Difference between revisions of "Robot" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:HONDA ASIMO.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[ASIMO]] (2000) at the [[Expo 2005]], a [[humanoid]] robot created by [[Honda]]]]
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In the popular imagination, the term '''robot''' evokes images of a mechanical device that looks and acts like a [[human being]]. This type of robot, called a humanoid or [[android]], is common in [[science fiction]] literature and cinema. In reality, the term '''robot''' can be applied to any of a wide range of programmable machines, the common feature of which is that they are capable of movement and can be used to perform physical tasks. Robots are built in many different forms, ranging from humanoid to industrial, and their appearance is dictated by the functions they are to perform. They are usefully engaged in industrial production requiring repetitive tasks, and in performing tasks that may be difficult or dangerous for humans.
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{{toc}}
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Several concerns have been expressed about robots. One is that they can displace people from their jobs. Another is that humanoid robots, if they acquire [[intelligence]] and [[emotion]]s that allow them to think and act on their own, may become hostile toward humans and threaten humankind. The latter concern, however, is based on fictional concepts. Real-world robots are machines with their own mechanical limitations, and they lack the human spirit. Although they may be built to simulate human intelligence and decision-making traits to some extent, these abilities are governed by artificially programmed feedback loops, not by creative thought processes, heartfelt feelings, and senses of responsibility—qualities that underlie human aspirations and freedom of expression. Consequently, the abilities, activities, and value of robots will remain distinct from those of humans.
  
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Intro 1:
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[[Image:Toyota Robot at Toyota Kaikan.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[humanoid]] robot manufactured by [[Toyota]] appears to be playing a trumpet.]]
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In practical usage, a '''robot''' is an [[autonomous]] or semi-autonomous device which performs its tasks either by direct [[human]] control, partial control with human supervision, or completely autonomously. Robots are typically used to do tasks that are too dull (repetitive), dirty, or dangerous for humans. Industrial robots used in [[manufacturing]] lines used to be the most common form of robots, but that has recently been replaced by consumer robots cleaning floors and mowing lawns. Other applications include toxic waste cleanup, underwater and space exploration, surgery, mining, search and rescue, and mine finding.  Robots are also finding their way into entertainment and home health care.
 
  
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Intro 2:
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==What is a robot?==
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A '''robot''' is a [[machine|mechanical device]] that can perform preprogrammed physical tasks. Some robotic devices, such as the robotic arm of the [[space shuttle]], act under direct [[human]] control. Other robots act autonomously, under the [[control theory|control]] of a preprogrammed [[computer]]. Certain robots, such as the space shuttle arm, are used to perform tasks that are too difficult or dangerous for humans to engage in directly. Others, including those used in automobile production, have made it possible to automate repetitive tasks and to lower the cost of performing them relative to direct human involvement.
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A '''robot''' is a [[machine]] that can perform preprogrammed physical tasks. Robots have been built to serve various functions, and they therefore appear in a variety of forms. Some robotic devices, such as the robotic arm of the [[space shuttle]], act under direct [[human]] control. Other robots act autonomously, under the [[control theory|control]] of a [[computer]].
  
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The word '''robot''' is also used to describe an intelligent mechanical device constructed in human form. This type of robot is common in [[science fiction]], but major breakthroughs will need to be made in the field of [[artificial intelligence]] before we can produce a robot that even begins to resemble the robots of fiction.
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Certain robots, such as remotely controlled bomb-disposal units, are used to perform tasks that are too dangerous or difficult for humans to engage in directly. Others, including those used in automobile production, have made it possible to automate repetitive tasks, lowering the cost of performing them.
  
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Finally, [[Wikipedia:bots|bots]] are sometimes referred to as '''robots''', because they perform mundane, repetitive tasks.
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Some robots may act according to their own decision-making ability, provided by the technology of [[artificial intelligence]]. Such robots include feedback loops such that they can interact with and respond to their environment. They do not, however, display actual intelligence.
  
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[[Image:Toyota Robot at Toyota Kaikan.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[humanoid]]* robot manufactured by [[Toyota]] "playing" a trumpet]]
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==Robots in history==
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The idea of mechanical men and semi-intelligent mechanical devices stretches back to the legends of ancient civilizations. For instance, in classical Roman and [[Greek mythology]], the god of fire and metalwork ([[Vulcan]] in Rome and [[Hephaestus]] in Greece) created mechanical servants ranging from intelligent, golden handmaidens to three-legged tables that moved about under their own power. [[Jew]]ish legend tells of the [[Golem]], a clay statue animated by [[Kabbala|Kabbalistic]] magic. Similarly, [[Norse mythology]] (in the ''Younger Edda'') tells of a clay giant, Mökkurkálfi or Mistcalf, constructed to aid the [[troll]] Hrungnir in a duel with [[Thor]], the god of thunder.
  
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==Defining a robot==
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[[Image:Leonardo-Robot3.jpg|thumb|Model of [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s mechanical knight, with a display of its inner workings.]]
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One of the first recorded designs of a humanoid robot was made by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] around 1495. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical [[knight]] that can sit up, wave its arms, and move its head and jaw. The design is thought to be based on his anatomical research recorded in the ''Vitruvian Man.'' It is not known whether he attempted to build the robot.
  
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In common parlance, the word robot refers to any machine that mimics some of the actions of a human ([[biomimicry]]), in the physical or mental sense. More precisely, the term robot is usually applied to a machine equipped with a computer that acts as a "brain," giving it the ability to move and perform physical tasks. The computer is usually re-programmable, so that the robot's actions can be modified by altering the computer program.
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In 1737, French engineer [[Jacques de Vaucanson]] made the first known functioning humanoid robot that played the tabor and pipe. He also made a mechanical duck that reportedly had more than 400 moving parts and could flap its wings, eat grain, drink, and defecate.
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{{readout||left|250px|The history of robots goes back as far as ancient [[myth]]s and [[legend]]s}}
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[[Nikola Tesla]] invented a teleoperated boat, similar to a modern remotely operated vehicle (ROV), that was demonstrated at an 1898 exhibition in Madison Square Garden. Based on his patent for "teleautomation," he hoped to develop the "wireless [[torpedo]]" into an automated weapon system for the U.S. Navy.
  
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Engineers have constructed robots in many different forms. For instance, humanoid robots mimic the human form and ways of moving, while various industrial robots appear in forms that are dictated by their functions. Robots can be placed in different groups, including [[mobile robot]]*s (such as autonomous vehicles), [[manipulator|manipulator robots]]* (such as industrial robots), and self-reconfigurable robots, which can conform themselves to the task at hand.
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Between 1937 and 1938, [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] made eight similar humanoid robots nicknamed Elektro, exhibited at the 1939 and 1940 [[World's Fair]]s. Each of these robots was about seven feet tall, weighed 300 pounds, and could walk, talk (using a 78-rpm [[phonograph|record player]]), smoke cigarettes, and move its head and arms.
  
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Some robots are under direct human control, including remotely controlled bomb-disposal robots, robotic arms, and shuttles. Others may be given a high degree of their own decision-making ability, provided by [[artificial intelligence]] systems. The majority of robots, however, fall between these two extremes and are controlled by pre-programmed computers. These robots may include [[feedback loop]]*s, so that they can interact with their environment but do not display actual intelligence.
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In 1948 and 1949, [[W. Grey Walter]] at [[Bristol University]], [[England]], created the first electronic autonomous robots, named Elmer and Elsie. They were often described as [[tortoise]]s, based on their shape and slow movements. These three-wheeled robots were capable of [[phototaxis]] (movement guided by the influence of light), by which they could find their way to a recharging station when they ran low on battery power.
  
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Not every machine that contains a computer is considered a robot. For instance, the modern automobile is a movable machine containing a computer, but it is not considered a robot because the computer makes only minor adjustments, while the human driver controls most of the vehicle's movements through mechanical systems. Also, a desktop computer is not considered a robot because it does not have a moving body to perform physical operations outside itself.
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==Robots in literature==
  
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==History==
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Robots have been frequently used as characters in works of literature. The word ''robot'' first appeared in the play ''R.U.R.'' (''Rossum's Universal Robots''), written by Czech writer [[Karel Čapek]] in 1920.<ref name=RUR>Dennis G. Jerz, [http://jerz.setonhill.edu/resources/RUR/ R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]. Retrieved October 18, 2011.</ref> In a short letter, Karel Čapek credited his brother, painter and writer Josef Čapek, for having coined the term ''robot''.<ref>Dominik Zunt, [http://capek.misto.cz/english/robot.html Who did actually invent the word "robot" and what does it mean?], Karel Capek website. Retrieved October 18, 2011.</ref> It is derived from ''robota,'' which means "compulsory labor" or "[[corvée]]" in the Czech language and "work" in Slovak; a ''robotnik'' is a peasant or serf.<ref name=RUR/>
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The idea of artificial people dates at least as far back as the ancient legend of [[Cadmus]], who sowed dragon teeth that turned into soldiers, and the myth of [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]], whose statue of [[Galatea (mythology)|Galatea]] came to life. In classical mythology, the deformed god of metalwork ([[Vulcan_(mythology)|Vulcan]] or [[Hephaestus]]) created mechanical servants, ranging from intelligent, golden handmaidens to more utilitarian three-legged tables that could move about under their own power. [[Jew]]ish legend tells of the [[Golem]], a clay statue animated by [[Kabbalism|Kabbalistic]] magic. Similarly, in the [[Younger Edda]], [[Norse mythology]] tells of a clay giant, Mökkurkálfi or Mistcalf, constructed to aid the troll Hrungnir in a duel with [[Thor]], the God of Thunder.
 
  
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The word ''Robot'' was introduced by Czech writer [[Karel Čapek]] in his play ''[[R.U.R.]]'' which was written in [[1920]] (See also [[Robots in literature]] for details of the play).
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[[Science fiction]] writers have devoted many volumes to robots and their interaction with humans. Of particular note is the work of [[Isaac Asimov]], who has centered a large portion of his work on robot-related stories. In his three "laws of robotics," he codified a simple set of behaviors for robots to remain at the service of their human creators.<ref>Isaac Asimov, ''I, Robot'' (New York, NY: Bantam Spectra, 2008 (original 1950), ISBN 978-0553382563).</ref>
  
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Concepts akin to today's robot can be found as long ago as 450B.C. when the Greek mathematician [[Archytas]] of Tarentum postulated a mechanical bird he called "The Pigeon" which was propelled by [[steam]].  [[Al-Jazari]] (1136-1206) an [[Ortoqid]] (Artuk) [[Turkish]] inventor designed and constructed automatic machines such as water clocks, kitchen appliances and musical automats powered by [[water]] (See one of his
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Literary works have adopted specialized terminology when referring to different types of robots. For instance, the term "robot" has come to mean a [[machine|mechanical]] human, while "android" is used for an artificial human with organic parts, and "cyborg" or "bionic man" refers to a human form that contains both organic and mechanical parts. Organic artificial humans have also been referred to as "constructs."
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works at [http://www.finns-books.com/auto.htm]).
 
  
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One of the first recorded designs of a humanoid robot was made by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] in around [[1495]]. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the [[1950s]], contain detailed drawings of a mechanical [[knight]] able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw. The design is likely to be based on his anatomical research recorded in the ''[[Vitruvian Man]]''. It is not known whether he attempted to build the robot (see: [[Leonardo's robot]]).
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==Robotics==
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The term '''robotics''' refers to the technology that involves the design, manufacture, and uses of robots. Someone who works in the field of robotics is called a ''roboticist.'' This person requires a working knowledge of [[electronics]], [[mechanics]], and [[software]]. The word robotics was first used in print by [[Isaac Asimov]] in his [[science fiction]] short story “Liar!”<ref>According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary,'' the term "robotics" was first used in the short story "Liar!" published in the May, 1941 issue of ''Astounding Science Fiction''.</ref>.
  
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The first known functioning robot was created in [[1738]] by [[Jacques de Vaucanson]], who made an [[android]] that played the flute, as well as a mechanical duck that reportedly ate and defecated.  
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Although robots vary in appearance and capabilities, they share the features of a mechanical, movable structure under some form of control. Generally, a robot's structure acts like the skeleton of a body and is called a “kinematic chain.” The chain is formed of links (the robot's "bones"), [[actuator]]s (the robot's "muscles"), and joints. In most contemporary robots, each link connects the one before it to the one after it. These structures often resemble the human arm. When a robot is needed to manipulate objects, the last link carries an "end effector," which can be anything from a mechanical hand to a welding device.
  
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Many consider the first robot in the modern sense to be a teleoperated boat, similar to a modern [[ROV]], devised by [[Nikola Tesla]] and demonstrated at an 1898 exhibition in Madison Square Garden. Based on his patent 613,809 for "teleautomation", Tesla hoped to develop the "wireless [[torpedo]]" into an automated weapon system for the US  Navy.
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A robot's mechanical structure needs to be controlled on various levels, so that the device can recognize patterns, move along certain paths, avoid obstacles, and perform various tasks. The control of these functions usually involves three phases: perception, processing, and action ([[robotic paradigms]]). The robot has [[sensor]]s that pick up information about the environment or the robot itself, such as the position of its joints or its end effector. Using strategies from the field of [[control theory]], this information is processed to calculate the appropriate signals that need to be sent to the actuators ([[motors]]), and these in turn move the mechanical structure. Complex and adaptable control strategies may be referred to as [[artificial intelligence]].
  
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In the [[1930s|thirties]], [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] made a humanoid robot known as [[Elektro]]. It was exhibited at the [[1939]] and [[1940]] [[World's Fair]]s while the first electronic [[autonomous robot]]s were created by [[Grey Walter]] at [[Bristol University]], [[England]] in [[1948]].
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To perform any task, the robot needs the ability to move. When designing a robot, the roboticist needs to consider its motion in terms of (a) '''kinematics,''' or motion apart from the forces that cause the motion, and (b) '''dynamics,''' or motion in conjunction with the forces that affect it. The information gathered by studying the various possible motions can be used to improve the algorithms that control the robot's actions.
  
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==Types and uses of robots==
  
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Robots have frequently appeared as characters in works of literature and the first use of the word "robot" in literature can be found in [[Karel Čapek]]'s play ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'', written in [[1920]].  [[Isaac Asimov]] has written many volumes of [[science fiction]] focusing on robots in numerous forms and guises [http://samvak.tripod.com/robot.html].  His [[three laws of robotics]] have become particularly well known for codifying a simple set of behaviors for robots to remain at the service of their human creators.
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As robots grow in number and complexity, they are being more widely used in [[industry]]. Most often, they are used to perform repetitive tasks. Industrial robots can be manufactured in a wide range of sizes and can therefore handle much larger tasks than a human can. In addition, robots are useful in environments that are unpleasant or dangerous for people to work in, such as in [[toxin|toxic]] waste cleanup, [[bomb]] disposal, [[mining]], and working in outer space or deep water.
  
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Numerous words for different types of robots are now used in literature.  Robot has come to mean [[mechanical]] humans, while [[android]] is used for organic artificial humans and [[cyborg]] or "[[bionic]] man" for a human form that is a mixture of organic and mechanical parts. Organic artificial humans have also been referred to as "constructs" (or "biological constructs"). {{citation needed}}
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Certain mobile robots, called automated guided vehicles (AGVs), are used in large facilities such as warehouses, [[hospital]]s,<ref>Associated Press, [http://web.archive.org/web/20040710071552/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/07/06/hospital.robots.ap/index.html Courier robots get traction in hospitals], CNN.com (July 6, 2004). Retrieved October 18, 2011.</ref> and container ports, for the transport of goods and for safety and security patrols. Such vehicles can be programmed to follow wires, markers, or laser guides to navigate around a given location.
  
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==Contemporary uses of robots==
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Some robots are available for performing domestic tasks such as [[cooking]], [[Vacuum cleaner|vacuum cleaning]], and lawn mowing. In addition, robot kits made of [[plastic]] or [[aluminum]] are becoming increasingly popular for education in schools and professional training by companies.
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[[Image:Industrial_Robotics_in_car_production.jpg|thumb|200px|[[KUKA]] Industrial Robots assembling a vehicle underbody]]
 
  
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Robots are growing in complexity and their use in industry is becoming more widespread. The main use of robots has so far been in the automation of mass production industries, where the same, definable, tasks must be performed repeatedly in exactly the same fashion.  Car production is the primary example of the employment of large and complex robots for producing products.  Robots are used in that process for the painting, welding and assembly of the cars.  Robots are good for such tasks because the tasks can be accurately defined and must be performed the same every time, with little need for feedback to control the exact process being performed.  [http://www.robots.com Industrial Robots] can be manufactured in a wide range of sizes and so can handle much larger tasks than a human could.
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Humanoid robots are being developed with the aim of providing robotic functions in a form that may increase their appeal to customers. These types of robots, known as social robots, are made to interact with and provide companionship to people.
  
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Robots are also useful in environments which are unpleasant or dangerous for humans to work in, for example the cleaning of toxic waster, bomb disposal, work in space or underwater and in mining.
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===Industrial robots===
  
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Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) are moveable robots that used in large facilities such as warehouses, hospitals [http://web.archive.org/web/20040710071552/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/07/06/hospital.robots.ap/index.html] [http://www.intel.com/employee/retiree/circuit/robot.htm] and container ports, for the movement of goods, or even for safety and security patrols.   Such vehicles follow markers or guides to navigate around the location and can be programmed to move between places to deliver goods or patrol a certain area.
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So far, the main use of robots has been in the automation of mass-production industries, where well-defined tasks must be repeated in exactly the same fashion, with little need for feedback to control the process. Typical applications of industrial robots include welding, painting, ironing, assembly, picking and placing, palletizing, product inspection, and testing. They can accomplish all these tasks with high endurance, speed, and precision. A prime example is automobile manufacture, in which large, complex robots are used.
  
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Domestic robots are now available for performing simple tasks such as vacuum cleaning and grass cutting.  By the end of [[2004]] over 1,000,000 [[vacuum cleaner]] units had been sold [http://www.unece.org/press/pr2004/04robots_index.htm].  Examples of domestic robots are Sony's [[Aibo]] and irobot's [[Scooba]] and [[Roomba]] robots.
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The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has officially defined an industrial robot as an "automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator, programmable in three or more axes."<ref>ISO Standard 8373:1994, Manipulating Industrial Robots – Vocabulary</ref> Most industrial robots would fall in the category of robotic arms, as implied by the term "manipulator" in this definition.
  
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Humanoid robots are in development with the aim of being able to provide robotic functions in a form that may be more aesthetically pleasing to customers, thereby increasing the likelihood of them being accepted in society. These robots fall within a field known as [[social robots]] which aim to interact and provide companionship to people. Example of social robots are [[ludobot]] and [[Wakamaru]].
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Industrial robots exhibit varying degrees of autonomy. Many are programmed to perform specific actions over and over again, without variation, and with a high degree of accuracy. Other industrial robots are built to be much more flexible about the orientation of the object on which they are operating or even the task that has to be performed, which the robot may need to identify. For example, these robots may contain [[machine vision]] subsystems acting as their "eyes," linked to powerful computers or controllers. [[Artificial intelligence]], or what passes for it, is becoming an increasingly important factor in the modern industrial robot.
  
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==Current developments==
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===Humanoid robots===
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The development of a robot with a natural human or animal [[gait]] is incredibly difficult and requires a large amount of computational power [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.07/race.html].  Now that background technologies of [[behavior]], [[navigation]] and path planning have been solved using basic wheeled robots, roboticists are moving on to develop walking robots (eg. [[SIGMO]], [[QRIO]], [[Asimo]] & [[Hubo]]).  This field of work is known as [[Passive dynamics]].
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A humanoid robot is a robot that is built to imitate the structure of the human body and to perform some of the same physical and mental tasks that humans can do. It is also built to function autonomously, in the sense of being able to adapt to changes in its environment or itself and continue to reach its goal. This is the main difference between humanoids and other types of robots, such as industrial robots, which perform tasks in highly structured environments. Consequently, humanoid robots are more complex than other kinds of robots and are more difficult to develop.
  
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Initial work has focused on multi-legged robots (eg. [[Aibo]]), such as [[hexapod]]s [http://www.micromagic-sys.com/], as they are statically stable and so are easier to work with, whereas a bipedal robot must be able to balance.  The balancing problem is taken to an extreme by the [[Robotic unicycle]].  A problem with the development of robots with natural gaits is that human and animal bodies utilize a very large number of muscles in movement and replicating all of those mechanically is very difficult and expensive.  This field of robot research has become known as [[Biomorphic robotics]].
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The capacities of a humanoid robot may include (a) autonomous learning, that is, learning new capabilities and adapting to new situations without outside assistance; (b) self-maintenance, such as the ability to recharge its batteries; (c) interacting safely with humans and the environment; and (d) avoiding situations that could harm others or itself.
  
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Progress is being made in the field of feedback and tactile sensor which allow a robot to sense their actions and adjust their behavior accordingly. This is vital to enable robots to perform complex physical tasks that require some active control in response to the situation.
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To build and study humanoids, researchers need to understand the human body structure and behavior. Consequently, an important benefit of the work to develop humanoids is that it could lead to a better understanding of human biological and mental processes, from the seemingly simple act of walking to the concepts of consciousness and spirituality.
  
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[[Image:Robot hand holding an egg.jpg|thumb|right|Robotic manipulators can be very precise, but only when a task can be fully described. Here, a robotic hand holds an egg.]]
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Research into humanoids is valuable in the medical field, such as in efforts to construct realistic leg and forearm prosthetic devices for amputees, or devices that help straighten deformed limbs. In addition, humanoid robots are being developed to assist the sick and elderly, or to perform dirty or dangerous jobs. The long-term goal of the creators of humanoid robots is that someday these devices will be able to understand human intelligence, reason and act like humans, and work alongside humans.
  
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[[Robotic Surgery|Medical robotics]] is a growing field and recently regulatory approval has been granted for the use of robots in minimally invasive procedures. Robots are being considered for use in performing highly delicate, accurate surgery, or to allow a [[surgeon]] who is located remotely from their patient to perform a procedure using a robot controlled remotely.
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Humanoid robots are becoming increasingly popular in the realm of entertainment. For example, the female robot Ursula sings, dances, and speaks to her audiences at Universal Studios. Several Disney attractions employ the use of animatrons&mdash;robots that look, move, and speak like human beings&mdash;in some of their theme park shows. These animatrons look so realistic that it can be hard to decipher from a distance whether or not they are actually human. Despite their realistic appearance, they have no cognition or physical autonomy.
  
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Experimental winged robots and other examples exploiting [[biomimicry]] are also in early development.  So-called "[[nanomotor]]s" and "[[smart wire]]s" are expected to drastically simplify motive power, while in-flight stabilization seems likely to be improved by extremely small gyroscopes.  A significant driver of this work is military research into spy technologies.
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==Current developments==
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Recently, background technologies of [[behavior]], [[navigation]], and path planning have been solved for basic wheeled robots. Consequently, roboticists are moving on to develop walking robots, including SIGMO, QRIO, Asimo, and Hubo. The field of robot research inspired by the principles of biological systems is known as “biomorphic robotics.”
  
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==Future prospects==
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It is extremely difficult to develop a robot that can move with a natural human or animal gait. One reason is that human and animal body movements involve a very large number of muscles, and replicating them mechanically is difficult, expensive, and requires a large amount of computational power. A major challenge in creating a bipedal robot is in getting it to keep its balance. Initial work has therefore focused on building multi-legged robots such as hexapods, which are statically stable and easier to work with.
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[[Timeline of the future in forecasts#Artificial intelligence and robotics|Some scientists believe]] that robots will be able to approximate human-like intelligence in the first half of the 21st century. The [[cybernetics]] pioneer [[Norbert Wiener]] discussed the issue of robots replacing humans in fields of work in his book ''The human use of human beings'' (1950), in which he speculated that robots taking over human jobs may initially lead to growing unemployment and social turmoil, but that in the medium-term it might bring increased material wealth to people in most nations. Human perception and acceptance of robots has been considered and has led to the proposition of the [[Uncanny Valley]] in analyzing human feelings about robots.
 
  
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Robotics will probably continue its spread in offices and homes, replacing "dumb" appliances with smart robotic equivalents. Domestic robots capable of performing many household tasks, described in science fiction stories and coveted by the public in the 1960s, are likely to be perfected.
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Researchers are making progress in the area of feedback and tactile sensors, which give a robot the ability to sense its actions and adjust its behavior accordingly. This ability allows the robot to perform complex physical tasks that require some active control in response to the situation.
  
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There is likely to be some degree of convergence between humans and robots. Some humans are already [[cyborg]]s with some body parts and even parts of the nervous system replaced by artificial analogues, such as [[Pacemakers]]. In many cases the same technology might be used both in robotics and in medicine.
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Recently, regulatory approval was granted for the use of robots in minimally invasive medical procedures. Robots are also being considered for use in performing highly delicate, accurate surgery. In the future, a [[surgeon]] may use a remotely controlled robot to perform a procedure on a patient when the two are separated by a considerable distance.
  
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==Dangers and Fears==
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Experimental winged robots and other devices exploiting [[biomimicry]] are also in early development. By using so-called "[[nanomotor]]s" and "[[smart wire]]s," researchers are attempting to drastically simplify motive power. In addition, they are using extremely small [[gyroscope]]s to improve the robot's stability during flight. A significant driver of this work is military research into spy technologies.
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Although robots have yet to develop to a stage where they could pose a threat or danger to society [http://www.mobilerobots.com/ethicalRobotics.html], various books and films have expressed fears and concerns about robots. The principal theme is that robots exceed human intelligence and our ability to act, after which they take over or destroy the human race.
 
  
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''[[Frankenstein]]'' ([[1818]]), sometimes called the first science fiction novel, has become synonymous with the theme of a robot or monster advancing beyond its creator. Probably the best-known contemporary author in the area of robots is [[Isaac Asimov]], who has placed them and their interaction with society at the center of many of his works. Of particular interest are Asimov's [[Three Laws of Robotics]].
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==Future prospects==
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Various ideas have been advanced about the types of robots that will emerge in the future and how they will affect people materially and emotionally. Some scientists believe that in the first half of the twenty-first century, robots will be built to approximate humanlike intelligence. Whether or not that becomes a reality, it seems likely that robots will be increasingly used in homes and offices, replacing "dumb" appliances with "smart" robotic equivalents. Domestic robots capable of performing many household tasks may be greatly improved.
  
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Currently, the greatest threat may take the form of malicious programming of robots, particularly  large industrial robots. The power and size of industrial robots means that they are capable of inflicting severe injury if programmed incorrectly or used in an unsafe manner. One such incident occurred on July 21, [[1984]]*, when an industrial worker crushed a man to death. That incident was an accident, but it demonstrates that there are certain risks of working with robots.
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In his book ''The Human Use of Human Beings'' first published in 1950, [[cybernetics]] pioneer [[Norbert Wiener]] discussed the issue of robots replacing humans in various fields of work. He speculated that robots taking over human jobs may initially lead to growing unemployment and social turmoil, but in the medium-term, it may increase the wealth of people in most nations.<ref>Norbert Wiener, ''The Human Use of Human Beings'' (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1988 (original 1950), ISBN 978-0306803208).</ref>
  
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==Robotics==
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In 1970, Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori postulated a principle called the "Uncanny Valley." He theorized that as a robot is made more humanlike in appearance and motion, people will respond with increasing [[empathy]] and positive [[emotion]], until a point is reached at which the response suddenly becomes strongly repulsive. In his view, if the robot's appearance and motion are made indistinguishable from a human's, the emotional response will once again become positive, approaching human-human empathy levels. The repulsive response to an "almost human" robot was described as the "Uncanny Valley." Some roboticists have heavily criticized this theory.
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The word ''[[robotics]]*'' was first used in print by [[Isaac Asimov]], in his [[science fiction]] story, "Liar!" (1941). The [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/robotics Wiktionary] defines robotics as the science and technology of robots, including their design, manufacture, and application. The field of robotics requires a working knowledge of [[electronics]], [[mechanics]], and [[software]], and a person working in this field is called a ''[[roboticist]]*''.
 
  
−
Although the appearance and capabilities of robots vary vastly, all robots share the features of a mechanical, movable structure under some form of control. The [[structure]] of a robot is usually mostly [[mechanical]] and can be called [[chain]] (its functionality being akin to the skeleton of a body). The chain is formed of links (its bones), [[actuators]] (its muscles) and joints (which may allow much more freedom of movement than the hinge joints of the human skeleton). Additional components may include [[sensors]] to give information about the surroundings or the robot itself (eg the position of its joints) and [[motors]] to move the actuators.
+
Occasionally, the same technologies may be useful in both robotics and [[medicine]]. For instance, artificial parts such as [[pacemaker]]s are already being used to repair the human body. In this sense, there is some degree of convergence between humans and robots.
  
−
The actions of a robot can be split into three distinct phases - perception, processing and action.  The consideration of these phases and their interaction is considered in light of the three [[robotic paradigms]]. One of the most important aspects of robot construction is the study and planning of the robot's motion. The study of movement is known as ''[[kinematics]]*'', which deals with aspects of redundancy (different ways to perform the same movement), collision avoidance and singularity avoidance. In reality [[inverse kinematics]] is a truer description since the aim of the required movement is known and the positions of the robot's joints must be calculated to achieve that movement.  The analysis of the required movement may reveal that there are none, one or many ways of the robot achieving that movement.  Once the movement has been analyzed [[dynamics]] then come into play to determine the most efficient way of achieving the movement. Factors that affect the efficiency of a robot may include energy conservation, time needed, and space needed.
+
==Concerns about robots==
 +
''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818), sometimes called the first [[science fiction]] novel, has become synonymous with the theme of a robot or monster advancing beyond its creator. Since then, a wide range of books and films have expressed fears and concerns about robots, particularly humanoid robots. The principal theme is that they may acquire [[intelligence]] and abilities superior to those of humans, then break away from human command, develop the [[motivation]] to take over the world, and destroy the human race.
  
−
==Robot competitions==
+
These ideas have raised several additional concerns. For instance, who should be held responsible when an intelligent machine commits a [[crime]], or does something it should not do? What would be the difference between the rights of humans and those of humanoids? If a robot were to produce its own inventions, who should the [[patent]] rights be awarded to?
−
Competitions for robots are gaining popularity and competitions now exist catering for a wide variety of robot builders ranging from schools to research institutions. Robots compete at a wide range of tasks including [[Robot Wars|combat]], playing games, maze solving, performing tasks [http://maslab.csail.mit.edu/] and navigational exercises (eg. [[DARPA Grand Challenge]]) [http://www.betterhumans.com/News/news.aspx?articleID=2003-01-09-10] [http://www.me.vt.edu/grandchallenge/]
 
  
 +
These concerns, however, are based on fictional concepts that circumvent the reality that robots are [[machine]]s with their own mechanical limitations and devoid of the human spirit. Although robots may be built with abilities that simulate human intelligence and decision-making traits to some degree, these abilities depend on artificially programmed feedback loops, not on creative thinking, deep emotions, and responsible volition&mdash;qualities that drive human aspirations and freedom of expression. From this perspective, real-world robots cannot be expected to have their own motivations to commit crimes or to exert independent creativity and responsibility to produce beneficial inventions. One may infer that the abilities, activities, and value of robots will continue to remain apart from those of humans.
  
−
[[Dean Kamen]], Founder of [[FIRST]] ('''''F'''or '''I'''nspiration and '''R'''ecognition of '''S'''cience and '''T'''echnology''), created the world's leading high school robotics competition. FIRST provides a varsity-like competitive forum that inspires in young people, their schools and communities an appreciation of science and technology.
+
A more realistic concern is that when robots are used to perform tasks usually done by human beings, they may displace people from their jobs, such as in [[factory|factories]]. This issue requires solutions that are sensitive to people's needs.
  
−
Their [[:Category:Robotics competitions|robotics competition]] is a multinational competition that teams professionals and young people to solve an engineering design problem in an intense and competitive way. Their outreach includes the [[FIRST Robotics Competition]] (FRC), the [[FIRST Vex Challenge]] (FVC), the [[FIRST Lego League]] (FLL), and [[Junior FIRST Lego League]] (JFLL). These four competitons are each geared separately at students aged 14-18, 14-18, 9-14, and 6-9 respectively. In 2005, there were over 100,000 students and 40,000 adult mentors from around the world involved in at least one of FIRST's competitions.  
+
One possible danger may take the form of harmful programming or unsafe use of robots. Even without such programming, a robot that moves freely in a human environment is potentially dangerous because of its large moving mass, powerful actuators, and unpredictably complex behavior. A robot that accidentally falls on someone or even steps on a person's foot could injure the victim far more than another human of the same size. Most industrial robots are therefore confined within a protective fence that separates them from human workers. Designing and programming robots to be intrinsically safe, and to exhibit safe behavior in a human environment, is one of the great challenges in robotics.
  
−
Unlike the Robot sumo wrestling competitions that take place regularly in some venues, or the ''Battlebots'' competitions on TV, these competitions include the creation of a robot. For the FLL program, the robots are entirely [[autonomous]]; the FVC competition involves separate autonomous and driver control matches; and the FRC competition involves an autonomous period (10 or 15 seconds) followed by a driver control in their matches.
+
==Robot competitions==
  
−
[[RoboCup]] is a competitive organization dedicated to developing a team of fully [[autonomous]] [[humanoid robots]] that can win against the human world [[soccer]] champion team by the year 2050. There are many different leagues ranging from [[computer simulation]], to full-size [[humanoid robots]].
+
Competitions for robots are gaining popularity and cater to a wide variety of robot builders, ranging from students in schools to professionals in research institutions. The robots are made to compete in a wide range of skills, including combat, game playing, maze solving, performing tasks, and navigational exercises.
  
−
[[RoboCup Junior]] is similar to RoboCup. RoboCup Junior is a competition for [[primary school|primary]] and [[secondary school|secondary]] school aged students. RoboCup Junior includes three competitions:
+
Dean Kamen, Founder of FIRST ('''''F'''or '''I'''nspiration and '''R'''ecognition of '''S'''cience and '''T'''echnology''), has created the world's leading robotics competitions for students in elementary, middle, and high schools. This highly competitive, multinational program teams professionals and young people to solve an engineering design problem, including the creation of autonomous and driver-controlled robots. Four competitions have been set up for students in four different age groups.
−
* soccer - two robots per team play [[Autonomous|autonomously]] in a game of [[soccer]]
 
−
* rescue - an obstacle course in which a robot must follow a line to retrieve an object, and bring it back to safety as fast as possible
 
−
* dance - robots are designed to dance to music and are judged on criteria such as creativity and costumes
 
−
As is the case with [[RoboCup]], all robots are designed and developed solely by the students and act [[Autonomous|autonomously]] without any form of remote control or human intervention.
 
  
−
The [[DARPA Grand Challenge]] is a competition for robotic vehicles to complete an under-200 mile, off-road course in the Mojave Desert. The unclaimed 2004 prize was $1,000,000. The farthest any participant got was only 7.4 miles.  However, the 2005 prize of $2,000,000 was claimed by [[Stanford University]]. In this race, four vehicles successfully completed the race. This is a testament to how fast robotic vision and navigation are improving.
+
RoboCup is an international competition dedicated to developing a team of fully autonomous, humanoid robots that can win against the human world [[soccer]] championship team by the year 2050. The underlying aim is to promote research and education in the field of [[artificial intelligence]]. RoboCup Junior is a similar competition set up for school-aged students. All robots are designed and developed solely by the students and act autonomously, without any form of remote control or human intervention.
  
−
The [[Intelligent Ground Vehicle Competition]] ([http://www.igvc.org/ IGVC]) is a competition for autonomous ground vehicles that must traverse outdoor obstacle courses without any human interaction. This international competition sponsored by the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International ([http://www.auvsi.org/ AUVSI]), is a student design competition at the university level and has held annual competitions since 1992.
+
The DARPA Grand Challenge is a competition for robotic vehicles to complete an under-200 mile, off-road course in the Mojave Desert. The unclaimed 2004 prize was $1,000,000. The farthest any participant got was only 7.4 miles. However, the 2005 prize of $2,000,000 was claimed by [[Stanford University]]. In this race, four vehicles successfully completed the race. This is a testament to how fast robotic vision and navigation are improving.
  
−
The two [[AAAI]] Grand Challenges focus on [[Human Robot Interaction]], with one being a robot attending and delivering a conference talk, the other being operator-interaction challenges in rescue robotics.
+
The Intelligent Ground Vehicle Competition () is an annual event for university students who are expected to construct autonomous ground vehicles that traverse outdoor obstacle courses without any human interaction.<ref>[http://www.igvc.org/deploy/ The 19th Annual Intelligent Ground Vehicle Competition] Retrieved October 18, 2011.</ref> This international competition is sponsored by the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International.<ref> AUVSI.</ref>
  
−
The [[Centennial Challenges]] are [[NASA]] prize contests for non-government funded technological achievements, including robotics, by US citizens.
+
The American Association for Artificial Intelligence sponsors two Grand Challenges focusing on human-robot interactions. In addition, [[NASA]] holds the Centennial Challenges for non-government funded technological achievements, including robotics. In Micromouse competitions, small robots try to solve a maze in the fastest time.
  
−
In [[Micromouse]] competitions, small robots try to solve a maze in the fastest time.
+
==Notes==
 +
<references/>
  
−
The popularity of the TV shows ''[[Robot Wars]]'' ''[[Robotica]]'' and ''[[Battlebots]]'', of college level [[robot-sumo]] wrestling competitions, the success of "[[smart bomb]]s" and [[UCAV]]s in armed conflicts, grass-eating "[[gastrobot]]s" in Florida, and the creation of a [[slug]]-eating robot in England, suggest that the fear of an artificial life form doing harm, or competing with natural wild life, is not an illusion. The [[worldwide Green Parties]] in [[2002]] were asking for public input on extending their existing policies against such competition, as part of more general [[biosafety]] and [[biosecurity]] concerns. It appears that, like [[Aldous Huxley]]'s concerns about [[human cloning]], questions Karel Čapek raised eighty years earlier in [[science fiction]] have become real debates.
+
== References ==
 +
* Asimov, Isaac. ''I, Robot''. New York, NY: Bantam Spectra, 2008 (original 1950). ISBN 978-0553382563
 +
* Craig, John J. ''Introduction to Robotics''. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005. ISBN 978-0201543612
 +
* Gutkind, Lee. ''Almost Human: Making Robots Think''. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006. ISBN 978-0393336849
 +
* Tsai, Lung-Wen. ''Robot Analysis''. New York, NY: Wiley, 1999. ISBN 978-0471325932
 +
* Wiener, Norbert. ''The Human Use of Human Beings''. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1988 (original 1950). ISBN 978-0306803208
  
−
The [[Mobile Autonomous Systems Laboratory]] (http://maslab.csail.mit.edu) is one of the few college-level vision-based autonomous robotics competition in the world. Conducted by and for MIT undergraduates, this competition requires multithreaded applications of image processing, robotic movements, and target ball deposition. The robots are run with debian linux and run on an independent OrcBoard platform that facilitates sensor-hardware additions and recognition.
+
==External links==
−
 
+
All links retrieved December 15, 2022.
−
==See also==
 
−
{{portal}}
 
−
===Classes of robots===
 
−
For classes and types of robots see [[:Category:Robots]].
 
−
 
 
−
===Research areas associated with robotics===
 
−
* [[Behavior based robotics]] and [[Subsumption architecture]]
 
−
* [[Developmental robotics]]
 
−
* [[Epigenetic robotics]]
 
−
* [[Evolutionary robotics]]
 
−
* [[Cognitive robotics]]
 
−
* [[Robot control]]
 
−
* [[Automated planning and scheduling]]
 
−
* [[Mechatronics]]
 
−
* [[Neural networks]]
 
−
* [[Cybernetics]]
 
−
* [[Artificial consciousness]]
 
−
* [[Telerobotics]] / [[Telepresence]]
 
−
* [[Nanotechnology]] and [[MEMS]]
 
−
* [[Swarm robotics]]
 
−
* [[Robot software]]
 
  
−
===Additional robot topics===
+
====Journals====
−
<!-- We need either some structure here or to incorporate the links into the text so that the reader is introduced to more specific concepts gradually, as he reads the article, not in such a dry way after finishing it. —>
+
* [http://www.actapress.com/Content_of_Journal.aspx?JournalID=147 International Journal of Robotics and Automation]
 +
* [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=ROB Robotica]
 +
* [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09218890 Robotics and Autonomous Systems]
  
−
* Carbon chauvinism (see: [[Alternative biochemistry]])
+
===Articles===
−
* [[Clanking replicator|Clanking replicators]]
 
−
* [[Disabled robotics]]: [[Artificial powered exoskeleton]]
 
−
* [[Gynoid]]
 
−
* [[List of fictional robots and androids]]
 
−
* [[Microbotics]]
 
−
* [[Rapid prototyping]]
 
−
* [[Robotic mapping]]
 
−
* [[Robots in literature]]
 
−
* [[Utility fog]]
 
−
 
 
−
==External links==
 
−
{{commons category|Robots}}
 
−
{{wiktionarypar|robot}}
 
−
===Media coverage and articles===
 
−
* [http://www.betterhumans.com/News/news.aspx?articleID=2003-01-09-10 Robot navigation and vision system] &ndash; ''BetterHumans'', [[9 January]] [[2003]]
 
 
* [http://www.marshallbrain.com/robotic-nation.htm Robotic Nation] by Marshall Brain  
 
* [http://www.marshallbrain.com/robotic-nation.htm Robotic Nation] by Marshall Brain  
 
* [http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/LegalRightsOfRobots.htm The Legal Rights of Robots] by Robert A. Freitas
 
* [http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/LegalRightsOfRobots.htm The Legal Rights of Robots] by Robert A. Freitas
−
* [http://www.contractoruk.com/news/001936.html Artificial chromosomes in robots] February 2005
 
  
 
===General information and non-profit organizations===
 
===General information and non-profit organizations===
 +
 
* [http://www.societyofrobots.com/robot_tutorial.shtml Robot Tutorials for Beginners]
 
* [http://www.societyofrobots.com/robot_tutorial.shtml Robot Tutorials for Beginners]
−
* [[Player/Stage Project]] A very popular Free Software robot interface and simulation system, used for robotics research and teaching worldwide.
+
* [http://www.slas.org/index.cfm SLAS] &ndash; Society for Laboratory Automation and Screening
−
* [http://www.euron.org/ EURON]: the ''European Robotics Research Network'' which currently assembles over 150 robotics research institutes and robotics companies in Europe.
 
−
* [http://www.labautomation.org/ ALA] &ndash; The Association for Laboratory Automation
 
−
* [http://www.lab-robotics.org/ LRIG] &ndash; The Laboratory Robotics Interest Group
 
 
* [http://www.SeattleRobotics.org/ SeattleRobotics.org] &ndash; The Seattle Robotics Society, one of the oldest and largest hobby robotics groups in the world.
 
* [http://www.SeattleRobotics.org/ SeattleRobotics.org] &ndash; The Seattle Robotics Society, one of the oldest and largest hobby robotics groups in the world.
 
* [http://www.ifr.org/ International Federation of Robotics]
 
* [http://www.ifr.org/ International Federation of Robotics]
 
* [http://www.gorobotics.net/ GoRobotics.net] Robotics resource website - robot news, projects, books, and club listings.
 
* [http://www.gorobotics.net/ GoRobotics.net] Robotics resource website - robot news, projects, books, and club listings.
−
* [http://www.eurobot.org/eng/ Eurobot, an international amateur robotics contest]
 
 
* [http://robots.net/ robots.net] &ndash; Hobbyist and professional robotics site with news, robot gallery, project descriptions, and articles
 
* [http://robots.net/ robots.net] &ndash; Hobbyist and professional robotics site with news, robot gallery, project descriptions, and articles
 
* [http://oap.sourceforge.net/ Open Automaton Project] at sourceforge.net
 
* [http://oap.sourceforge.net/ Open Automaton Project] at sourceforge.net
−
* [http://www.robothalloffame.org/ The Robot Hall of Fame]
 
−
* [http://www.orionrobots.co.uk/tiki-index.php The OrionWiki] &ndash; Specifically aimed at technical content; also: downloads and personal spaces for robot builders/hobbyists
 
 
* [http://www.amorphicrobotworks.org/ AmorphicRobotWorks(ARW)] &ndash; A group working to create robotic performances and installations
 
* [http://www.amorphicrobotworks.org/ AmorphicRobotWorks(ARW)] &ndash; A group working to create robotic performances and installations
−
* [http://www.robot.org.uk/ www.robot.org.uk] &ndash; A guide for robot builders with lists of reviewed books, magazines, approved parts suppliers, etc.
+
* [http://automation.berkeley.edu Robotics and Automation research lab at UC Berkeley]
−
* [http://www.robodock.org/ Robodock] &ndash; A theater festival in The [[Netherlands]] heavily inspired by robotica.
 
−
* [http://www.robotsrule.com/phpBB2/ Robots Forum] Discussion forum for Robot builders
 
−
* [http://robotics.calpoly.edu/ Cal Poly Robotics Club] &ndash; Site includes project descriptions, tutorials, and development tools.
 
−
* [http://robotics.megagiant.com/history.html A brief history of robotics]
 
−
*[http://fp.cyberlifersrch.plus.com/lucy.htm Lucy the Orangutan, based on principles of the nervous system]
 
−
*[http://www.endtas.com/robot Endtas robotics community website]
 
−
*[http://lucy.vub.ac.be/robotmovie.htm Compilation video of some amazing robots] Compilation video (30min) of some amazing robots as qrio, asimo, HRP2, Partner robot, HAL,...
 
−
*[http://www.hobbyrobotics.org HobbyRobotics.org] provides reviews and links to information for hobby roboticists.
 
  
−
===Commercial projects===
+
===Commercial Websites===
−
*[http://www.sigmorobot.com/technology/news/walking_machine.htm PlusJack] &ndash; John Deere six-legged Forest Harvester
 
 
*[http://www.roborealm.com/ RoboRealm] &ndash; Free Robotic Vision Software
 
*[http://www.roborealm.com/ RoboRealm] &ndash; Free Robotic Vision Software
−
*[http://www.trueforce.com/ trueforce.com] &ndash; Technical information on robotics, with a list of suppliers
 
−
*[http://www.robofolio.com/ The Robofolio] &ndash; An excellent portal for robot hobbyists.
 
−
*[http://www.robotics.com/robots.html Robot Information Central] &ndash; Link directory at a commercial site
 
−
*[http://www.iguana-robotics.com/RobotUniverse/ Robot Universe] &ndash; Link directory at a commercial site
 
−
*[http://www.robots.com/ robots.com] &ndash; Pay per click directory of links with some items related to robotics
 
−
*[http://ants.dif.um.es/~humberto/robots/ BGA architecture and robotic software ]
 
 
*[http://www.autopenhosting.org/robots/ Fractal Robots] Information on Fractal Robots
 
*[http://www.autopenhosting.org/robots/ Fractal Robots] Information on Fractal Robots
−
* [http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200412/200412220012.html Hubo, a low cost humanoid robot launched in Korea]
 
  
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Technology]]
 
[[Category:Technology]]
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[[Category:Robotics|*Robot]]
 
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[[Category:Robots|*Robot]]
 
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[[Category:Computer vision]]
 
  
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{{credit2|Robot|39694394|Robot_competition|38444558}}
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{{credit8|Robot|46024528|Humanoid_robots|47140075|Industrial_robot|46433042|Robots_in_literature|39470485|Robot_competition|45249439|Jacques_Vaucanson|41947698|Grey_Walter|43469624|Uncanny_Valley|46429110}}

Latest revision as of 21:30, 16 April 2023


ASIMO (2000) at the Expo 2005, a humanoid robot created by Honda

In the popular imagination, the term robot evokes images of a mechanical device that looks and acts like a human being. This type of robot, called a humanoid or android, is common in science fiction literature and cinema. In reality, the term robot can be applied to any of a wide range of programmable machines, the common feature of which is that they are capable of movement and can be used to perform physical tasks. Robots are built in many different forms, ranging from humanoid to industrial, and their appearance is dictated by the functions they are to perform. They are usefully engaged in industrial production requiring repetitive tasks, and in performing tasks that may be difficult or dangerous for humans.

Several concerns have been expressed about robots. One is that they can displace people from their jobs. Another is that humanoid robots, if they acquire intelligence and emotions that allow them to think and act on their own, may become hostile toward humans and threaten humankind. The latter concern, however, is based on fictional concepts. Real-world robots are machines with their own mechanical limitations, and they lack the human spirit. Although they may be built to simulate human intelligence and decision-making traits to some extent, these abilities are governed by artificially programmed feedback loops, not by creative thought processes, heartfelt feelings, and senses of responsibility—qualities that underlie human aspirations and freedom of expression. Consequently, the abilities, activities, and value of robots will remain distinct from those of humans.

A humanoid robot manufactured by Toyota appears to be playing a trumpet.

What is a robot?

A robot is a machine that can perform preprogrammed physical tasks. Robots have been built to serve various functions, and they therefore appear in a variety of forms. Some robotic devices, such as the robotic arm of the space shuttle, act under direct human control. Other robots act autonomously, under the control of a computer.

Certain robots, such as remotely controlled bomb-disposal units, are used to perform tasks that are too dangerous or difficult for humans to engage in directly. Others, including those used in automobile production, have made it possible to automate repetitive tasks, lowering the cost of performing them.

Some robots may act according to their own decision-making ability, provided by the technology of artificial intelligence. Such robots include feedback loops such that they can interact with and respond to their environment. They do not, however, display actual intelligence.

Robots in history

The idea of mechanical men and semi-intelligent mechanical devices stretches back to the legends of ancient civilizations. For instance, in classical Roman and Greek mythology, the god of fire and metalwork (Vulcan in Rome and Hephaestus in Greece) created mechanical servants ranging from intelligent, golden handmaidens to three-legged tables that moved about under their own power. Jewish legend tells of the Golem, a clay statue animated by Kabbalistic magic. Similarly, Norse mythology (in the Younger Edda) tells of a clay giant, Mökkurkálfi or Mistcalf, constructed to aid the troll Hrungnir in a duel with Thor, the god of thunder.

Model of Leonardo da Vinci's mechanical knight, with a display of its inner workings.

One of the first recorded designs of a humanoid robot was made by Leonardo da Vinci around 1495. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical knight that can sit up, wave its arms, and move its head and jaw. The design is thought to be based on his anatomical research recorded in the Vitruvian Man. It is not known whether he attempted to build the robot.

In 1737, French engineer Jacques de Vaucanson made the first known functioning humanoid robot that played the tabor and pipe. He also made a mechanical duck that reportedly had more than 400 moving parts and could flap its wings, eat grain, drink, and defecate.

Did you know?
The history of robots goes back as far as ancient myths and legends

Nikola Tesla invented a teleoperated boat, similar to a modern remotely operated vehicle (ROV), that was demonstrated at an 1898 exhibition in Madison Square Garden. Based on his patent for "teleautomation," he hoped to develop the "wireless torpedo" into an automated weapon system for the U.S. Navy.

Between 1937 and 1938, Westinghouse made eight similar humanoid robots nicknamed Elektro, exhibited at the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs. Each of these robots was about seven feet tall, weighed 300 pounds, and could walk, talk (using a 78-rpm record player), smoke cigarettes, and move its head and arms.

In 1948 and 1949, W. Grey Walter at Bristol University, England, created the first electronic autonomous robots, named Elmer and Elsie. They were often described as tortoises, based on their shape and slow movements. These three-wheeled robots were capable of phototaxis (movement guided by the influence of light), by which they could find their way to a recharging station when they ran low on battery power.

Robots in literature

Robots have been frequently used as characters in works of literature. The word robot first appeared in the play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), written by Czech writer Karel Čapek in 1920.[1] In a short letter, Karel Čapek credited his brother, painter and writer Josef Čapek, for having coined the term robot.[2] It is derived from robota, which means "compulsory labor" or "corvée" in the Czech language and "work" in Slovak; a robotnik is a peasant or serf.[1]

Science fiction writers have devoted many volumes to robots and their interaction with humans. Of particular note is the work of Isaac Asimov, who has centered a large portion of his work on robot-related stories. In his three "laws of robotics," he codified a simple set of behaviors for robots to remain at the service of their human creators.[3]

Literary works have adopted specialized terminology when referring to different types of robots. For instance, the term "robot" has come to mean a mechanical human, while "android" is used for an artificial human with organic parts, and "cyborg" or "bionic man" refers to a human form that contains both organic and mechanical parts. Organic artificial humans have also been referred to as "constructs."

Robotics

The term robotics refers to the technology that involves the design, manufacture, and uses of robots. Someone who works in the field of robotics is called a roboticist. This person requires a working knowledge of electronics, mechanics, and software. The word robotics was first used in print by Isaac Asimov in his science fiction short story “Liar!”[4].

Although robots vary in appearance and capabilities, they share the features of a mechanical, movable structure under some form of control. Generally, a robot's structure acts like the skeleton of a body and is called a “kinematic chain.” The chain is formed of links (the robot's "bones"), actuators (the robot's "muscles"), and joints. In most contemporary robots, each link connects the one before it to the one after it. These structures often resemble the human arm. When a robot is needed to manipulate objects, the last link carries an "end effector," which can be anything from a mechanical hand to a welding device.

A robot's mechanical structure needs to be controlled on various levels, so that the device can recognize patterns, move along certain paths, avoid obstacles, and perform various tasks. The control of these functions usually involves three phases: perception, processing, and action (robotic paradigms). The robot has sensors that pick up information about the environment or the robot itself, such as the position of its joints or its end effector. Using strategies from the field of control theory, this information is processed to calculate the appropriate signals that need to be sent to the actuators (motors), and these in turn move the mechanical structure. Complex and adaptable control strategies may be referred to as artificial intelligence.

To perform any task, the robot needs the ability to move. When designing a robot, the roboticist needs to consider its motion in terms of (a) kinematics, or motion apart from the forces that cause the motion, and (b) dynamics, or motion in conjunction with the forces that affect it. The information gathered by studying the various possible motions can be used to improve the algorithms that control the robot's actions.

Types and uses of robots

As robots grow in number and complexity, they are being more widely used in industry. Most often, they are used to perform repetitive tasks. Industrial robots can be manufactured in a wide range of sizes and can therefore handle much larger tasks than a human can. In addition, robots are useful in environments that are unpleasant or dangerous for people to work in, such as in toxic waste cleanup, bomb disposal, mining, and working in outer space or deep water.

Certain mobile robots, called automated guided vehicles (AGVs), are used in large facilities such as warehouses, hospitals,[5] and container ports, for the transport of goods and for safety and security patrols. Such vehicles can be programmed to follow wires, markers, or laser guides to navigate around a given location.

Some robots are available for performing domestic tasks such as cooking, vacuum cleaning, and lawn mowing. In addition, robot kits made of plastic or aluminum are becoming increasingly popular for education in schools and professional training by companies.

Humanoid robots are being developed with the aim of providing robotic functions in a form that may increase their appeal to customers. These types of robots, known as social robots, are made to interact with and provide companionship to people.

Industrial robots

So far, the main use of robots has been in the automation of mass-production industries, where well-defined tasks must be repeated in exactly the same fashion, with little need for feedback to control the process. Typical applications of industrial robots include welding, painting, ironing, assembly, picking and placing, palletizing, product inspection, and testing. They can accomplish all these tasks with high endurance, speed, and precision. A prime example is automobile manufacture, in which large, complex robots are used.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has officially defined an industrial robot as an "automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator, programmable in three or more axes."[6] Most industrial robots would fall in the category of robotic arms, as implied by the term "manipulator" in this definition.

Industrial robots exhibit varying degrees of autonomy. Many are programmed to perform specific actions over and over again, without variation, and with a high degree of accuracy. Other industrial robots are built to be much more flexible about the orientation of the object on which they are operating or even the task that has to be performed, which the robot may need to identify. For example, these robots may contain machine vision subsystems acting as their "eyes," linked to powerful computers or controllers. Artificial intelligence, or what passes for it, is becoming an increasingly important factor in the modern industrial robot.

Humanoid robots

A humanoid robot is a robot that is built to imitate the structure of the human body and to perform some of the same physical and mental tasks that humans can do. It is also built to function autonomously, in the sense of being able to adapt to changes in its environment or itself and continue to reach its goal. This is the main difference between humanoids and other types of robots, such as industrial robots, which perform tasks in highly structured environments. Consequently, humanoid robots are more complex than other kinds of robots and are more difficult to develop.

The capacities of a humanoid robot may include (a) autonomous learning, that is, learning new capabilities and adapting to new situations without outside assistance; (b) self-maintenance, such as the ability to recharge its batteries; (c) interacting safely with humans and the environment; and (d) avoiding situations that could harm others or itself.

To build and study humanoids, researchers need to understand the human body structure and behavior. Consequently, an important benefit of the work to develop humanoids is that it could lead to a better understanding of human biological and mental processes, from the seemingly simple act of walking to the concepts of consciousness and spirituality.

Research into humanoids is valuable in the medical field, such as in efforts to construct realistic leg and forearm prosthetic devices for amputees, or devices that help straighten deformed limbs. In addition, humanoid robots are being developed to assist the sick and elderly, or to perform dirty or dangerous jobs. The long-term goal of the creators of humanoid robots is that someday these devices will be able to understand human intelligence, reason and act like humans, and work alongside humans.

Humanoid robots are becoming increasingly popular in the realm of entertainment. For example, the female robot Ursula sings, dances, and speaks to her audiences at Universal Studios. Several Disney attractions employ the use of animatrons—robots that look, move, and speak like human beings—in some of their theme park shows. These animatrons look so realistic that it can be hard to decipher from a distance whether or not they are actually human. Despite their realistic appearance, they have no cognition or physical autonomy.

Current developments

Recently, background technologies of behavior, navigation, and path planning have been solved for basic wheeled robots. Consequently, roboticists are moving on to develop walking robots, including SIGMO, QRIO, Asimo, and Hubo. The field of robot research inspired by the principles of biological systems is known as “biomorphic robotics.”

It is extremely difficult to develop a robot that can move with a natural human or animal gait. One reason is that human and animal body movements involve a very large number of muscles, and replicating them mechanically is difficult, expensive, and requires a large amount of computational power. A major challenge in creating a bipedal robot is in getting it to keep its balance. Initial work has therefore focused on building multi-legged robots such as hexapods, which are statically stable and easier to work with.

Researchers are making progress in the area of feedback and tactile sensors, which give a robot the ability to sense its actions and adjust its behavior accordingly. This ability allows the robot to perform complex physical tasks that require some active control in response to the situation.

Recently, regulatory approval was granted for the use of robots in minimally invasive medical procedures. Robots are also being considered for use in performing highly delicate, accurate surgery. In the future, a surgeon may use a remotely controlled robot to perform a procedure on a patient when the two are separated by a considerable distance.

Experimental winged robots and other devices exploiting biomimicry are also in early development. By using so-called "nanomotors" and "smart wires," researchers are attempting to drastically simplify motive power. In addition, they are using extremely small gyroscopes to improve the robot's stability during flight. A significant driver of this work is military research into spy technologies.

Future prospects

Various ideas have been advanced about the types of robots that will emerge in the future and how they will affect people materially and emotionally. Some scientists believe that in the first half of the twenty-first century, robots will be built to approximate humanlike intelligence. Whether or not that becomes a reality, it seems likely that robots will be increasingly used in homes and offices, replacing "dumb" appliances with "smart" robotic equivalents. Domestic robots capable of performing many household tasks may be greatly improved.

In his book The Human Use of Human Beings first published in 1950, cybernetics pioneer Norbert Wiener discussed the issue of robots replacing humans in various fields of work. He speculated that robots taking over human jobs may initially lead to growing unemployment and social turmoil, but in the medium-term, it may increase the wealth of people in most nations.[7]

In 1970, Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori postulated a principle called the "Uncanny Valley." He theorized that as a robot is made more humanlike in appearance and motion, people will respond with increasing empathy and positive emotion, until a point is reached at which the response suddenly becomes strongly repulsive. In his view, if the robot's appearance and motion are made indistinguishable from a human's, the emotional response will once again become positive, approaching human-human empathy levels. The repulsive response to an "almost human" robot was described as the "Uncanny Valley." Some roboticists have heavily criticized this theory.

Occasionally, the same technologies may be useful in both robotics and medicine. For instance, artificial parts such as pacemakers are already being used to repair the human body. In this sense, there is some degree of convergence between humans and robots.

Concerns about robots

Frankenstein (1818), sometimes called the first science fiction novel, has become synonymous with the theme of a robot or monster advancing beyond its creator. Since then, a wide range of books and films have expressed fears and concerns about robots, particularly humanoid robots. The principal theme is that they may acquire intelligence and abilities superior to those of humans, then break away from human command, develop the motivation to take over the world, and destroy the human race.

These ideas have raised several additional concerns. For instance, who should be held responsible when an intelligent machine commits a crime, or does something it should not do? What would be the difference between the rights of humans and those of humanoids? If a robot were to produce its own inventions, who should the patent rights be awarded to?

These concerns, however, are based on fictional concepts that circumvent the reality that robots are machines with their own mechanical limitations and devoid of the human spirit. Although robots may be built with abilities that simulate human intelligence and decision-making traits to some degree, these abilities depend on artificially programmed feedback loops, not on creative thinking, deep emotions, and responsible volition—qualities that drive human aspirations and freedom of expression. From this perspective, real-world robots cannot be expected to have their own motivations to commit crimes or to exert independent creativity and responsibility to produce beneficial inventions. One may infer that the abilities, activities, and value of robots will continue to remain apart from those of humans.

A more realistic concern is that when robots are used to perform tasks usually done by human beings, they may displace people from their jobs, such as in factories. This issue requires solutions that are sensitive to people's needs.

One possible danger may take the form of harmful programming or unsafe use of robots. Even without such programming, a robot that moves freely in a human environment is potentially dangerous because of its large moving mass, powerful actuators, and unpredictably complex behavior. A robot that accidentally falls on someone or even steps on a person's foot could injure the victim far more than another human of the same size. Most industrial robots are therefore confined within a protective fence that separates them from human workers. Designing and programming robots to be intrinsically safe, and to exhibit safe behavior in a human environment, is one of the great challenges in robotics.

Robot competitions

Competitions for robots are gaining popularity and cater to a wide variety of robot builders, ranging from students in schools to professionals in research institutions. The robots are made to compete in a wide range of skills, including combat, game playing, maze solving, performing tasks, and navigational exercises.

Dean Kamen, Founder of FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology), has created the world's leading robotics competitions for students in elementary, middle, and high schools. This highly competitive, multinational program teams professionals and young people to solve an engineering design problem, including the creation of autonomous and driver-controlled robots. Four competitions have been set up for students in four different age groups.

RoboCup is an international competition dedicated to developing a team of fully autonomous, humanoid robots that can win against the human world soccer championship team by the year 2050. The underlying aim is to promote research and education in the field of artificial intelligence. RoboCup Junior is a similar competition set up for school-aged students. All robots are designed and developed solely by the students and act autonomously, without any form of remote control or human intervention.

The DARPA Grand Challenge is a competition for robotic vehicles to complete an under-200 mile, off-road course in the Mojave Desert. The unclaimed 2004 prize was $1,000,000. The farthest any participant got was only 7.4 miles. However, the 2005 prize of $2,000,000 was claimed by Stanford University. In this race, four vehicles successfully completed the race. This is a testament to how fast robotic vision and navigation are improving.

The Intelligent Ground Vehicle Competition () is an annual event for university students who are expected to construct autonomous ground vehicles that traverse outdoor obstacle courses without any human interaction.[8] This international competition is sponsored by the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International.[9]

The American Association for Artificial Intelligence sponsors two Grand Challenges focusing on human-robot interactions. In addition, NASA holds the Centennial Challenges for non-government funded technological achievements, including robotics. In Micromouse competitions, small robots try to solve a maze in the fastest time.

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Dennis G. Jerz, R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). Retrieved October 18, 2011.
  2. ↑ Dominik Zunt, Who did actually invent the word "robot" and what does it mean?, Karel Capek website. Retrieved October 18, 2011.
  3. ↑ Isaac Asimov, I, Robot (New York, NY: Bantam Spectra, 2008 (original 1950), ISBN 978-0553382563).
  4. ↑ According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "robotics" was first used in the short story "Liar!" published in the May, 1941 issue of Astounding Science Fiction.
  5. ↑ Associated Press, Courier robots get traction in hospitals, CNN.com (July 6, 2004). Retrieved October 18, 2011.
  6. ↑ ISO Standard 8373:1994, Manipulating Industrial Robots – Vocabulary
  7. ↑ Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1988 (original 1950), ISBN 978-0306803208).
  8. ↑ The 19th Annual Intelligent Ground Vehicle Competition Retrieved October 18, 2011.
  9. ↑ AUVSI.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Asimov, Isaac. I, Robot. New York, NY: Bantam Spectra, 2008 (original 1950). ISBN 978-0553382563
  • Craig, John J. Introduction to Robotics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005. ISBN 978-0201543612
  • Gutkind, Lee. Almost Human: Making Robots Think. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006. ISBN 978-0393336849
  • Tsai, Lung-Wen. Robot Analysis. New York, NY: Wiley, 1999. ISBN 978-0471325932
  • Wiener, Norbert. The Human Use of Human Beings. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1988 (original 1950). ISBN 978-0306803208

External links

All links retrieved December 15, 2022.

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