repeatedly attempt to fight the effects of time in the world around them in their desire for their love to last forever. In the end, the only way they see to defeat time is through a timeless death which makes them noteworthy enough to be made immortal through art.[42]

Time is heavily connected to the theme of light and dark, as well. Shakespeare's play is said in the Prologue to be about two hours long, creating a paradox for any playwright.[42] In Shakespeare's day, plays were often performed at noon in broad daylight, requiring the playwright to create his own methods for the illusion of passing time in his plays. Shakespeare uses references to the light and dark of night and day, the stars, the moon, and the sun to create this illusion. He also has characters frequently refer to days of the week and specific hours of the day to help the audience understand that time has passed in the story. All in all, no fewer than 103 specific references to time are found in the play, adding to this illusion of its passage.[43][44]

Other approaches

Psychoanalytic

Psychoanalytic critics focus largely on Romeo's depressive state with Rosaline before he meets Juliet, as well as the function of hate in their relationship as a result of the family feud. The looming image of inevitable death is explored as well. This line of criticism argues that Shakespeare is in love with Juliet because she is to him the all-present, all-powerful mother which he needs to fill a void he feels in his own mother. The feud between the families provides a source of phallic expression for the male Capulets and Montagues This sets up a system where patriarchal order is in power. When the sons are married, rather than focusing on the wife, they are still owed an obligation to their father and family. This conflict between obligation to the father (the family name) and the wife (the feminine), determines the course of the play. Some critics argue this hatred is the sole cause of Romeo and Juliet's passion for each other. The fear of death and the knowledge of the danger of their risking a relationship is in this view channeled into a romantic passion.[45]

Feminist literary critics have pointed out Juliet's dependence on male characters, such as Friar Laurence and Romeo.

Feminist

Feminist critics also point out that the blame for the family feud lies in the patriarchal order of society in Verona. The strict, masculine code of violence imposed on Romeo is the main force driving the tragedy to its end. When Tybalt kills Mercutio, for example, Romeo shifts into this violent mode, regretting that Juliet has made him so "effeminate".[46] Juliet also submits to a female code of docility by allowing others, such as the Friar, to solve her problems for her. Other critics, such as Dympna Callaghan, look at the play's feminism from a more historicist angle. They take into account the fact that the play is written during a time when the patriarchal order was being challenged by several forces, most notably the rise of Puritanism, which viewed marriage and sexuality as less of a necessary evil than other philosophies had done. For example, when Juliet dodges her father's attempt to force her to marry Paris in an attempt to stay with the man she really has feelings for, she is successfully challenging the patriarchal order in a way that would not have been possible at an earlier time.[47]

Gender studies

Gender studies critics largely question the sexuality of two characters, Mercutio and Romeo. The argument centers around the difference between sexual love and friendship, a difference which, in this view, Shakespeare discusses heavily in the play. Mercutio's friendship with Romeo, for example, leads to several friendly conversations, including ones on the subject of Romeo's phallus. This would seem to suggest traces of homoeroticism.[48] Romeo, as well, admits traces of the same in his love for Rosaline and Juliet. Rosaline, it seems, is distant and unavailable except in the mind, bringing no hope of offspring. As Benvolio argues, she is best replaced by someone who will reciprocate. Shakespeare's procreation sonnets describe another young man who, like Romeo, is having trouble finding such a person, and who (possibly also like Romeo) is homosexual. In this view, when Juliet says "...that which we call a rose / By any other name would smell as sweet",[49] she may be raising the question of whether there is any difference between the beauty of a man and the beauty of a woman.[50]

Performances and adaptations

Stage history

Richard Burbage, probably one of the first actors to portray Romeo.[51]

Romeo and Juliet was a popular play in Shakespeare's lifetime. Gary Taylor measures it as the sixth most popular of Shakespeare's plays, in the period after the death of Marlowe and Kyd but before the ascendancy of Jonson during which Shakespeare was London's dominant playwright.[52] The exact date of the first performance of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, however, is unknown. The First Quarto, printed in 1597, says that "it hath been often (and with great applause) plaid publiquely," setting the first performance prior to that date. The Lord Chamberlain's Men were certainly the first to perform it. Besides their strong connections with Shakespeare, the Second Quarto actually names one of its actors, Will Kemp, instead of Peter in a line in Act five. Thus, Richard Burbage was probably the first Romeo, being the company's leading actor, and Master Robert Goffe (a male) the first Juliet.[53]

After the theatres re-opened in the Restoration, Sir William Davenant staged a 1662 production in which Henry Harris played Romeo, Thomas Betterton was Mercutio, and Betterton's wife Mary Saunderson played Juliet.[54] (Mrs. Saunderson was probably the first female to play Juliet professionally.[55]) This play was criticized by Samuel Pepys as the worst he had ever heard. Versions immediately following this were changed to tragicomedies, where the two lovers did not die in the end.[56] Thomas Otway's adaptation The History and Fall of Caius Marius, one of the more extreme of the Restoration versions of Shakespeare, debuted in 1680. The scene is shifted from Renaissance Verona to ancient Rome; Romeo is Marius, Juliet is Lavinia, the feud is between patricians and plebians; Juliet/Lavina wakes from her potion before Romeo/Marius dies. Otway's version was a hit, and was acted for the next seventy years. It altered the sexual language of the play as well, toning down the Queen Mab speech, for example.[57] Theophilus Cibber mounted his own adaptation in 1744, followed by David Garrick's in 1748. Both Cibber and Garrick used variations on Otway's innovation in the tomb scene.[58] These versions also eliminated elements deemed inappropriate for the time. For example, Garrick's version transferred all language describing Rosaline to Juliet, in order to heighten the idea of faithfulness and downplay the love-at-first-sight theme.[59][60] In 1750 a "Battle of the Romeos" began, with Spranger Barry and Susannah Maria Arne (Mrs. Theophilus Cibber) at Covent Garden versus David Garrick and George Anne Bellamy at Drury Lane.[61]

Garrick's altered version of the play was very popular, and ran for nearly a century.[62] Not until 1845 did Shakespeare's original returned to the stage in the United States (with the sisters Charlotte and Susan Cushman as Romeo and Juliet),[63][64] and in 1847 in Britain (Samuel Phelps at Sadler's Wells).[65] Saunders actively reverted Garrick's additions and changes to the original, and adhered to Shakespeare's version, beginning a string of eighty-four performances. Her portrayal of Romeo was considered genius by many, as she called more attention to Romeo's character than other's, making the play largely his tragedy. Cushman's success broke the Garrick tradition and paved the way for later plays.[66] Henry Irving's 1882 production at the Lyceum Theatre is considered an archetype of his "pictorial" style, placing the action on elaborate sets. Irving hmself played Romeo, and Ellen Terry played Juliet.[67] In 1895, actor Forbes-Robertson took over for Irving, and laid the groundwork for a more natural portrayal of Shakespeare that remains popular today. Forbes-Robertson avoided the showiness of Irving and instead portrayed a down-to-earth Romeo, expressing the poetic dialogue as realistic prose and avoiding melodramatic flourish. Meanwhile,, American theaters began performing the play, eventually rivaling their British counterparts with the likes of Edwin Booth (brother to John Wilkes Booth) and Mary McVicker as Romeo and Juliet. The play found popularity throughout continental Europe, as well.[68]

In one of the most notable twentieth century performances, staged by John Gielgud at the New Theatre in 1935, Gielgud and Laurence Olivier played the roles of Romeo and Mercutio, exchanging roles six weeks into the run, with Peggy Ashcroft as Juliet.[69]

Other notable twentieth century productions include Guthrie McClintic's 1934 Broadway staging in which Katharine Cornell had a triumph as Juliet opposite Basil Rathbone as Romeo and Edith Evans (who also played the role in the Gielgud production) as the Nurse. Cornell later revived the production with Maurice Evans as Romeo and Ralph Richardson as Mercutio, both making their Broadway debuts. Franco Zeffirelli mounted a legendary staging for the Old Vic in 1960 with John Stride and Judi Dench that served as the basis for his 1968 film.[70]

Stage adaptations

When Romeo and Juliet is adapted for the stage, it is sometimes set in a modern or well-known historical setting, enabling audiences to understand, and perhaps to reflect upon, the underlying conflicts. For example, adaptations have been set in the midst of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,[71] in the apartheid era in South Africa,[72] and in the aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt.[73] Among the most famous of such adaptations is Peter Ustinov's 1956 comic adaptation, Romanoff and Juliet, set in a fictional mid-European country in the depths of the Cold War.[74]

Music

File:KasarvinaLifarRG2.jpg
Several ballet versions of the play have developed, including this one starring Tamara Kasarvina and Serge Lifar.

At least 24 operas and plays have been based on Romeo and Juliet, the best known being Gounod's Roméo et Juliette (1867) and Bellini's opera I Capuleti e i Montecchi.[75] The libretto in Gounod's play was by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré.[76] Bellini's opera has rarely been judged favorably, in part because of its perceived liberties with Shakespeare; however, Bellini and his librettist, Felice Romani, worked from Italian sources, with no intention to adapt Shakespeare's play.[77] In 2004 American composer Lee Hoiby also adapted Romeo and Juliet to write an opera of the same name.[78]

Since the 18th century, several ballet versions have been composed; among the better-known is Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet, first performed in 1938.[79]

Roméo et Juliette by Berlioz is a "symphonie dramatique", a large scale work in three parts for mixed voices, chorus and orchestra, premiered in 1839.[80] The Romeo and Juliet Fantasy Overture (1869, revised 1870 and 1880), by Tchaikovsky is a long symphonic poem, containing the famous melody known as the "love theme".[81]

The play led to a number of musical theatre adaptations, the most famous of which was West Side Story with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim. It debuted on Broadway in 1957 and in London's West End in 1958, and became a popular film in 1961. This version updated the setting to mid-20th century New York City, and the warring families to ethnic gangs.[82] Other musical adaptations include Terrence Mann's 1999 rock musical William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, co-written with Jerome Korman,[83] Gérard Presgurvic's 2001 Roméo et Juliette, de la Haine à l'Amour and Riccardo Cocciante's 2007 Giulietta & Romeo.[84]

Screen

File:RomeoGiuliettaZeffirelli.jpeg
Leonard Whiting as Romeo and Olivia Hussey as Juliet in Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 film version.


In putting Romeo and Juliet on screen, the director must set the action in a social context that illuminates the characters, and mediates between the Renaissance play and modern audiences.[85] George Cukor, in 1970, commented on why his "stately" and "stodgy" 1936 film had not stood the test of time, saying that if he had the opportunity to make it again he would "get the garlic and the mediterranean into it".[86] Yet that performance (featuring Norma Shearer and Leslie Howard, with a combined age over 75, as the teenage lovers) had garnered no fewer than four Oscar nominations.[87]

The films' openings highlight each director's care to establish authenticity: Cukor introduces his characters in a shot of a scene played on a proscenium stage; Renato Castellani's 1954 version opens with John Gielgud, famous as a stage Romeo, as the Prologue in Elizabethan doublet and hose; Zeffirelli sets his scene with an overview of Verona, and his Prologue, in voiceover, was another famous stage Romeo: Laurence Olivier. In contrast, Romeo + Juliet in 1996 was targeted at a young audience, and opens with images of television and print journalism.[88]

A particular difficulty for the screen-writer arises towards the end of the fourth act, where Shakespeare's play requires considerable compression to be effective on the big screen, without giving the impression of "cutting to the chase".[89] In Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 version, Juliet's return home from the Friar's cell, her submission to her father and the preparation for the wedding are drastically abbreviated, and similarly the tomb scene is cut short: Paris does not appear at all, and Benvolio (in the Balthazar role) is sent away but is not threatened.[90] In Baz Luhrmann's Romeo + Juliet, the screenplay allows Juliet to witness Romeo's death, and the role of the watch is cut, permitting Friar Lawrence to remain with Juliet and to be taken by surprise by her sudden suicide.[91]

Including the four major theatrical releases already mentioned, Shakespeare's play has been filmed numerous times.[92] Several of the adaptations of the story have also been filmed, most notably West Side Story, Prokofiev's ballet and Romanoff and Juliet. Also, several theatrical films, such as Shakespeare in Love and Romeo Must Die, consciously use elements of Shakespeare's plot.

References
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  1. ↑ Arthur J. Roberts (Feb 1902). The Sources of Romeo and Juliet. Modern Language Notes 17 (2): 41-44.
  2. ↑ N. H. Keeble "York Notes on Romeo and Juliet" (Longman, 1980) p.18
  3. ↑ Gibbons, Brian. Romeo and Juliet. London: Methuen, 1980. pg. 32-33. ISBN 0-416-17850-2
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Moore, Olin. "Bandello and Clizia." Modern Language Notes 52 (1937): 38-44.
  5. ↑ Madeleine Doran, Endeavors of Art. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1954: 132.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Hosley, Richard, editor. Romeo and Juliet. New Haven: Yale University Press, 168.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Gibbons, pg. 34
  8. ↑ Moore, Olin H. "The Origins of the Legend of Romeo and Juliet in Italy" Speculum. (July 1930) 5.3 pgs. 264-277
  9. ↑ Furness, Henry Howard (ed). A New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet. New York:Dover Publications, Inc. 1963.
  10. ↑ Gibbons, pgs. 36-37
  11. ↑ Draper, John W. "The Date of Romeo and Juliet." The Review of English Studies (Jan 1949) 25.97 pgs. 55-57
  12. ↑ Gibbons, pgs. 26-31
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 T. J. B Spencer (ed.) The New Penguin Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" (Penguin, London, 1967) "An account of the Text" p.284
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Halio, Jay. Romeo and Juliet. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998. pg. 1 ISBN 0-313-30089-5
  15. ↑ Jay, pg. 2
  16. ↑ Gibbons, pg. 21
  17. ↑ Gibbons, ix
  18. ↑ Jay, pg. 8-9
  19. ↑ Shapiro, Stephen A. "Romeo and Juliet: Reversals, Contraries, Transformations, and Ambivalence." College English. 25.7 (Apr 1964) pp. 498-501 doi:10.2307/373235
  20. ↑ Bonnard, Georges A. "Romeo and Juliet: A Possible Significance?." The Review of English Studies: New Series. 2.8 (Oct 1951) pp. 319-327
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Halio, pgs. 20-30
  22. ↑ II.ii.90
  23. ↑ Halio, pgs. 48-60
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Bowling, Lawrence Edward. "The Thematic Framework of Romeo and Juliet." PMLA. 64.1 (Mar 1949) pp. 208-220 doi:10.2307/459678
  25. ↑ Halio, pg. 65
  26. ↑ Honegger, T. "'Wouldst thou withdraw love's faithful vow?' The negotiation of love in the orchard scene - (Romeo and Juliet Act II)" Journal of Historical Pragmatics. 2006 7.1 pgs. 73-88
  27. ↑ C. G., MacKenzie. "Love, sex and death in 'Romeo and Juliet'." English Studies (Feb 2007) 88.1 pgs. 22-42
  28. ↑ Christianity and the Religion of Love
  29. ↑ Evans, Bertrand. "The Brevity of Friar Laurence." PMLA 65.5 (September 1950): 841-865.
  30. ↑ Draper, J. W. "Shakespeare's 'Star-Crossed Lovers'." The Review of English Studies. 15.57 (Jan 1939) pp. 16-34
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Nevo, Ruth. "Tragic Form in Romeo and Juliet." Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900: Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama. 9.2 (Spring 1969) pp. 241-258 doi:10.2307/449778
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Parker, D. H. "Light and Dark Imagery in Romeo and Juliet." Queen's Quarterly. 1968 75.4 pgs. 663-674
  33. ↑ II.ii
  34. ↑ I.v.42
  35. ↑ I.v.44-45
  36. ↑ II.ii.26-32
  37. ↑ I.v.85-86
  38. ↑ III.ii.17-19
  39. ↑ Halio, pgs. 55-56
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Tanselle, G. Thomas. "Time in Romeo and Juliet." Shakespeare Quarterly. 15.4 (Autumn 1964) pp. 349-361 doi:10.2307/2868092
  41. ↑ Prologue
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Lucking, D. "Uncomfortable time in Romeo and Juliet." English Studies. (Apr 2001) 82.2 pgs. 115-26. ISSN: 0013-838X
  43. ↑ Halio, pgs. 55-58
  44. ↑ Driver, Tom F. "The Shakespearian Clock: Time and the Vision of Reality in Romeo and Juliet and the Tempest." Shakespeare Quarterly. (Oct 1964) 15.4 pgs. 363-370
  45. ↑ Halio, pgs. 81-87
  46. ↑ III.i.112
  47. ↑ Halio, pg. 87-92
  48. ↑ Halio, pgs. 85-87
  49. ↑ Act 2 Scene 2
  50. ↑ Goldberg, Jonathan. Queering the Renaissance. Durham: Duke University Press (1994), 221-227. ISBN 0-8223-1385-5
  51. ↑ Halio, 97
  52. ↑ Gary Taylor "Shakespeare Plays on Renaissance Stages" in Stanley Wells and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p.18. The five more popular plays, in descending order, are Henry VI, Part 1, Richard III, Pericles, Hamlet and Richard II
  53. ↑ Halio, 97
  54. ↑ Van Lennep, William, editor. The London Stage, 1660-1800. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1965: 1:48.
  55. ↑ Halio, 100
  56. ↑ Halio, 100
  57. ↑ Halio, 100
  58. ↑ Jean I. Marsden "Shakespeare from the Restoration to Garrick" in Stanley Wells and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) pp.26-27
  59. ↑ Branam, George C. "The Genesis of David Garrick's Romeo and Juliet." Shakespeare Quarterly 35.2 (July 1984): 170-179.
  60. ↑ Stone, George Winchester, Jr. "Romeo and Juliet: The Source of its Modern Stage Career." Shakespeare Quarterly 15.2 (April 1964): 191-206.
  61. ↑ Pedicord, Harry William. The Theatrical Public in the Time of David Garrick. New York: King's Crown Press, 1954: 14.
  62. ↑ Halio, 101
  63. ↑ Charlotte Saunders Cushman played Romeo 54 years before Sarah Bernhardt played Hamlet.
  64. ↑ Penny Gay "Women and Shakespearean Performance" in Stanley Wells and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p.162
  65. ↑ F. E. Halliday, A Shakespeare Companion 1564-1964, Baltimore, Penguin, 1964; pp. 125, 365, 420.
  66. ↑ Halio, 102
  67. ↑ Richard W. Scooch "Pictorial Shakespeare" in Stanley Wells and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) pp.62-63
  68. ↑ Halio, 104-105
  69. ↑ Robert Smallwood "Twentieth-century Performance" in Stanley Wells and Sarah Stanton (eds.) "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage" (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p.102
  70. ↑ Levinson, Jill, ed. Romeo and Juliet (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000): 87.
  71. ↑ Pape, Ilan. "Post-Zionist Critique on Israel and the Palestinians Part III: Popular Culture." Journal of Palestine Studies 26 (1997): 69.
  72. ↑ Quince, Rohan. Shakespeare in South Africa: Stage Productions During the Apartheid Era. New York: Peter Lang, 2000: 121-125
  73. ↑ Klugman, Deborah. Kino and Teresa review. LA Weekly. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
  74. ↑ Taylor, John Russell. The Angry Theatre: New British Drama. (New York: Hill and Wang, 1962): 18.
  75. ↑ Eve R. Meyer (Mar 1968). Measure for Measure: Shakespeare and Music. Music Educators Journal 54 (7).
  76. ↑ Sadie, Stanley. The New Grove Dictionary of Opera (London: Macmillan, 1992): 31.
  77. ↑ Collins, Michael, "The Literary Background of Bellini's I Capuleti e i Montecchi," Journal of the American Musicological Society 35 (1982): 532-8.
  78. ↑ "Lee Hoiby Signs To Schott Music." Press release, 1 July 2006.
  79. ↑ Nestyev, Israel. Prokofiev, Florence Jonas, trans (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960): 261.
  80. ↑ Bloom, Peter, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Berlioz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000): 178.
  81. ↑ Stites, Richard, ed. Culture and Entertainment in Wartime Russia (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1995): 5.
  82. ↑ Rodriguez, Clara, editor. Latin Looks: Images of Latinas and Latinos in the U.S. Media (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997): 74).
  83. ↑ Ehren, Christine, "Sweet Sorrow: Mann-Korman's Romeo and Juliet Closes Sept. 5 at MN's Ordway" Playbill.com 3 September 1999.
  84. ↑ Arafay, Mireia, ed. Books in Motion: Adaptation, Adaptability, Authorship (Amsterdam: Editions Rodolpi, 2005): 186.
  85. ↑ Tatspaugh, Patricia "The Tragedy of Love on Film" in Jackson, Russell "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film" (Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-63975-1) p.135
  86. ↑ Tatspaugh, p.136
  87. ↑ Tatspaugh, p.136
  88. ↑ Tatspaugh, p.136
  89. ↑ Jackson, Russell "From play-script to screenplay" in Jackson, Russell "The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film" (Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-63975-1) p.30
  90. ↑ Russell, p.30
  91. ↑ Russell, p.31
  92. ↑ Romeo and Juliet at imdb.[1]

Further reading

  • Levin, Harry. "Form and Formality in Romeo and Juliet." Shakespeare Quarterly. 11.1 (Winter 1960) pp. 3-11 doi:10.2307/2867423.
  • Martin, Jennifer L. "Tights vs. Tattoos: Filmic Interpretations of 'Romeo and Juliet'." The English Journal. 92.1 Shakespeare for a New Age (Sep 2002) pp. 41-46 doi:10.2307/821945.
  • Lehmann, Courtney. "Strictly Shakespeare? Dead Letters, Ghostly Fathers, and the Cultural Pathology of Authorship in Baz Luhrmann's 'William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet'." Shakespeare Quarterly. 52.2 (Summer 2001) pp. 189-221.
  • Siegel, Paul N. "Christianity and the Religion of Love in Romeo and Juliet." Shakespeare Quarterly. 12.4 (Autumn 1961) pp. 371-392 doi:10.2307/2867455
  • Kahn, Coppelia. "Coming of Age in Verona." Modern Language Studies. 8.1 (Winter 1977-1978) pp. 5-22 doi:10.2307/3194631

External links

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The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet
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 William Shakespeare and his works
General information Biography | Style | influence | Reputation | Religion | Sexuality | Shakespearean Authorship Question
Tragedies Antony and Cleopatra | Coriolanus | Hamlet | Julius Caesar | King Lear | Macbeth | Othello | Romeo and Juliet | Timon of Athens | Titus Andronicus | Troilus and Cressida
Comedies All's Well That Ends Well | As You Like It | The Comedy of Errors | Cymbeline | Love's Labour's Lost | Measure for Measure | The Merchant of Venice | The Merry Wives of Windsor | A Midsummer Night's Dream | Much Ado About Nothing | Pericles, Prince of Tyre | The Taming of the Shrew | The Tempest | Twelfth Night, or What You Will | The Two Gentlemen of Verona | The Two Noble Kinsmen | The Winter's Tale
Histories King John | Richard II | Henry IV, Part 1 | Henry IV, Part 2 | Henry V | Henry VI, part 1 | Henry VI, part 2 | Henry VI, part 3 | Richard III | Henry VIII
Poems Sonnets | Venus and Adonis | The Rape of Lucrece | The Passionate Pilgrim | The Phoenix and the Turtle | A Lover's Complaint
Apocrypha and Lost Plays Edward III | Sir Thomas More | Cardenio (lost) | Love's Labour's Won (lost) | The Birth of Merlin | Locrine | The London Prodigal | The Puritan | The Second Maiden's Tragedy | Richard II, Part I: Thomas of Woodstock | Sir John Oldcastle | Thomas Lord Cromwell | A Yorkshire Tragedy | Fair Em | Mucedorus | The Merry Devil of Edmonton | Arden of Faversham | Edmund Ironside | Vortigern and Rowena
Other play information Shakespeare's plays | Shakespeare in performance | Chronology of Shakespeare plays | Oxfordian chronology | Shakespeare on screen | BBC Television Shakespeare | Titles based on Shakespeare | List of characters | Problem Plays | List of historical characters | Ghost characters

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