Quakers

"Quaker" redirects here.

File:Pendle hill.jpg

Pendle Hill, a landmark in the history of the Society of Friends.

The Religious Society of Friends, whose members are commonly known as Quakers was founded in England in the 17th century as a Christian religious denomination by people who were dissatisfied with the existing denominations and sects of Christianity. Historians generally credit George Fox with being the principal co-founder or most important early leader. The Society of Friends is counted among the historic peace churches.

Since its beginnings in England, Quakerism has spread to other countries, chiefly Bolivia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Kenya, Peru, and the United States. The total number of Quakers is relatively small (approximately 350,000 worldwide), although there are places, such as Pennsylvania (particularly Philadelphia); Newberg, Oregon; Greenleaf, Idaho; Richmond, Indiana; Birmingham, England; and Greensboro, North Carolina in which Quaker influence is concentrated. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has tended away from creeds, and in modern times away from hierarchical structure.

The various branches have widely divergent beliefs and practices, but the central concept to many Friends is the "Inner Light". Accordingly, individual Quakers may develop individual religious beliefs arising from their personal conscience and revelation coming from "God within"; further, Quakers feel obliged to live by such individual religious beliefs and inner revelations.

Many Quakers feel their faith does not fit within traditional Christian categories of Catholic, Orthodox or Protestant, but is an expression of another way of experiencing God.

Although Quakers throughout most of their history and in most parts of the world today consider Quakerism to be a Christian movement, some Friends (principally in some Meetings in the United States and the United Kingdom) now consider themselves universal-ist, agnostic, atheist, realist, humanist, postchristian, or non-theist, or do not accept any religious label. Calls for Quakerism to include non-Christians go back at least as far as 1870, but this phenomenon has become increasingly evident during the latter half of the 20th century and the opening years of the 21st century, and is still controversial among Friends. An especially notable example of this is that of Friends who go beyond simply being non-Christian, but actively identify as a member of another faith, such as Islam or Buddhism.

Beliefs and practices of Friends

Experiencing God

George Fox and the other early Quaker preachers believed that direct experience of God was available to all people, without mediation (e.g. through hired clergy, or through outward sacraments). Fox described this by writing that "Christ has come to teach His people Himself."

Modern Friends often express this belief in many ways, including the attitude of trying to see "that of God in everyone"; finding and relating to "the Inner light", "the inward Christ", or "the spirit of Christ within." Early Friends more often used terms such as "Truth", "the Seed", and "the Pure Principle", from the principle that each person would be transformed as Christ formed and grew in them.

Since Friends believe that everyone contains "that of God" within, much of the Quaker perspective is based on trying to hear God and to allow God's Spirit free action in the heart. Isaac Penington wrote in 1670: "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing - to feel him my root, my life, my foundation..."

Mysticism

Quakerism is often termed a mystical religion because of its emphasis on the personal experience of God, however it differs from other mystical religions in at least two important ways:

First, Quaker mysticism is primarily group-oriented rather than focused on the individual. The Friends' traditional meeting for worship (see Unprogrammed worship below) may be considered an expression of that group mysticism, where all the members of the meeting together listen for the Spirit of God, speaking when that Spirit moves them.

Second, Quaker mysticism as it has been expressed after the late 19th century includes a strong emphasis on its outwardly-directed witness. Rather than seeking withdrawal from the world, the Quaker mystic translates his or her mysticism into action. They believe this action leads to greater spiritual understanding — both by individuals and by the Meeting as a whole.

The Bible

Early Friends rejected the mainstream Protestant idea of Sola scriptura and believed that Christ, instead of the Bible, is the Word of God; Robert Barclay wrote in his Apology that the scriptures "are only a declaration of the fountain, and not the fountain itself, therefore they are not to be esteemed the principal ground of all Truth and knowledge, nor yet the adequate primary rule of faith and manners". Similarly, George Fox recounted an incident in his Journal in which a minister claimed that the scriptures were authoritative, Fox "...was commanded to tell them God did not dwell in temples made with hands. But I told them what it was, namely, the Holy Spirit, by which the holy men of God gave forth the scriptures, whereby opinions, religions and judgements were to be tried; for it led into all Truth, and so gave the knowledge of all Truth".

Early Friends believed that Christ would never lead them in ways that contradicted the Bible; this belief prevented conflicts between Friends' leadings and their understanding of the Bible.

As time passed, conflicts between what the Bible appeared to teach and how many Friends believed they were being led by the Spirit began to arise. Some Friends decided that in these cases the Bible should be authoritative. Today Evangelical Friends believe the Bible is authoritative, for the Bible is the word of God inspired by God's Spirit and this belief is affirmed in the Richmond Declaration.

Other Friends, partly under the influence of movements such as liberal Protestantism, decided that it was possible to be truly led in ways contrary to scripture, and that in such cases scripture should give way. Still other Friends rejected (or neglected) the Bible altogether; hence in many liberal Friends meetings one might encounter non-Christian Friends or those who question some or all of the traditional doctrines of Christianity. In nearly all cases, modern Friends believe in the necessity of being continually guided by God. Divine revelation is therefore not restricted to the Bible, but rather continues even today; this doctrine is known as continuing revelation.

A common set of practices emerged which spoke of key principles and beliefs held by Friends. These are "Testimonies", for Friends believe these important principles and practices should be expressed (testified as truth) among Friends as well as to others, in both words and deeds. (see Testimonies for a list and description of several testimonies.) Rooted in the immediate experience of the community of Friends, for many Friends these values are verified by the Bible, especially in the life and teachings of Jesus.

Creeds

Generally, Quakerism has had no creed. George Fox dismissed theologians as "notionists", and modern Quakers are generally little concerned with theology, and are more concerned with acting in accord with the leading of the Spirit. Quakers have historically expressed a preference for understanding coming from God's Spirit over the knowledge derived from objective logic or systematic theology. Eschewing notions of "authoritative" doctrines, diverse statements of "Faith and Practice" and diverse understandings of the "leading of the spirit" have always existed among Friends. The leading to lay down all sense of authoritative theology (notions thereof) results in broad tolerance within the Society for earnest expressions of "the light within".

Most Friends believe a formal creed would be an obstacle — both to authentic listening and to the recognition of new insight. On the other hand, some Friends have enumerated and subscribed to a set of doctrines, such as the Richmond Declaration or the "Beliefs of Friends" stated by Evangelical Friends International, which are comparable to mainstream Protestant confessions of faith.

Robert Griswold's pamphlet on this subject expounds Friends' historic witness against creeds—not just as a principle of individual religious integrity, but as an implied statement that Friends, having encountered and experienced God, found creeds not just pernicious, but irrelevant. Doctrinal statements which seek to objectify deity fail to communicate the essence of the "holy spirit", "inner light", or "that of God within us", that "speaks to us" and can also compel "witness".

As a public statement of faith, many Yearly Meetings publish their own version of a book often called Quaker Faith and Practice which expresses their sense of truth and purpose; these documents are generally revised every few years.

Sacraments

Early Friends did not believe in the reliance upon practice of the outward rites and sacraments, believing that holiness can exist in all the activities of one's life—all of life is sacred. They experienced baptism by the Holy Spirit as an inward, transforming experience and knew communion with Christ in the midst of gathered worship in the expectant silence. Thus they did not perform baptism as a rite of membership. These Friends also believed that any meal with others could be a form of communion.

At various times some individuals or small groups of Friends have published corrective cautions against adopting the prohibition of some rite as itself being creedal. The focus should be upon God as Present Teacher, rather than on some human ritual, or the absence of a ritual. Most Friends therefore do not prohibit rites or ceremonies, but they do counsel against allowing these human inventions to take the place of direct experience and leading by God.

Plainness

Friends have practiced "plainness" in their dress and outward appearance as well as in their speech. Though the practices of plain dress and speech made them known as a "peculiar people", and the more widely-known Quaker Oats logo has caused many people to think plain dress is mandated, for the most part Quakers dress and speak in a manner indistinguishable from others. There is, however, a growing number of contemporary Friends taking up traditional plain dress, dubbed "The New Plain," once again.

Traditionally plain clothes addressed three concerns: the vanity and superiority associated with fanciness, the conformity associated with wearing the latest fashions, and the wastefulness of frequently buying new styles and other adornments. At one time this practice of plainness allowed Friends to be easily identified.

As fashions changed over time, the Quaker ideal of plain dress stood out against contemporary clothing. As a result, the traditional forms of this practice were dropped by most Friends. While the minority practice of contemporary Friends wearing traditional plain dress is growing, it is more likely that Friends will dress in a "plained" version of current fashions, or buy only the clothing they need, clothing that is not produced by oppressing others (such as in "sweatshops"), and avoid expensive designer items.

Plainness in speech addressed other concerns: honesty, class distinction, and vestiges of paganism. These principles were put into practice by affirming rather than swearing oaths, setting fixed prices for goods, avoiding the use of honorific titles, using numbers rather than names for the days of the week and the months of the year, and using familiar forms for the second person pronoun.

Like many aspects of Quaker life, the practice of plainness has evolved over time, although it is based on principles that have been a lasting part of Quaker thought. These principles are now part of the testimonies of simplicity, equality, and integrity.

Egalitarianism

Quakers hold a strong sense of spiritual egalitarianism, including a belief in the spiritual equality of the sexes. From the beginning both women and men were granted equal authority to speak in meetings for worship. Margaret Fell was as vocal and literate as her husband, George Fox, publishing several tracts in the early days of Quakerism.

The Friends' attitude towards egalitarianism was also demonstrated by their refusal to practice "hat honor" (Quakers refused to take their hats off or bow to anyone regardless of title or rank), and their refusal to address anyone with honorific titles such as "Sir," "Madam," "Your Honor," or "Your Majesty." This testified to the Friends' understanding that, in the eyes of God, there was no hierarchy based on birth, wealth, or political power — such honors they reserved only for God. This practice was not considered by Friends to be anti-authoritarian in nature, but instead as a rebuke against human pretense and ego.

Today, resistance to "hat honor" does not prevail as it once did—most hat customs are not practiced in contemporary daily life—and the individual Friend is left to decide whether or not to practice "hat honor" as a matter of conscience.

Education

Friends have founded many schools and colleges and have never engaged in anti-intellectualism ^{[citation needed]}; however Friends have often cautioned against the admission of education credentials as either a form of honoring humans instead of God or as a substitute for a relationship with God.

Oaths and fair-dealing

Early Friends believed that an important part of Jesus' message was how we treat our fellow human beings. They felt that honest dealing with others meant more than avoiding direct lies. Friends continue to believe that it is important not to mislead others, even if the words used are all technically truthful. Early Friends refused to swear oaths, even in courtrooms, believing that one must speak truth at all times, and the act of swearing to it implied different standards of truth with and without oaths; this doctrine is attributed to Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (specifically Matthew 5:34-37).

Some Friends have accepted the use of "affirmations" rather than oaths, believing that the problem with oaths is that by swearing an oath, you are admitting that you otherwise might not be expected to tell the truth. This acceptance of "affirmations" helped inspire the creation of a provision in the Constitution of the United States that allows an incoming President to "affirm" his or her loyalty to the Constitution rather than swear to it.^{[citation needed]}

This testimony appeared to conflict with other testimonies when Friends engaged in systematic law-breaking by participating in the "Underground Railroad" in the United States before the mid-nineteenth century.Template:Syn While the participation of Friends is widely celebrated, other Friends of the time held that they could not do anything that would mislead even a cruel slave owner seeking the return of an escaped slave.^{[citation needed]} These Friends cautioned against deciding for ourselves what truth should be, rather than simply stating only what we know.^{[citation needed]}

Quaker terminology

Birthright Friend

a historical term for those Friends born into families that are members of a Friends Meeting. (This term is not always officially recognized by Friends.)

Clearness

a process undergone to discern the true leading of the Spirit of God, especially in ambiguous or complicated situations. Friends often work with Clearness committees when struggling with a difficult issue.

Clerk

the only officer of most meetings (as they have no clergy); the person charged with making and keeping the records of the meeting (including the records of births, marriages, and deaths).

Concern

Friends believe that anyone may feel called by God. Friends consider carrying out a concern to be a form of ministry. Often there may be a meeting for clearness to test the concern after which the meeting may well support the person in their concern. Many well-known organisations, such as the American Friends Service Committee, Don't Make a Wave Committee (the predecessor organization to Greenpeace), Oxfam and Amnesty International, have been founded by Friends ‘acting under concern’.

Convinced Friend

a historical term for those Friends who were not born into Quaker families, but who came to Friends because of the Truth of Quaker teaching and practice. The process of deciding to become a Friend is known as "convincement."

Gathered Meeting

A meeting for worship, where those present feel that they were particularly in tune with the leadings of the Spirit.

Facing Benches

Older meetinghouses often have benches on a raised platform which face the rest of the congregation where Weighty Friends (see below) who might be expected to speak would sit. Historically (and in some meetings still) these would be the recorded ministers and elders.

Hold in the Light

To recognize concern in one's self for another person or situation. This is often considered to be synonymous with praying for someone.

I hope so

(British term) during a meeting for worship for business, when the clerk asks those present if they agree with a minute, Friends will usually say “I hope so” rather than “yes”. It is meant in the sense of “I hope that this is the true guidance of the Holy Spirit”.

Lay down

the action properly taken upon a committee, meeting or ministry that is no longer needed; "to lay down" a meeting is to disband it.

Leading

a course of action, belief or conviction that a Friend feels is divinely inspired.

Ministry

the act of speaking during a meeting for worship. (Many Friends use the term more broadly to mean living their testimonies in everyday life). "Vocal" or "proclamational" refer to ministries that are verbal.

Non-theist Friend

A nontheist Friend is one who does not experience or accept belief in a supreme being, the divine or the supernatural, often while engaging in and affirming Silent Meeting, and other Quaker processes and practices.

Notion

An unfounded, unspiritual position. (Used by George Fox, often to refer to teachings or doctrines that were expressed but not fully understood or experienced)

Proceed as Way Opens

to undertake a service or course of action without prior clarity about all the details but with confidence that divine guidance will make these apparent and assure an appropriate outcome.

Recorded minister

A person whose vocal ministry (spoken contribution in meeting) — or another spiritual gift — is recognized as helpful and probably faithful to Divine leading, by the body of Friends to which they belong and formally recorded by that body. Not all Friends' organisations record ministers. Other Friends have adopted a defined process prerequisite for "recording."

Right ordering

has to do with proper conduct of a meeting for business. The term is often used in the negative, that is, if someone senses that something about the conduct of the meeting is not proper, they may object that ‘this meeting is not in right ordering’.

Speaks to my condition or Friend speaks my mind

Commonly used during meetings for business to express that another Friend has spoken what is in the mind of the speaker; used to help add weight to the statements of others.

That of God in everyone

the belief in the presence of God within all people. Also referred to as the Inner Light.

Weighty Friend

a Friend, respected for their experience and ability over their history of participation with Friends, whose opinion or ministry is especially valued.

Quaker worship

Friends Meeting House, Manchester.

Friends Meeting House, New York City.

Friends treat all functions of the church as a form of worship, including business, marriage, and memorial services, in addition to regular meeting for worship. The two main forms of Quaker worship are often referred to as "programmed" and "unprogrammed".

While the different styles of worship generally reflect the theological splits, with unprogrammed meetings generally being more theologically liberal and programmed Friends churches more theologically conservative, this is not a strict rule. Many meetings hold both programmed and unprogrammed services or other activities. Some "Conservative" meetings are unprogrammed yet would be generally considered to be theologically closer to most programmed meetings.

Unprogrammed worship

Unprogrammed worship is the more traditional style of worship among Friends and remains the norm in Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and parts of the United States and Canada. During an unprogrammed meeting for worship, Friends gather together in "expectant waiting" for divine leadings. Sometimes a meeting is entirely silent, sometimes quite a few people speak. Meeting for Worship generally lasts about an hour.

When they feel they are led by the spirit a participant will rise and share a message (give "vocal ministry") with those gathered. Typically, messages, testimonies, ministry, or other speech are not prepared as a "speech". Speakers are expected to discern the source of their inspiration — whether divine or self. After someone has spoken, it is expected that more than a few moments will pass in silence before further Ministry; there should be no spirit of debate.

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The interior of an early meeting house

Unprogrammed worship is generally deemed to start as soon as the first participant is seated, the others entering the room in silence. The Meeting for Worship ends when one person (usually predetermined) shakes the hand of another participant. All the members of the assembly then shake hands with their neighbors, after which one member usually rises and extends greetings and makes announcements.

Programmed worship

Programmed worship resembles a typical Protestant worship service in the United States. This tradition arose among Friends in the United States in the 19th century in response to large numbers of converts to Quakerism during the national spiritual revivalism of the time. Typically there are readings from scripture, hymns, and a sermon from the pastor. A period of silence (similar in practice to that of unprogrammed meetings, though generally shorter) is included in some Programmed Friends worship services. Most Friends in the southern and central United States worship in this way.

The Friends meetings started in Africa and Latin America were generally started by Friends from programmed elements of the society, therefore most African and Latin American Friends worship in a programmed style.

Some Friends also hold what is termed Semi-Programmed Worship, which brings programmed elements like hymns and readings into an otherwise unprogrammed worship service.

Quaker weddings

Traditionally in a Friends Meeting when a couple decides to get married they declare their intentions to marry to the meeting. The meeting will typically form a "clearness committee" that meets with the couple to provide counsel and ascertain the clearness of their intent.

A traditional wedding ceremony in a Friends meeting is similar to any other unprogrammed Meeting for Worship, and therefore is often very different from the experience expected by non-Friends. There is no official to conduct the ceremony and sanction the union; the pair marry one another before God and gathered witnesses. After exchanging vows, the meeting returns to open worship and guests are free to speak as they are led. At the rise of meeting all the witnesses, including the youngest children in attendance, are asked to sign the wedding certificate.

In recent years Friends in Australia, Britain and some meetings in North America have celebrated weddings between partners of the same sex.

See Quaker views of homosexuality.

Decision making among Friends

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A business meeting being held at Britain Yearly Meeting 2005 in The University of York

Business decisions on a local level are conducted at a monthly "Meeting for Worship with a Concern for Business", or simply "Business Meeting". A business meeting is a form of worship, and all decisions are reached so that they are consistent with the guidance of the Spirit.

Instead of voting, the Meeting attempts to gain a sense of God's will for the community. Each member of the meeting is expected to listen to that of God within themselves and, if led, to contribute it to the group for reflection and consideration. Each member listens to others' contributions carefully, in an attitude of seeking Truth rather than of attempting to prevail or to debate.

A decision is reached when the Meeting, as a whole, feels that the "way forward" has been discerned (also called "coming to unity") or there is a consensus. On some occasions a single Friend will hold up a decision because they feel the meeting is not following God's will; occasionally, some members of the Meeting will "stand aside" on an issue, meaning that these members do not share in the general sense of the meeting but are willing to allow the group to move forward.

Many Quakers describe the search for unity as the gathering of believers who "wait upon the Lord" to discover God's will. When seeking unity, Friends are not attempting to seek a position with which everyone is willing to live (as is often the case in consensual models) but in determining God's will. It is assumed that if everyone is listening to God's Spirit, the way forward will become clear.

The business conducted "in the manner of Friends" can seem time-consuming and impractical. The process can be frustrating and slow, but Friends believe it works well, allowing the group to come to decisions even around the most difficult matters. By the time a decision is recognized, the important issues have been worked out and the group supports the decision; there is no "losing" side.

Many non-Friends express doubts as to whether this process of decision making can work in a large group, although many yearly meetings have successfully employed this practice for generations. Some Quaker-related organizations, such as Haverford College in Philadelphia and Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, also utilize traditional Quaker form practices of governance.

Memorial services

Traditional Quaker memorial services are also held as a form of worship. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances about the person who has died. Memorial services often last over an hour, particularly if there are a large number of people in attendance. Memorial services give everyone a chance to remember the lost individual in their own way, thus bringing comfort to those present, and re-affirmation of the larger community of Friends.

Basic divisions and organization

Like many movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into various smaller subgroups.

In Africa

The highest concentration of Quakers is in Africa. The Friends of East Africa were at one time part of a single East Africa Yearly Meeting, then the largest Yearly Meeting in the world. Today, this region is served by several distinct Yearly Meetings. Most of these are affiliated with the Friends United Meeting, practice programmed worship, and employ pastors. There are also Friends meetings in Rwanda and Burundi, as well as new work beginning in Morocco. For more information see Quakers in Kenya.

In Australia

Considerable distances between the colonies, and a low immigration of Quakers, meant that the organization of Friends in Australia was quite dependent on London until the twentieth century. The Society has remained unprogrammed and is constituted as the Australia Yearly Meeting, with local organization around seven Regional Meetings: Canberra (which extends into southern New South Wales), New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (which extends into Northern Territory), Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. There is an annual meeting each January hosted by a different Regional Meeting over a seven year cycle, with a Standing Committee each July or August.

In Great Britain

Friends in Britain have maintained a high level of unity throughout the history of the Society. In very recent years, however, small Quaker Meetings have come into existence which are characterized by a more avowedly Christian faith. These meetings are not part of the organization of the main body of Quakers in Great Britain: Britain Yearly Meeting.

The local Friends meetings are called preparative meetings. Several local meetings are part of a monthly meeting. (In 2007, however, these historical names are due to be simplified into 'Local' and 'Area' meetings). Several monthly meetings are organized into a general meeting. Formerly, general meetings were called quarterly meetings, and, while they continue to meet up to three times per year, they usually play no direct role in Quaker structures. Monthly meetings are represented directly in Meeting for Sufferings, which meets in between Yearly meetings.

In the United States

Friends in the United States have diverse practices, though united by many common bonds. Along with the division of worship style (see "Quaker Worship" above) come several differences of theology, vocabulary and practice.

A local congregation in the unprogrammed tradition is called a meeting, or a monthly meeting (recently changed to "area meeting") (e.g., Small town Meeting or Small town Monthly Meeting). Several local monthly meetings are often part of a regional group called a quarterly meeting, which is usually part of an even larger group called a yearly meeting.

In programmed traditions, the local congregations are often referred to as "Friends Churches". Currently, the largest Quaker church in America is Yorba Linda Friends Church, an evangelical Quaker church located in Orange County, California.^{[citation needed]}

Names

George Fox played an important part in founding the Religious Society of Friends.

Various names have been used for the Friends movement and its adherents. These include:

• Children of the light
• Friends
• Friends among friends
• Friends of the Truth
• Publishers of Truth
• Quakers
• Quiet Helpers
• Religious Society of Friends
• Saints
• Seekers of Truth
• Society of Friends

In the first few years of the movement, Quakers thought of themselves as part of the restoration of the true Christian church after centuries of apostasy. For this reason, during this period they often referred to themselves as simply the "saints". Other common names in the early days were "Children of the Light" and "Friends of the Truth", reflecting the central importance in early Quaker theology of Christ as an Inner light that shows you your true condition.

The name "Quaker" was first used in 1650, when George Fox was brought before Justice Bennet of Derby on a charge of blasphemy. According to Fox's journal, Bennet "called us Quakers because we bid them tremble at the word of God." Therefore, what began apparently as a way to make fun of Fox's comment by those outside the Society of Friends became a nickname that even Friends use for themselves.

The name "Religious Society of Friends" came many years later, in the 18th century. This remains the most widely-accepted name to this day, although often "Quakers" is added in parentheses for the sake of clarity. However, there are some Friends who prefer other names: some evangelical Friends' organizations use the term "Friends Church", and some Friends (usually in unprogrammed meetings) object to the word "religious" and refer to themselves as part of the "Society of Friends". There are some monthly meetings that for this reason do not include "religious" in their name, while most larger Quaker organizations, such as yearly meetings, use the full name.

History

Quaker William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania

The Religious Society of Friends began in England in 1648, as a Nonconformist breakaway movement from English Puritanism. As the movement expanded, it faced opposition and persecution. Friends were imprisoned and beaten in both the British Isles and the British colonies. In the Massachusetts Bay colony, Friends were banished on pain of death—some (most famously Mary Dyer) were hanged on Boston Common for returning to preach their beliefs. In England Friends were effectively banned from sitting in Parliament at Westminster from 1698-1833. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, as a safe place for Friends to live and practice their faith. Despite persecution, the movement grew steadily.

During the 19th century Friends in Ireland and the United States suffered a number of separations.

Hicksite-Orthodox split

In 1827 a division occurred within Philadelphia Yearly Meeting when its members could not agree on who was to be clerk. The issue involved the visits and preaching of Elias Hicks in violation of the will of numerous meetings; they claimed his views were universalist and contradicted the historical tradition of Friends. The same year, a number of Friends in sympathy with him separated to form a parallel system of yearly meetings in America, referred to as Hicksite and those who did not were called Orthodox; ultimately five yearly meetings divided.

The splits in New York and Philadelphia Yearly Meetings were overcome in 1955 when in each yearly meeting the Orthodox and Hicksite meetings merged; Baltimore's division ended a decade later.

Gurneyite-Wilburite split

The Orthodox Friends in America were exercised by a transatlantic dispute between Joseph John Gurney of England and John Wilbur of Rhode Island. Gurney emphasized scriptural authority and favored working closely with other Christian groups. Wilbur, in response, defended the authority of the Holy Spirit as primary, and worked to prevent what he saw as the dilution of Friends tradition of Spirit-led ministry. Wilbur was expelled from his yearly meeting in a questionable proceeding in 1842. Over the next several decades, a number of Wilburite-Gurneyite separations occurred. The Wilburite tradition is carried on today to varying degrees by the conservative yearly meetings of Ohio, Iowa, and North Carolina; Ohio Yearly Meeting (Conservative) is generally considered the most traditional in this regard, retaining more rural Quakers who use the plain language and continue wearing plain dress more than the other two.

Beanites

Joel Bean was an Orthodox Friend who opposed the extreme evangelicalism that was creeping into his branch of Quakerism. He formed a new branch of Quakerism in the western part of the United States when his membership was terminated and his meeting was laid down by Iowa Yearly Meeting.

The "Beanite", or independent, Quakers resemble an amalgam of Hicksite and Wilburite Quakerism. During the 1980s some of them adopted the label "Christ-Centered Universalism".

Testimonies

Quaker testimonies are an expression of "spirituality in action". They can be regarded as the traditional statements of Quaker belief, however some Quakers - like many in the UK - are keen to avoid creeds. The Testimonies are not a formal, static set of words, but rather a shared view of how Quakers relate to God and the world. The Testimonies are interrelated and can be seen as a coherent philosophical system, even outside Christian theology. The testimonies have not always been consistent, but throughout their history they have challenged Friends and provided them guidance.

The list of testimonies is, like all aspects of Friends theology, continuously evolving - so as to be relevant to today, but the following are common:

• Peace
• Equality
• Integrity
• Simplicity

Some Friends also include other testimonies, such as Unity, Community, Compassion, Justice, Truth, Stewardship and Sustainability; the environment is regarded by some as an "emerging testimony" in the UK. Children and Friends school students are often taught the acronym SPICE, which stands for Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, and Equality.

Peace

Quakers in Pennsylvania meeting with Native Americans

The Peace Testimony is probably the best known testimony of Friends. The belief that violence is wrong has persisted to this day, and many conscientious objectors, advocates of non-violence and anti-war activists are Friends. Because of the peace testimony, Friends are considered as one of the historic peace churches. In 1947 Quakerism was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the prize was accepted by the American Friends Service Committee and Friends Service Council on behalf of all Friends. The Peace Testimony has not always been well received in the world; on many occasions Friends have been imprisoned for refusing to serve in military activities.

Some Friends today regard the Peace Testimony in even a broader sense, refusing to pay the portion of the income tax in the United States that goes to fund the military. Many Friends engage in various non-governmental organizations such as Christian Peacemaker Teams serving in some of the most violent areas of the world.

Equality

A female Quaker preaches at a meeting in London in the 18th century

Friends believe that all people are created equal in the eyes of God. Since all people embody the same divine spark all people deserve equal treatment. Friends were some of the first to value women as important ministers and to campaign for women's rights; they became leaders in the anti-slavery movement, and were among the first to pioneer humane treatment for the mentally ill and for prisoners.

Integrity

Also known as the Testimony of Truth, or Truth Testimony, the essence of the Testimony of Integrity is placing God at the center of one's life. To Friends, integrity is in choosing to follow the leading of the Spirit despite the challenges and urges to do otherwise.

This testimony has led to Friends having a reputation for being honest and fair in their dealings with others. It has led them to give proper credit to others for their contributions and to accept responsibility for their own actions. In those legal systems where it is allowed, rather than swearing oaths in a court of law Friends will prefer to affirm - in England this has been the case since 1695.

Among some early Friends this testimony led them to refuse to participate in drama, stating that to pretend you were someone else was to deny your integrity.

Simplicity

Simplicity to Friends has generally been a reference to material possessions (see plainness above). Friends traditionally limited their possessions to what they needed to live their lives, rather than pursuing luxuries. Recently this testimony is often taken to have an ecological dimension: that Friends should not use more than their fair share of the Earth's resources.

This testimony is largely responsible for the tradition of plain walls and functional furniture in meetinghouses.

Quaker organizations

Throughout their history, Quakers have founded organizations for many causes they felt are in keeping with their faith. There are many schools around the world founded by Friends (see List of Friends Schools). Several organizations centered on education have continued amongst Friends, including Friends Council on Education (FCE) an organization supporting Friends schools (typically primary through secondary, often boarding) and Friends Association for Higher Education (FAHE) which supports Friends post-secondary institutions and those who resonate with Friends' teaching and traditions who serve in higher education.

There are various organizations associated with Friends including a U.S. lobbying organization based in Washington, D.C. called the Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL); several service organizations like the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), the Quaker United Nations Offices, Quaker Peace and Social Witness, Friends Committee on Scouting and the Alternatives to Violence Project.

Additionally Friends have founded organizations to help maintain order and communication within the society. Some yearly meetings belong to larger organizations, the three chief ones being Friends General Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends International (EFI) (in all three groups, most member organizations are from the United States). FGC is theologically the most liberal of the three groups, while EFI is the most conservative. FUM is the largest of the three. Some monthly meetings belong to more than one of these larger organizations, while others are independent, not joining any. Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is the international Quaker organization which loosely unifies the diverse groups of Friends; FWCC brings together the largest variety of Friends in the world.

See also

Quaker groups Category:Quaker organizations American Friends Service Committee Conservative Friends Friends Committee on National Legislation Friends World Committee for Consultation A Quaker Action Group Quakers in Europe Quakers in Kenya Quakers in Latin America World Gathering of Young Friends

Other groups Alternatives to Violence Project Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade Movement for a New Society Peace churches Renovaré Shakers Lists List of Friends Schools List of Quaker businesses List of pacifist faiths

Themes Abolition of slavery Friends' Ambulance Unit Friends meeting house Interconnectedness Non-theist Friends Nonviolence Pendle Hill Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Quaker Bible Quaker tapestry Quaker views of homosexuality Quaker views of women

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References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Abbott, Margery Post. 2003. Historical dictionary of the Friends (Quakers). Historical dictionaries of religions, philosophies, and movements, no. 44. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810844834 and ISBN 9780810844834
• Allen, David. 2004. There is a river a charismatic church history in outline. Milton Keynes: Authentic. ISBN 1850785643 and ISBN 9781850785644
• Bacon, Margaret Hope. 1999. The quiet rebels the story of the Quakers in America. Wallingford, Pa: Pendle Hill Publications. ISBN 0875749356 and ISBN 9780875749358
• Bill, J. Brent. 2002. Imagination & spirit a contemporary Quaker reader. Richmond, Ind: Friends United Press. ISBN 0944350615 and ISBN 9780944350614
• Bill, J. Brent. 2005. Holy silence the gift of Quaker spirituality. Brewster, Mass: Paraclete Press. ISBN 1557254206 and ISBN 9781557254207
• Boulton, David. 2006. Godless for God's sake nontheism in contemporary Quakerism. Dent, Cumbria [U.K.]: Dales Historical Monographs. ISBN 0951157868 and ISBN 9780951157862
• Brinton, Howard Haines. 1988. Friends for 300 years the history and beliefs of the Society of Friends since George Fox started the Quaker movement. Wallingford, PA: Pendle Hill Publications. ISBN 0875749038 and ISBN 9780875749037
• Birkel, Michael Lawrence. 2004. Silence and witness the Quaker tradition. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. ISBN 1570755183 and ISBN 9781570755187
• Burnet, George B., and William H. Marwick. 2007. The story of Quakerism in Scotland 1650-1950. Cambridge: Lutterworth. ISBN 9780718891763 and ISBN 0718891767
• Cooper, Wilmer A. 2001. A living faith an historical and comparative study of Quaker beliefs. Richmond, Ind: Friends United Press. ISBN 0944350534 and ISBN 9780944350539
• Gillman, Harvey. 1988. A light that is shining. Quaker Home Service. ISBN 0852452136 and ISBN 9780852452134
• Hamm, Thomas D. 2003. The Quakers in America. Columbia contemporary American religion series. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231123620 and ISBN 9780231123624
• Harrison, Richard S. 2006. Merchants, mystics and philanthropists 350 years of Cork Quakers. [Cork, Ireland]: Cork Monthly Meeting, Religious Society of Friends (Quakers). ISBN 0953954218 and ISBN 9780953954216
• Hubbard, Geoffrey. 1985. Quaker by convincement. London: Quaker Home Service. ISBN 085245189X and ISBN 9780852451892
• Ingle, H. Larry. 1994. First among friends George Fox and the creation of Quakerism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195078039 and ISBN 9780195078039
• Ingle, H. Larry. 1986. Quakers in conflict the Hicksite reformation. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 0870495011 and ISBN 9780870495014
• Moore, Rosemary Anne. 2000. The light in their consciences early Quakers in Britain, 1646-1666. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0271019891 and ISBN 9780271019895
• Moretta, John. 2007. William Penn and the Quaker legacy. New York: Pearson Longman. ISBN 9780321163929 and ISBN 0321163923
• Hamm, Thomas D., and Michael A. Mullett. 1991. New light on George Fox (1624-1691). York: William Sessions. ISBN 1850721424 and ISBN 9781850721420
• Punshon, John. 1984. Portrait in grey a short history of the Quakers. London: Quaker Home Service. ISBN 0852451806 and ISBN 9780852451809
• Smith, Robert Lawrence. 1999. A Quaker book of wisdom life lessons in simplicity, service, and common sense. A living planet book. New York: Eagle Brook. ISBN 0688172334 and ISBN 9780688172336
• West, Jessamyn. 1992. The Quaker reader. Wallingford, Pa: Pendle Hill Publications. ISBN 087574916X and ISBN 9780875749167
• Sheeran, Michael J. 1983. Beyond majority rule voteless decisions in the Religious Society of Friends. [Philadelphia, Pa.]: Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends. ISBN 0941308049 and ISBN 9780941308045
• Steere, Douglas V. 1967. On being present where you are. The James Backhouse lecture, 1967. Wallingford, Pa: Pendle Hill Publications.

Children's books

• De Angeli, Marguerite. 2000. Thee, Hannah! Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. ISBN 0836191064 and ISBN 9780836191066
• Turkle, Brinton. 1972. The adventures of Obadiah. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 0670106143 and ISBN 9780670106141
• Turkle, Brinton. 2004. Obadiah the Bold. Sandwich, MA: Beautiful Feet. ISBN 1893103196 and ISBN 9781893103191
• Turkle, Brinton. 2004. Rachel and Obadiah. Sandwich, MA: Beautiful Feet. ISBN 1893103188 and ISBN 9781893103184
• Turkle, Brinton. 1982. Thy friend, Obadiah. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0140503935 and ISBN 9780140503937

External links

Information on Quakers and Quakerism

• British Broadcasting Corporation. Quakers - the Religious Society of Friends. Retrieved November 11, 2007.
• Cadbury, Sir Adrian. Beliefs and Business: the experience of Quaker Companies. Temple Balsall. Retrieved November 11, 2007.
• Franchi, Jaimie L. Quakers. The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 11, 2007.
• New Religious Movements. Quakers. Retrieved November 11, 2007.
• Religious Society of Friends. Who are the Quakers?. Retrieved November 11, 2007.

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