Difference between revisions of "Propaganda" - New World Encyclopedia
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[[Category:Communication]] | [[Category:Communication]] | ||
− | + | [[Image:carelesstalk.jpg|thumb|right|U.S. propaganda poster, which warns against civilians sharing information on troop movements ([[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]])]] | |
'''Propaganda''' is a specific type of [[message]] presentation directly aimed at influencing the [[opinion]]s or behaviour of people, rather than [[objectivity|impartially]] providing [[information]]. An appeal to one's emotions is, perhaps, the more obvious propaganda method, but there are varied other more subtle and insidious forms. On the other hand, a most common characteristic of propaganda is volume (in the sense of a large amount). Individually propaganda functions as self-deception. Culturally it works within religions, politics, and economic entities like those which both favour and oppose globalization. Commercially it works within the (mass) [[market]] in the [[free market]] societies. | '''Propaganda''' is a specific type of [[message]] presentation directly aimed at influencing the [[opinion]]s or behaviour of people, rather than [[objectivity|impartially]] providing [[information]]. An appeal to one's emotions is, perhaps, the more obvious propaganda method, but there are varied other more subtle and insidious forms. On the other hand, a most common characteristic of propaganda is volume (in the sense of a large amount). Individually propaganda functions as self-deception. Culturally it works within religions, politics, and economic entities like those which both favour and oppose globalization. Commercially it works within the (mass) [[market]] in the [[free market]] societies. | ||
− | + | == Etymology== | |
+ | In late [[Latin]], '''''propaganda''''' meant "things to be propagated". In 1622, shortly after the start of the [[Thirty Years' War]], [[Pope Gregory XV]] founded the ''[[Congregatio de Propaganda Fide]]'' ("Congregation for Propagating the Faith"), a committee of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]]s with the duty of overseeing the propagation of [[Christianity]] by [[missionaries]] sent to non-Catholic countries. Therefore, the term itself originates with this Roman Catholic Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (''sacra congregatio christiano nomini propagando'' or, briefly, ''propaganda fide''), the department of the pontifical administration charged with the spread of Catholicism and with the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in non-Catholic countries (mission territory). | ||
− | + | The actual Latin stem ''propagand-'' conveys a sense of "that which ought to be spread". Originally the term was not intended to refer to misleading information. In [[English language|English]], the word "propaganda" now carries strong negative (as well as political, mainly) connotations, although it has not always done so. It was formerly common for political organizations, as it had started to be for the advertising and public relations industry, to refer to their own material as propaganda. Other languages, however, do not necessarily regard the term as derogatory and hence usage may lead to [[False friend|misunderstanding in communications]] with non-native English speakers. For example, in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and some [[Spanish language]] speaking countries, particularly in the [[Southern Cone]], the word "propaganda" usually means "[[advertising]]" (the most common manipulation of information). The modern English sense dates from [[World War I]], when it evolved to the field of politics, and was not originally pejorative. | |
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==Purpose of propaganda== | ==Purpose of propaganda== | ||
[[Image:Red_Army_fighter_save_us.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet Propaganda Poster during the [[Great Patriotic War]]. The text reads "Red Army Soldier - SAVE US!"]]The aim of propaganda is to influence people's opinions or behaviors actively, rather than merely to [[communication|communicate]] the facts about something. | [[Image:Red_Army_fighter_save_us.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet Propaganda Poster during the [[Great Patriotic War]]. The text reads "Red Army Soldier - SAVE US!"]]The aim of propaganda is to influence people's opinions or behaviors actively, rather than merely to [[communication|communicate]] the facts about something. | ||
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For example, propaganda might be used to garner either support or disapproval of a certain position, rather than to simply present the position, or to try to convince people to buy something, rather than to simply let them know there is some thing on the market. What separates propaganda from "normal" communication is in ways by which the message attempts to shape opinion or behavior, which are often subtle and insidious among other characteristics. For example, propaganda is often presented in a way that attempts to deliberately evoke a strong emotion, especially by suggesting illogical (or non-intuitive) relationships between concepts or objects (for instance between a “good” car and a sexy pretty woman or a sex symbol). | For example, propaganda might be used to garner either support or disapproval of a certain position, rather than to simply present the position, or to try to convince people to buy something, rather than to simply let them know there is some thing on the market. What separates propaganda from "normal" communication is in ways by which the message attempts to shape opinion or behavior, which are often subtle and insidious among other characteristics. For example, propaganda is often presented in a way that attempts to deliberately evoke a strong emotion, especially by suggesting illogical (or non-intuitive) relationships between concepts or objects (for instance between a “good” car and a sexy pretty woman or a sex symbol). | ||
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− | The method of propaganda is essential to the word's meaning as well. A message does not have to be untrue to qualify as propaganda. | + | The method of propaganda is essential to the word's meaning as well. A message does not have to be untrue to qualify as propaganda. In fact, the message in modern propaganda is often not blatantly untrue. But even if the message conveys only "true" information, it will generally contain partisan bias and fail to present a complete and balanced consideration of the issue. Another common characteristic of propaganda is volume (in the sense of a large amount). For example, a propagandist may seek to influence opinion by attempting to get a message heard in as many places as possible, and as often as possible. The intention of this approach is to a) reinforce an idea through repetition, and b) exclude or "drown out" any alternative ideas. |
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− | In fact, the message in modern propaganda is often not blatantly untrue. But even if the message conveys only "true" information, it will generally contain partisan bias and fail to present a complete and balanced consideration of the issue. Another common characteristic of propaganda is volume (in the sense of a large amount). For example, a propagandist may seek to influence opinion by attempting to get a message heard in as many places as possible, and as often as possible. The intention of this approach is to a) reinforce an idea through repetition, and b) exclude or "drown out" any alternative ideas | ||
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==Types of propaganda== | ==Types of propaganda== | ||
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Propaganda also has much in common with [[public information]] campaigns by governments, which are intended to encourage or discourage certain forms of behavior (such as wearing seat belts, not smoking, not littering and so forth). Again, the emphasis is more political in propaganda. Propaganda can take the form of [[leaflet]]s, posters, TV and radio broadcasts and can also extend to any other [[Mass media|medium]]. | Propaganda also has much in common with [[public information]] campaigns by governments, which are intended to encourage or discourage certain forms of behavior (such as wearing seat belts, not smoking, not littering and so forth). Again, the emphasis is more political in propaganda. Propaganda can take the form of [[leaflet]]s, posters, TV and radio broadcasts and can also extend to any other [[Mass media|medium]]. | ||
− | In the case of the United States, there is also an important legal (imposed by law) distinction between [[advertising]] (a type of '''overt propaganda''') and what the Government Accountability Office (GAO), an arm of the United States Congress, refers to as "covert propaganda." | + | In the case of the United States, there is also an important legal (imposed by law) distinction between [[advertising]] (a type of '''overt propaganda''') and what the Government Accountability Office (GAO), an arm of the United States Congress, refers to as "covert propaganda." Journalistic theory generally holds that news items should be objective, giving the reader an accurate background and analysis of the subject at hand. On the other hand, [[advertisements]] evolved from the traditional commercial advertisements to include also a new type in the form of '''paid''' articles or broadcasts disguised as news. These generally present an issue in a very subjective and often misleading light, primarily meant to persuade rather than inform. Normally they use only subtle [[propaganda techniques]] and not the more obvious ones used in traditional commercial advertisements. If the reader believes that a paid advertisement is in fact a news item, the message the advertiser is trying to communicate will be more easily "believed" or "internalized." Such advertisements are considered obvious examples of "covert" propaganda because they take on the appearance of objective information rather than the appearance of propaganda, which is misleading. Federal law specifically mandates that any advertisement appearing in the format of a news item '''must state''' that the item is in fact a '''paid advertisement'''. |
− | + | The Bush Administration has come under fire for allegedly producing and disseminating covert propaganda in the form of television programs, aired in the United States, which appeared to be legitimate news broadcasts and did not include any information signifying that the programs were not generated by a private-sector news source.<ref>{{cite web | title=Inter-Press News Service : 05/23/2005 : Bush to continue producing 'packaged news stories' | url=http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/printer_2008.shtml| accessdate=March 15 | accessyear=2006 }}</ref> | |
[[Image:SheMayLookCleanBut.jpg|thumb|right|A series of American propaganda posters during World War II appealed to servicemen's patriotism to protect themselves from venereal disease. The text at the bottom of the poster reads, "You can't beat the Axis if you get VD".]] | [[Image:SheMayLookCleanBut.jpg|thumb|right|A series of American propaganda posters during World War II appealed to servicemen's patriotism to protect themselves from venereal disease. The text at the bottom of the poster reads, "You can't beat the Axis if you get VD".]] | ||
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More in line with the [[religion|religious]] roots of the term, it is also used widely in the debates about [[new religious movement]]s (NRMs), both by people who defend them and by people who oppose them. The latter pejoratively call these NRMs [[cult]]s. [[Anti-cult movement|Anti-cult activists]] and [[Christian countercult movement|countercult activists]] accuse the leaders of what they consider cults of using propaganda extensively to recruit followers and keep them. Some social scientists, such as the late Jeffrey Hadden, and [[CESNUR]] affiliated scholars accuse ex-members of "cults" who became vocal critics and the [[anti-cult movement]] of making these unusual religious movements look bad without sufficient reasons.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Religious Movements Page: Conceptualizing "Cult" and "Sect" | url=http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/cultsect/concult.htm | accessdate=December 4 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Polish Anti-Cult Movement (Koscianska) - CESNUR | url=http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/riga2000/koscianska.htm | accessdate=December 4 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> | More in line with the [[religion|religious]] roots of the term, it is also used widely in the debates about [[new religious movement]]s (NRMs), both by people who defend them and by people who oppose them. The latter pejoratively call these NRMs [[cult]]s. [[Anti-cult movement|Anti-cult activists]] and [[Christian countercult movement|countercult activists]] accuse the leaders of what they consider cults of using propaganda extensively to recruit followers and keep them. Some social scientists, such as the late Jeffrey Hadden, and [[CESNUR]] affiliated scholars accuse ex-members of "cults" who became vocal critics and the [[anti-cult movement]] of making these unusual religious movements look bad without sufficient reasons.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Religious Movements Page: Conceptualizing "Cult" and "Sect" | url=http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/cultsect/concult.htm | accessdate=December 4 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Polish Anti-Cult Movement (Koscianska) - CESNUR | url=http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/riga2000/koscianska.htm | accessdate=December 4 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> | ||
− | Propaganda is a mighty weapon in [[war]]. In this case its aim is usually to dehumanize and create hatred toward a supposed enemy, either internal or external. The technique is to create a false image in the mind. This can be done by using special words, special avoidance of words or by saying that the enemy is responsible for certain things he never did. Most propaganda wars require the home population to feel the enemy has inflicted an injustice, which may be fictitious or may be based on facts. The home population must also decide that the cause of their nation is just. | + | Propaganda is a mighty weapon in [[war]]. In this case its aim is usually to dehumanize and create hatred toward a supposed enemy, either internal or external. The technique is to create a false image in the mind. This can be done by using special words, special avoidance of words or by saying that the enemy is responsible for certain things he never did. Most propaganda wars require the home population to feel the enemy has inflicted an injustice, which may be fictitious or may be based on facts. The home population must also decide that the cause of their nation is just. Propaganda is also one of the methods used in [[psychological warfare]], which may also involve [[false flag]] operations. |
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− | Propaganda is also one of the methods used in [[psychological warfare]], which may also involve [[false flag]] operations | ||
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− | + | Propaganda can be classified according to the source and nature of the message. '''[[White propaganda]] '''generally comes from an openly identified source, and is characterized by gentler methods of persuasion, such as standard public relations techniques and one-sided presentation of an argument. '''[[Black propaganda]] '''is identified as being from one source, but is infact from another. This is most commonly to disguise the true origins of the propaganda, be it from an enemy country or from an organization with a negative public image. '''[[Grey propaganda]] ''' is propaganda without any identifiable source or author. In scale, these different types of propaganda can also be defined by the potential of true and correct information to compete with the propaganda. For example, opposition to white propaganda is often readily found and may slightly discredit the propaganda source. Opposition to grey propaganda, when revealed (often by an inside source), may create some level of public outcry. Opposition to black propaganda is often unavailable and may be dangerous to reveal, because public cognizance of black propaganda tactics and sources would undermine or backfire the very campaign the black propagandist supported. | |
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==Techniques of propaganda transmission== | ==Techniques of propaganda transmission== | ||
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Common media for transmitting propaganda messages include news reports, | Common media for transmitting propaganda messages include news reports, | ||
government reports, historical revision, [[junk science]], books, leaflets, | government reports, historical revision, [[junk science]], books, leaflets, | ||
− | [[propaganda film|movies]], [[radio]], [[television]], and posters. In the case of radio and television, propaganda can exist on news, current-affairs or talk-show segments, as '''advertising''' or public-service '''announce "spots"''' or as long-running '''advertorials'''. The magazine ''[[Tricontinental]]'', issued by the [[Cuba]]n [[OSPAAAL]] organization, folds propaganda posters and places one in each copy, allowing a very broad distribution of pro-[[Fidel Castro]] propaganda. | + | [[propaganda film|movies]], [[radio]], [[television]], and posters. In the case of radio and television, propaganda can exist on news, current-affairs or talk-show segments, as '''advertising''' or public-service '''announce "spots"''' or as long-running '''advertorials'''. The magazine ''[[Tricontinental]]'', issued by the [[Cuba]]n [[OSPAAAL]] organization, folds propaganda posters and places one in each copy, allowing a very broad distribution of pro-[[Fidel Castro]] propaganda.<ref>[http://www.tricontinental.cubaweb.cu/ TRIcontinental] Retrieved December 6, 2006</ref> |
Ideally a propaganda campaign will follow a strategic transmission pattern to fully indoctrinate a group. This may begin with a simple transmission such as a leaflet dropped from a plane or an advertisement. Generally these messages will contain directions on how to obtain more information, via a web site, hotline, radio program, et cetera (as it is seen also for selling purposes among other goals). The strategy intends to initiate the individual from information recipient to information seeker through reinforcement, and then from information seeker to [[opinion leader]] through indoctrination. A successful propaganda campaign includes this cyclical [[meme]]-reproducing process. | Ideally a propaganda campaign will follow a strategic transmission pattern to fully indoctrinate a group. This may begin with a simple transmission such as a leaflet dropped from a plane or an advertisement. Generally these messages will contain directions on how to obtain more information, via a web site, hotline, radio program, et cetera (as it is seen also for selling purposes among other goals). The strategy intends to initiate the individual from information recipient to information seeker through reinforcement, and then from information seeker to [[opinion leader]] through indoctrination. A successful propaganda campaign includes this cyclical [[meme]]-reproducing process. | ||
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The first three (ownership, funding, and sourcing) are generally regarded by the authors as being the most important. | The first three (ownership, funding, and sourcing) are generally regarded by the authors as being the most important. | ||
− | Although the model was based mainly on the characterization of [[United States]] media, [[Chomsky]] and [[Herman]] believe the [[theory]] is equally applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and organizing principles which the [[model (abstract)|model]] postulates as the cause of [[media bias]]es. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Chomsky stated that the new filter replacing communism would be terrorism and Islam.[http://www.zmag.org/forums/chomforumacrh.htm] | + | Although the model was based mainly on the characterization of [[United States]] media, [[Chomsky]] and [[Herman]] believe the [[theory]] is equally applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and organizing principles which the [[model (abstract)|model]] postulates as the cause of [[media bias]]es. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Chomsky stated that the new filter replacing communism would be terrorism and Islam.<ref>[http://www.zmag.org/forums/chomforumacrh.htm A selection of Chomsky's posts from the ChomskyChat Forum] Retrieved December 6, 2006</ref> |
== History of propaganda == | == History of propaganda == | ||
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In the Americas, [[Cuba]] served as a major source and a target of propaganda from both black and white stations operated by the CIA and Cuban exile groups. Radio Habana Cuba, in turn, broadcast original programming, relayed Radio Moscow, and broadcast ''The Voice of Vietnam'' as well as alleged confessions from the crew of the ''[[USS Pueblo (AGER-2)|USS Pueblo]]''. | In the Americas, [[Cuba]] served as a major source and a target of propaganda from both black and white stations operated by the CIA and Cuban exile groups. Radio Habana Cuba, in turn, broadcast original programming, relayed Radio Moscow, and broadcast ''The Voice of Vietnam'' as well as alleged confessions from the crew of the ''[[USS Pueblo (AGER-2)|USS Pueblo]]''. | ||
− | One of the most insightful authors of the Cold War was [[George Orwell]], whose novels ''[[Animal Farm]]'' and ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. Though not set in the Soviet Union, these books are about totalitarian regimes in which language is constantly corrupted for political purposes. These novels were used for explicit propaganda. The [[CIA]], for example, secretly commissioned an [[animated film]] adaptation of ''Animal Farm'' in the 1950s with small changes to the original story to suit its own needs.[http://film.guardian.co.uk/features/featurepages/0,4120,908925,00.html] | + | One of the most insightful authors of the Cold War was [[George Orwell]], whose novels ''[[Animal Farm]]'' and ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. Though not set in the Soviet Union, these books are about totalitarian regimes in which language is constantly corrupted for political purposes. These novels were used for explicit propaganda. The [[CIA]], for example, secretly commissioned an [[animated film]] adaptation of ''Animal Farm'' in the 1950s with small changes to the original story to suit its own needs.<ref>[http://film.guardian.co.uk/features/featurepages/0,4120,908925,00.html The cartoon that came in from the cold] Retrieved December 6, 2006</ref> |
=== [[Afghanistan]] === | === [[Afghanistan]] === | ||
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==External links== | ==External links== | ||
− | + | * [http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32750.pdf Public Relations and Propaganda: Restrictions on Executive Branch Activities] | |
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− | *[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32750.pdf Public Relations and Propaganda: Restrictions on Executive Branch Activities] | ||
* [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Propaganda_techniques SourceWatch article on propaganda techniques] | * [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Propaganda_techniques SourceWatch article on propaganda techniques] | ||
− | *[http://www.prwatch.org/ PR Watch] | + | * [http://www.prwatch.org/ PR Watch] |
− | *[http://www.spinwatch.org Spinwatch] | + | * [http://www.spinwatch.org Spinwatch] |
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html?ex=1135054800&en=05cc913041fcf232&ei=5070]: A NY Times article about unattributed articles placed by the USA in foreign newspapers, TV, and radio. | * [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html?ex=1135054800&en=05cc913041fcf232&ei=5070]: A NY Times article about unattributed articles placed by the USA in foreign newspapers, TV, and radio. | ||
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* [http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Media/Military.asp War, Propaganda and the Media]: from GlobalIssues.org | * [http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Media/Military.asp War, Propaganda and the Media]: from GlobalIssues.org | ||
* [http://www.propagandacritic.com Propaganda Critic]: A website devoted to propaganda analysis. | * [http://www.propagandacritic.com Propaganda Critic]: A website devoted to propaganda analysis. | ||
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* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB78/ Documentation on Early Cold War U.S. Propaganda Activities in the Middle East] by the National Security Archive. Collection of 148 documents and overview essay. | * [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB78/ Documentation on Early Cold War U.S. Propaganda Activities in the Middle East] by the National Security Archive. Collection of 148 documents and overview essay. | ||
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* Bytwerk, Randall, "''[http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/index.htm Nazi and East German Propaganda Guide Page]''". CAS Department, Calvin College. | * Bytwerk, Randall, "''[http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/index.htm Nazi and East German Propaganda Guide Page]''". CAS Department, Calvin College. | ||
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* [http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/arttopic/pstr-rec/n-recpst.htm US Navy recruiting posters archive] | * [http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/arttopic/pstr-rec/n-recpst.htm US Navy recruiting posters archive] | ||
* [http://www.centcom.mil/galleries/leaflets/showleaflets.asp US Central Command (CENTCOM) archive of propaganda leaflets dropped in Iraq] | * [http://www.centcom.mil/galleries/leaflets/showleaflets.asp US Central Command (CENTCOM) archive of propaganda leaflets dropped in Iraq] | ||
* [http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/information_e.html Information, Propaganda, Censorship in Canadian Newspapers during World War II] | * [http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/information_e.html Information, Propaganda, Censorship in Canadian Newspapers during World War II] | ||
* [http://www.workingpsychology.com/fahrenheit.html Propaganda & Fahrenheit 9/11] 13,000-word propaganda analysis of Michael Moore's film Fahrenheit 9/11, by Kelton Rhoads, founder of [http://www.workingpsychology.com/ workingpsychology.com] | * [http://www.workingpsychology.com/fahrenheit.html Propaganda & Fahrenheit 9/11] 13,000-word propaganda analysis of Michael Moore's film Fahrenheit 9/11, by Kelton Rhoads, founder of [http://www.workingpsychology.com/ workingpsychology.com] | ||
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* [http://www.psywar.org/leaflets.php Psywar.org]'s large collection of propaganda leaflets from various conflicts | * [http://www.psywar.org/leaflets.php Psywar.org]'s large collection of propaganda leaflets from various conflicts | ||
* [http://www.clandestineradio.com/ ClandestineRadio.com] A site that tracks and analyzes subversive radio & TV stations around the world | * [http://www.clandestineradio.com/ ClandestineRadio.com] A site that tracks and analyzes subversive radio & TV stations around the world | ||
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* Al Kamen. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/07/AR2006050700898.html?nav%3Drss_print/asection&sub=AR The USDA on Iraq: Everything's Coming Up Rosy], ''The Washington Post'', May 8, 2006. | * Al Kamen. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/07/AR2006050700898.html?nav%3Drss_print/asection&sub=AR The USDA on Iraq: Everything's Coming Up Rosy], ''The Washington Post'', May 8, 2006. | ||
* [http://www.propagandacritic.com/ Propaganda Critic] | * [http://www.propagandacritic.com/ Propaganda Critic] | ||
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{{Credit1|Propaganda|85259266|}} | {{Credit1|Propaganda|85259266|}} |
Revision as of 02:34, 7 December 2006
Propaganda is a specific type of message presentation directly aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviour of people, rather than impartially providing information. An appeal to one's emotions is, perhaps, the more obvious propaganda method, but there are varied other more subtle and insidious forms. On the other hand, a most common characteristic of propaganda is volume (in the sense of a large amount). Individually propaganda functions as self-deception. Culturally it works within religions, politics, and economic entities like those which both favour and oppose globalization. Commercially it works within the (mass) market in the free market societies.
Etymology
In late Latin, propaganda meant "things to be propagated". In 1622, shortly after the start of the Thirty Years' War, Pope Gregory XV founded the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide ("Congregation for Propagating the Faith"), a committee of Cardinals with the duty of overseeing the propagation of Christianity by missionaries sent to non-Catholic countries. Therefore, the term itself originates with this Roman Catholic Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (sacra congregatio christiano nomini propagando or, briefly, propaganda fide), the department of the pontifical administration charged with the spread of Catholicism and with the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in non-Catholic countries (mission territory).
The actual Latin stem propagand- conveys a sense of "that which ought to be spread". Originally the term was not intended to refer to misleading information. In English, the word "propaganda" now carries strong negative (as well as political, mainly) connotations, although it has not always done so. It was formerly common for political organizations, as it had started to be for the advertising and public relations industry, to refer to their own material as propaganda. Other languages, however, do not necessarily regard the term as derogatory and hence usage may lead to misunderstanding in communications with non-native English speakers. For example, in Portuguese and some Spanish language speaking countries, particularly in the Southern Cone, the word "propaganda" usually means "advertising" (the most common manipulation of information). The modern English sense dates from World War I, when it evolved to the field of politics, and was not originally pejorative.
Purpose of propaganda
The aim of propaganda is to influence people's opinions or behaviors actively, rather than merely to communicate the facts about something.
For example, propaganda might be used to garner either support or disapproval of a certain position, rather than to simply present the position, or to try to convince people to buy something, rather than to simply let them know there is some thing on the market. What separates propaganda from "normal" communication is in ways by which the message attempts to shape opinion or behavior, which are often subtle and insidious among other characteristics. For example, propaganda is often presented in a way that attempts to deliberately evoke a strong emotion, especially by suggesting illogical (or non-intuitive) relationships between concepts or objects (for instance between a “good” car and a sexy pretty woman or a sex symbol).
The method of propaganda is essential to the word's meaning as well. A message does not have to be untrue to qualify as propaganda. In fact, the message in modern propaganda is often not blatantly untrue. But even if the message conveys only "true" information, it will generally contain partisan bias and fail to present a complete and balanced consideration of the issue. Another common characteristic of propaganda is volume (in the sense of a large amount). For example, a propagandist may seek to influence opinion by attempting to get a message heard in as many places as possible, and as often as possible. The intention of this approach is to a) reinforce an idea through repetition, and b) exclude or "drown out" any alternative ideas.
Types of propaganda
Propaganda also has much in common with public information campaigns by governments, which are intended to encourage or discourage certain forms of behavior (such as wearing seat belts, not smoking, not littering and so forth). Again, the emphasis is more political in propaganda. Propaganda can take the form of leaflets, posters, TV and radio broadcasts and can also extend to any other medium.
In the case of the United States, there is also an important legal (imposed by law) distinction between advertising (a type of overt propaganda) and what the Government Accountability Office (GAO), an arm of the United States Congress, refers to as "covert propaganda." Journalistic theory generally holds that news items should be objective, giving the reader an accurate background and analysis of the subject at hand. On the other hand, advertisements evolved from the traditional commercial advertisements to include also a new type in the form of paid articles or broadcasts disguised as news. These generally present an issue in a very subjective and often misleading light, primarily meant to persuade rather than inform. Normally they use only subtle propaganda techniques and not the more obvious ones used in traditional commercial advertisements. If the reader believes that a paid advertisement is in fact a news item, the message the advertiser is trying to communicate will be more easily "believed" or "internalized." Such advertisements are considered obvious examples of "covert" propaganda because they take on the appearance of objective information rather than the appearance of propaganda, which is misleading. Federal law specifically mandates that any advertisement appearing in the format of a news item must state that the item is in fact a paid advertisement.
The Bush Administration has come under fire for allegedly producing and disseminating covert propaganda in the form of television programs, aired in the United States, which appeared to be legitimate news broadcasts and did not include any information signifying that the programs were not generated by a private-sector news source.[1]
More in line with the religious roots of the term, it is also used widely in the debates about new religious movements (NRMs), both by people who defend them and by people who oppose them. The latter pejoratively call these NRMs cults. Anti-cult activists and countercult activists accuse the leaders of what they consider cults of using propaganda extensively to recruit followers and keep them. Some social scientists, such as the late Jeffrey Hadden, and CESNUR affiliated scholars accuse ex-members of "cults" who became vocal critics and the anti-cult movement of making these unusual religious movements look bad without sufficient reasons.[2][3]
Propaganda is a mighty weapon in war. In this case its aim is usually to dehumanize and create hatred toward a supposed enemy, either internal or external. The technique is to create a false image in the mind. This can be done by using special words, special avoidance of words or by saying that the enemy is responsible for certain things he never did. Most propaganda wars require the home population to feel the enemy has inflicted an injustice, which may be fictitious or may be based on facts. The home population must also decide that the cause of their nation is just. Propaganda is also one of the methods used in psychological warfare, which may also involve false flag operations.
Propaganda can be classified according to the source and nature of the message. White propaganda generally comes from an openly identified source, and is characterized by gentler methods of persuasion, such as standard public relations techniques and one-sided presentation of an argument. Black propaganda is identified as being from one source, but is infact from another. This is most commonly to disguise the true origins of the propaganda, be it from an enemy country or from an organization with a negative public image. Grey propaganda is propaganda without any identifiable source or author. In scale, these different types of propaganda can also be defined by the potential of true and correct information to compete with the propaganda. For example, opposition to white propaganda is often readily found and may slightly discredit the propaganda source. Opposition to grey propaganda, when revealed (often by an inside source), may create some level of public outcry. Opposition to black propaganda is often unavailable and may be dangerous to reveal, because public cognizance of black propaganda tactics and sources would undermine or backfire the very campaign the black propagandist supported.
Techniques of propaganda transmission
Common media for transmitting propaganda messages include news reports, government reports, historical revision, junk science, books, leaflets, movies, radio, television, and posters. In the case of radio and television, propaganda can exist on news, current-affairs or talk-show segments, as advertising or public-service announce "spots" or as long-running advertorials. The magazine Tricontinental, issued by the Cuban OSPAAAL organization, folds propaganda posters and places one in each copy, allowing a very broad distribution of pro-Fidel Castro propaganda.[4]
Ideally a propaganda campaign will follow a strategic transmission pattern to fully indoctrinate a group. This may begin with a simple transmission such as a leaflet dropped from a plane or an advertisement. Generally these messages will contain directions on how to obtain more information, via a web site, hotline, radio program, et cetera (as it is seen also for selling purposes among other goals). The strategy intends to initiate the individual from information recipient to information seeker through reinforcement, and then from information seeker to opinion leader through indoctrination. A successful propaganda campaign includes this cyclical meme-reproducing process.
Techniques of propaganda generation
A number of techniques which are based on social psychological research are used to generate propaganda. Many of these same techniques can be found under logical fallacies, since propagandists use arguments that, while sometimes convincing, are not necessarily valid.
Some time has been spent analyzing the means by which propaganda messages are transmitted. That work is important but it is clear that information dissemination strategies only become propaganda strategies when coupled with propagandistic messages. Identifying these messages is a necessary prerequisite to study the methods by which those messages are spread. That is why it is essential to have some knowledge of the following techniques for generating propaganda:
- Ad Hominem: A Latin phrase which has come to mean attacking your opponent
- Appeal to authority: Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to support a position idea, argument, or course of action.
- Appeal to fear: Appeals to fear seek to build support by instilling fear in the general population, for example, Joseph Goebbels exploited Theodore Kaufman's Germany Must Perish! to claim that the Allies sought the extermination of the German people.
- Appeal to Prejudice: Using loaded or emotive terms to attach value or moral goodness to believing the proposition. "A reasonable person would agree that our income tax is too low."
- Argumentum ad nauseam: Uses tireless repetition. An idea once repeated enough times, is taken as the truth. Works best when media sources are limited and controlled by the propagator.
- Bandwagon: Bandwagon and inevitable-victory appeals attempt to persuade the target audience to take the course of action that "everyone else is taking."
- Inevitable victory: invites those not already on the bandwagon to join those already on the road to certain victory. Those already or at least partially on the bandwagon are reassured that staying aboard is their best course of action.
- Join the crowd: This technique reinforces people's natural desire to be on the winning side. This technique is used to convince the audience that a program is an expression of an irresistible mass movement and that it is in their best interest to join.
- Black-and-White fallacy: Presenting only two choices, with the product or idea being propagated as the better choice. (Eg. You can have an unhealthy, unreliable engine, or you can use Brand X oil)
- Common man: The "plain folks" or "common man" approach attempts to convince the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect the common sense of the people. It is designed to win the confidence of the audience by communicating in the common manner and style of the target audience. Propagandists use ordinary language and mannerisms (and clothe their message in face-to-face and audiovisual communications) in attempting to identify their point of view with that of the average person.
- Demonizing the “enemy”: Projecting a person or idea as the "enemy" through suggestion or false accusations.
- Direct order: This technique hopes to simplify the decision making process. The propagandist uses images and words to tell the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices. Authority figures can be used to give the order, overlapping it with the Appeal to authority technique, but not necessarily. The Uncle Sam "I want you" image is an example of this technique.
- Euphoria: The use of an event that generates euphoria or happiness in lieu of spreading more sadness, or using a good event to try to cover up another. Or creating a celebrateable event in the hopes of boosting morale. Euphoria can be used to take one's mind from a worse feeling. i.e. a holiday or parade.
- Falsifying information: The creation or deletion of information from public records, in the purpose of making a false record of an event or the actions of a person during a court session, or possibly a battle, etc. Pseudoscience is often used in this way.
- Flag-waving: An attempt to justify an action on the grounds that doing so will make one more patriotic, or in some way benefit a group, country, or idea. The feeling of patriotism which this technique attempts to inspire may diminish or entirely omit one's capability for rational examination of the matter in question.
- Glittering generalities: Glittering generalities are emotionally appealing words applied to a product or idea, but which present no concrete argument or analysis. A famous example is the campaign slogan "Ford has a better idea!"
- Intentional vagueness: Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may supply its own interpretations. The intention is to move the audience by use of undefined phrases, without analyzing their validity or attempting to determine their reasonableness or application. The intent is to cause people to draw their own interpretations rather than simply being presented with an explicit idea. In trying to "figure out" the propaganda, the audience foregoes judgment of the ideas presented. Their validity, reasonableness and application is not considered.
- Obtain disapproval or Reductio ad Hitlerum: This technique is used to persuade a target audience to disapprove of an action or idea by suggesting that the idea is popular with groups hated, feared, or held in contempt by the target audience. Thus if a group which supports a certain policy is led to believe that undesirable, subversive, or contemptible people support the same policy, then the members of the group may decide to change their original position.
- Oversimplification: Favorable generalities are used to provide simple answers to complex social, political, economic, or military problems.
- Quotes out of Context: Selective editing of quotes which can change meanings. Political "documentaries" often make use of this technique.
- Rationalization: Individuals or groups may use favorable generalities to rationalize questionable acts or beliefs. Vague and pleasant phrases are often used to justify such actions or beliefs.
- Red herring: Presenting data that is irrelevant, then claiming that it validates your argument.
- Scapegoating: Assigning blame to an individual or group that isn't really responsible, thus alleviating feelings of guilt from responsible parties and/or distracting attention from the need to fix the problem for which blame is being assigned.
- Slogans: A slogan is a brief, striking phrase that may include labeling and stereotyping. Although slogans may be enlisted to support reasoned ideas, in practice they tend to act only as emotional appeals. For example, "blood for oil" or "cut and run" are slogans used by those who view the USA's current situation in Iraq with disfavor. Similarly, the names of the military campaigns, such as "enduring freedom" or "just cause", may also be regarded to be slogans, devised to prevent free thought on the issues.
- Stereotyping or Name Calling or Labeling: This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates, loathes, or finds undesirable. For instance, reporting on a foreign country or social group may focus on the stereotypical traits that the reader expects, even though they are far from being representative of the whole country or group; such reporting often focuses on the anecdotal.
- Testimonial: Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context, especially cited to support or reject a given policy, action, program, or personality. The reputation or the role (expert, respected public figure, etc.) of the individual giving the statement is exploited. The testimonial places the official sanction of a respected person or authority on a propaganda message. This is done in an effort to cause the target audience to identify itself with the authority or to accept the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own. See also, damaging quotation
- Transfer: Also known as Association, this is a technique of projecting positive or negative qualities (praise or blame) of a person, entity, object, or value (an individual, group, organization, nation, patriotism, etc.) to another to make the second more acceptable or to discredit it. It evokes an emotional response, which stimulates the target to identify with recognized authorities. Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes symbols (for example, the Swastika used in Nazi Germany, originally a symbol for health and prosperity) superimposed over other visual images. An example of common use of this technique in America is for the President to be filmed or photographed in front of the American flag.
- Unstated assumption: This technique is used when the propaganda concept that the propagandist intends to transmit would seem less credible if explicitly stated. The concept is instead repeatedly assumed or implied.
- Virtue words: These are words in the value system of the target audience which tend to produce a positive image when attached to a person or issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, etc. are virtue words. See ""Transfer"".
See also: doublespeak, meme, cult of personality, spin, demonization, factoid
The Propaganda Model
The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky that alleges systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them in terms of structural economic causes.
First presented in their 1988 book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media, the propaganda model views the private media as businesses selling a product — readers and audiences (rather than news) — to other businesses (advertisers). The theory postulates five general classes of "filters" that determine the type of news that is presented in news media. These five are:
- Ownership of the medium
- Medium's funding sources
- Sourcing
- Flak
- Anti-communist ideology
The first three (ownership, funding, and sourcing) are generally regarded by the authors as being the most important.
Although the model was based mainly on the characterization of United States media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and organizing principles which the model postulates as the cause of media biases. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Chomsky stated that the new filter replacing communism would be terrorism and Islam.[5]
History of propaganda
Propaganda has been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The writings of Romans like Livy are considered masterpieces of pro-Roman statist propaganda. The Behistun Inscription, made around 515 B.C.E. and detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne, can also be seen as an early example of propaganda.
19th and 20th centuries' propaganda
Gabriel Tarde's Laws of Imitation (1890) and Gustave Le Bon's The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (1897) were two of the first codifications of propaganda techniques, which influenced many writers afterward, including Sigmund Freud. Hitler's Mein Kampf is heavily influenced by Le Bon's theories. Journalist Walter Lippman, in Public Opinion (1922) also worked on the subject, as well as psychologist Edward Bernays, a nephew of Freud, early in the 20th century. During World War I, Lippman and Bernays were hired by then United States President, Woodrow Wilson, to participate in the Creel Commission, the mission of which was to sway popular opinion in favor of entering the war, on the side of the United Kingdom. The Creel Commission provided themes for speeches by "four-minute men" at public functions, and also encouraged censorship of the American press. The Commission was so unpopular that after the war, Congress closed it down without providing funding to organize and archive its papers.
The war propaganda campaign of Lippman and Bernays produced within six months such an intense anti-German hysteria as to permanently impress American business (and Adolf Hitler, among others) with the potential of large-scale propaganda to control public opinion. Bernays coined the terms "group mind" and "engineering consent", important concepts in practical propaganda work.
The current public relations industry is a direct outgrowth of Lippman's and Bernays' work and is still used extensively by the United States government. For the first half of the 20th century Bernays and Lippman themselves ran a very successful public relations firm.
World War II saw continued use of propaganda as a weapon of war, both by Hitler's propagandist Joseph Goebbels and the British Political Warfare Executive, as well as the United States Office of War Information.
In the early 2000s, the United States government developed and freely distributed a video game known as America's Army. The stated intention of the game is to encourage players to become interested in joining the U.S. Army. According to a poll by I for I Research, 30% of young people who had a positive view of the military said that they had developed that view by playing the game,[citation needed] Propaganda is ability to feed hungry person with painted food (Simonas Onaitis, Lithuanian student)
Russian revolution
Russian revolutionaries of the 19th and 20th centuries distinguished two different aspects covered by the English term propaganda. Their terminology included two terms: Russian: агитация (agitatsiya), or agitation, and Russian: пропаганда, or propaganda, see agitprop (agitprop is not, however, limited to the Soviet Union, as it was considered, before the October Revolution, to be one of the fundamental activity of any Marxist activist; this importance of agit-prop in Marxist theory may also be observed today in trotskyists circles, who insist on the importance of leaflets distribution).
Soviet propaganda meant dissemination of revolutionary ideas, teachings of Marxism, and theoretical and practical knowledge of Marxist economics, while agitation meant forming favorable public opinion and stirring up political unrest. These activities did not carry negative connotations (as they usually do in English) and were encouraged. Expanding dimensions of state propaganda, the Bolsheviks actively used transportation such as trains, aircraft and other means.
Josef Stalin's regime built the largest fixed-wing aircraft of the 1930s, Tupolev ANT-20, exclusively for this purpose. Named after the famous Soviet writer Maxim Gorky who had recently returned from fascist Italy, it was equipped with a powerful radio set called "Voice from the sky", printing and leaflet-dropping machinery, radiostations, photographic laboratory, film projector with sound for showing movies in flight, library, etc. The aircraft could be disassembled and transported by railroad if needed. The giant aircraft set a number of world records.
Nazi Germany
Most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda (Propagandaministerium, or "Promi" (German abbreviation)). Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry shortly after Hitler took power in 1933. All journalists, writers, and artists were required to register with one of the Ministry's subordinate chambers for the press, fine arts, music, theater, film, literature, or radio.
The Nazis believed in propaganda as a vital tool in achieving their goals. Adolf Hitler, Germany's Führer, was impressed by the power of Allied propaganda during World War I and believed that it had been a primary cause of the collapse of morale and revolts in the German home front and Navy in 1918 (see also: Dolchstoßlegende). Hitler would meet nearly every day with Goebbels to discuss the news and Goebbels would obtain Hitler's thoughts on the subject; Goebbels would then meet with senior Ministry officials and pass down the official Party line on world events. Broadcasters and journalists required prior approval before their works were disseminated.
Along with posters, the Nazis produced a number of films and books to spread their beliefs.
Cold War propaganda
The United States and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, and Third World nations. The United States Information Agency operated the Voice of America as an official government station. Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, which were in part supported by the Central Intelligence Agency, provided grey propaganda in news and entertainment programs to Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union respectively. The Soviet Union's official government station, Radio Moscow, broadcast white propaganda, while Radio Peace and Freedom broadcast grey propaganda. Both sides also broadcast black propaganda programs in periods of special crises. In 1948, the United Kingdom's Foreign Office created the IRD (Information Research Department) which took over from wartime and slightly post-war departments such as the Ministry of Information and dispensed propaganda via various media such as the BBC and publishing.[6][7]
The ideological and border dispute between the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China resulted in a number of cross-border operations. One technique developed during this period was the "backwards transmission," in which the radio program was recorded and played backwards over the air. (This was done so that messages meant to be received by the other government could be heard, while the average listener could not understand the content of the program.)
Soviet propaganda appeared in Soviet Union education, as well. Propaganda went so far in school that it sometimes even interfered with learning. When one learned history, one would never learn any history except for Russia's, but even that was not at all valid. There were often lies spread about how life in America and other Western countries was, and how rich the U.S.S.R. was compared to them. Also, the Soviets used classic novels, such as the American favorite Uncle Tom's Cabin to spread communist propaganda. The overall motif and message was twisted to an anti-American message and was fed to the schools.
In the Americas, Cuba served as a major source and a target of propaganda from both black and white stations operated by the CIA and Cuban exile groups. Radio Habana Cuba, in turn, broadcast original programming, relayed Radio Moscow, and broadcast The Voice of Vietnam as well as alleged confessions from the crew of the USS Pueblo.
One of the most insightful authors of the Cold War was George Orwell, whose novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. Though not set in the Soviet Union, these books are about totalitarian regimes in which language is constantly corrupted for political purposes. These novels were used for explicit propaganda. The CIA, for example, secretly commissioned an animated film adaptation of Animal Farm in the 1950s with small changes to the original story to suit its own needs.[8]
Afghanistan
In the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, psychological operations tactics were employed to demoralize the Taliban and to win the sympathies of the Afghan population. At least six EC-130E Commando Solo aircraft were used to jam local radio transmissions and transmit replacement propaganda messages.
Leaflets were also dropped throughout Afghanistan, offering rewards for Osama bin Laden and other individuals, portraying Americans as friends of Afghanistan and emphasizing various negative aspects of the Taliban. Another shows a picture of Mohammed Omar in a set of crosshairs with the words "We are watching".
Iraq
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Iraqi Information Minister Mohammed Saeed al-Sahaf repeatedly claimed Iraqi forces were decisively winning every battle. Even up to the overthrow of the Iraqi government at Baghdad, he maintained that the United States would soon be defeated, in contradiction with all other media. Due to this, he quickly became a cult figure in the West, and gained recognition on the website WeLoveTheIraqiInformationMinister.com[9] The Iraqis, misled by his propaganda, on the other hand, were shocked when instead Iraq was defeated.
In November 2005, various media outlets, including The Chicago Tribune and the Los Angeles Times, alleged that the United States military had manipulated news reported in Iraqi media in an effort to cast a favorable light on its actions while demoralizing the insurgency. Lt. Col. Barry Johnson, a military spokesman in Iraq, said the program is "an important part of countering misinformation in the news by insurgents", while a spokesman for Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld said the allegations of manipulation were troubling if true. The Department of Defense has confirmed the existence of the program. More recently, The New York Times (see external links below) published an article about how the Pentagon has started to use contractors with little experience in journalism or public relations to plant articles in the Iraqi press. These articles are usually written by US soldiers without attribution or are attributed to a non-existent organization called the "International Information Center." Planting propaganda stories in newspapers was done by both the Allies and Central Powers in the First World War and the Axis and Allies in the Second; this is the latest version of this technique.[10][11][12][citation needed]
In October 2006, one American media outlet allegedly propagandized the American public in a fashion reminiscent of the propaganda effect of the Tet Offensive. First, terrorists located in Iraq filmed their murder of American soldiers protecting Iraqi civilians. Then, CNN obtained the tapes from the terrorists and rebroadcast them in America mere weeks before national elections were to occur.[13] The American President's press secretary said in response, "your network has shown pictures of snipers hitting Americans, which was used as a propaganda tool, so the fact is that — it shows real sophistication on the part of these guys, because it creates the impression that Americans are sitting ducks, and that these guys are capable, when, in fact, while you have a capable enemy, they're dying in much greater numbers and suffering much greater damage."[14] As a result of CNN's actions, The Pentagon has been asked to remove embedded CNN reporters: "C-N-N has now served as the publicist for an enemy propaganda film featuring the killing of an American soldier."[15]
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- ↑ Inter-Press News Service : 05/23/2005 : Bush to continue producing 'packaged news stories'. Retrieved March 15, 2006.
- ↑ The Religious Movements Page: Conceptualizing "Cult" and "Sect". Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ↑ Polish Anti-Cult Movement (Koscianska) - CESNUR. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ↑ TRIcontinental Retrieved December 6, 2006
- ↑ A selection of Chomsky's posts from the ChomskyChat Forum Retrieved December 6, 2006
- ↑ Records. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ↑ Reports. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ↑ The cartoon that came in from the cold Retrieved December 6, 2006
- ↑ WeLoveTheIraqiInformationMinister.com. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ↑ U.S. Military Unclear on 'Planted' Stories. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ↑ U.S. military plants stories in the Iraqi media -. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ↑ AP Wire : 12/02/2005 : Pentagon describes Iraq propaganda plan. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ↑ Video Shows Snipers' Chilling Work in Iraq. Retrieved October 20, 2006.
- ↑ Press Briefing by Tony Snow : 10/20/2006. Retrieved October 20, 2006.
- ↑ House Defense Chair Asks Pentagon to Remove Embedded CNN Reporters. Retrieved October 21, 2006.
- Appendix I: PSYOP Techniques (Aug. 31, 1979). Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1. Washington, D.C.: Headquarters; Department of the Army. (partial contents here)
- Bytwerk, Randall L. Bending Spines: The Propagandas of Nazi Germany and the German Democratic Republic. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-87013-710-7
- Edwards, John Carver. Berlin Calling: American Broadcasters in Service to the Third Reich. New York, Prager Publishers, 1991. ISBN 0-275-93705-7.
- Howe, Ellic. The Black Game: British Subversive Operations Against the German During the Second World War. London: Futura, 1982.
- Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World Revisited, New York: Harper, 1958
- Ellul, Jacques. Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes. Trans. Konrad Kellen & Jean Lerner. New York: Knopf, 1965. New York: Random House/ Vintage 1973
- Hindery, Roderick, "The Anatomy of Propaganda within Religious Terrorism," Humanist, March-April 2003, 16-19.
- Le Bon, Gustave, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind, 1897 (1895 original version)
- Linebarger, Paul M. A. (aka Cordwainer Smith). Psychological Warfare. Washington, D.C., Infantry Journal Press, 1948.
- Nelson, Richard Alan. A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States. Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Press, 1996. ISBN 0-313-29261-2.
- Rouse, Ed. The PsyWarrior. Retrieved from http://www.psywarrior.com.
- Young, Emma (Oct. 10, 2001) Psychological warfare waged in Afghanistan. New Scientist.
- Shirer, William L. Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934-1941. New York: Albert A. Knopf, 1942.
- Stauber, John, and Rampton, Sheldon Toxic Sludge Is Good for You! Lies, Damn Lies and the Public Relations Industry Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995.
- SourceWatch, the encyclopedia of propaganda. Available at http://www.sourcewatch.org.
Further reading
Here may lie the most important effect of mass communication, its ability to mentally order and organize our world for us. In short, the mass media may not be successful in telling us what to think, but they are stunningly successful in telling us what to think about.
Shaw & McCombs, The Emergence of American Political Issues, 1977
- Robert Cole. Propaganda in Twentieth Century War and Politics (1996)
- Robert Cole, ed. Encyclopedia of Propaganda (3 vol 1998)
- Nicholas John Cull, David Culbert, and David Welch, eds. Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (2003)
- Garth S., and Jowett, Victoria, Propaganda and Persuasion (1999)
- Hindery, Roderick R., Indoctrination and Self-deception or Free and Critical Thought? (2001)
- Le Bon, Gustave, The Crowd: a study of the Popular Mind (1895)
- Kevin R. Kosar. Public Relations and Propaganda: Restrictions on Executive Branch Activities
- Paul M. Linebarger. Psychological Warfare. International Propaganda and Communications. ISBN 0-405-04755-X (1948)
- David R. Willcox. Propaganda, the Press and Conflict (2005)
- John H. Brown. "Two Ways of Looking at Propaganda" (2006)
- McCombs M. E. & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176-87.
External links
- Public Relations and Propaganda: Restrictions on Executive Branch Activities
- SourceWatch article on propaganda techniques
- PR Watch
- Spinwatch
- [1]: A NY Times article about unattributed articles placed by the USA in foreign newspapers, TV, and radio.
- War, Propaganda and the Media: from GlobalIssues.org
- Propaganda Critic: A website devoted to propaganda analysis.
- Documentation on Early Cold War U.S. Propaganda Activities in the Middle East by the National Security Archive. Collection of 148 documents and overview essay.
- Bytwerk, Randall, "Nazi and East German Propaganda Guide Page". CAS Department, Calvin College.
- US Navy recruiting posters archive
- US Central Command (CENTCOM) archive of propaganda leaflets dropped in Iraq
- Information, Propaganda, Censorship in Canadian Newspapers during World War II
- Propaganda & Fahrenheit 9/11 13,000-word propaganda analysis of Michael Moore's film Fahrenheit 9/11, by Kelton Rhoads, founder of workingpsychology.com
- Psywar.org's large collection of propaganda leaflets from various conflicts
- ClandestineRadio.com A site that tracks and analyzes subversive radio & TV stations around the world
- Superman comics covers with World War II propaganda: [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] ("Slap a Jap", "Japanazis", etc.)
- Floyd McKay. Propaganda: America's Psychological Warriors, The Seattle Times, February 19, 2006.
- Al Kamen. The USDA on Iraq: Everything's Coming Up Rosy, The Washington Post, May 8, 2006.
- Propaganda Critic
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