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| | [[Category:Anthropology]] | | [[Category:Anthropology]] |
| | [[Category:Sociology]] | | [[Category:Sociology]] |
| | + | [[Category:Lifestyle]] |
| | + | [[Category:Marriage and family]] |
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| | + | [[File:Draupadi and Pandavas.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Draupadi]] with her five husbands.]] |
| | + | In [[social anthropology]] and [[biology]], '''polyandry''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''poly'' many, ''andros'' man) is the situation of a female forming a stable sexual union with more than one male. Polyandry is the specific form of [[polygamy]] in which a woman is married to more than one husband simultaneously. On the other hand, [[polygyny]] is when a man has multiple wives, which is the more common form of polygamy. The form of polyandry in which two (or more) brothers marry the same woman is known as "fraternal polyandry," and is the most frequently encountered form. |
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| | + | Human polyandry is extremely rare, being found in very few societies historically. It is probable that such occurrences were in response to particular circumstances, such as lack of marriageable women in a society or the need for multiple fathers to assist in the work of feeding and protecting the children, rather than a societal [[norm]]. Under more normal conditions, there are sufficient women for all the men in a society to have their own spouse. |
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| − | The term '''polygamy''' (literally ''many marriages'' in late [[Greek language|Greek]]) is used in related ways in [[social anthropology]] and [[sociobiology]].
| + | ==Polyandry in nature== |
| | + | In [[sociobiology]], ''polyandry'' refers to a mating system in which one female forms more or less permanent bonds to more than one male. It is the converse of [[polygyny]] in which a single male mates with many females. |
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| − | In social anthropology, polygamy is the practice of [[marriage]] to more than one spouse simultaneously (as opposed to [[monogamy]] where each person has only one spouse at a time). Like ''monogamy'', the term is often used in a ''[[de facto]]'' sense, applying regardless of whether the relationships are recognised by the [[state (law)|state]] (see [[marriage (conflict)|marriage]] for a discussion on the extent to which states can and do recognise potentially and actually polygamous forms as valid). | + | Polyandry in nature can take two different forms. In one, typified by the Northern [[Jacana]] and some other ground-living [[bird]]s, the female takes on much the same role traditionally seen in the male in a polygynous [[species]]. She holds a large territory within which several males build nests, lays eggs in all the nests, and plays little part in [[parenting|parental care]]. In the other form, typified by the [[Galápagos Hawk]], a group of two or more males (which may or may not be related) and one female collectively care for a single nest. Polyandry with shared parental care is more likely in very difficult environments, where the efforts of more than two parents are needed to give a reasonable chance of rearing young successfully. |
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| − | In sociobiology, polygamy is used in a broad sense to mean any form of multiple [[mating]]. In a narrower sense, used by [[zoologists]], polygamy includes a pair bond, perhaps temporary.
| + | Polyandry occurs in some [[primate]]s, such as [[marmoset]]s, other [[mammal]] groups, for example the [[marsupial]] [[mouse]] species ''antecchinus'', some [[bird]] species, such as superb fairy [[wren]]s, and [[insect]]s such as the field cricket ''gryllus bimaculatus'' of the [[invertebrate]] order [[orthoptera]] (containing [[cricket]]s, [[grasshopper]]s, and [[groundhopper]]s). Females in this species will mate with any male close to them, including siblings. |
| | + | [[File:Bienenkoenigin 43a cropped.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[queen bee]] is usually the only female bee within a [[Beehive|hive]] reproducing with [[Drone (bee)|drone]]s, which often come from various hives. She mothers most or all offspring within a given hive.]] |
| | + | [[Honeybee]]s are said to be polyandrous because a queen typically mates with multiple males, even though mating is the only interaction that they have. The males subsequently die, and the queen stores the sperm to fertilize her eggs. The female domestic housecat exhibits a similar pattern of behavior, mating with multiple males, with her eggs fertilized by multiple partners in any one litter. The males often have nothing more to do with their mate afterwards, and are not involved in the care of the newborn. |
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| − | ==Forms of polygamy==
| + | Polyandry appears to be the dominant social structure in a subfamily of New World [[monkey]]s called ''callitrichids'', which include [[tamarins]], [[marmosets]], and other monkeys. They often live in groups that may contain more than one female, with the dominant female suppressing ovulation in subordinates, causing her to be the only one capable of reproduction. A Callimico female regularly births more than one offspring, and her eggs are separately fertilized by more than one male. Paternal investment is high in Callimicos, and males often carry infants on their backs, even when they are not the father. It has been suggested that multiple male mates are related, and therefore cooperation in caring for each other's young is adaptive. However, researchers that tagged and tracked Callimicos over time noticed that unrelated males migrated to new groups to cooperate with non-relatives as well as with relatives to care for young. It has also been suggested that females select cooperative males, and that the multiple offspring of Callimicos require paternal care for survival. |
| − | Polygamy exists in three specific forms, including [[polygyny]] (one man having multiple wives), [[polyandry]] (one woman having multiple husbands), or [[group marriage]] (some combination of polygyny and polyandry). Historically, all three practices have been found, but polygyny is by far the most common.
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| − | A notable example of [[polyandry]] occurs in [[Hindu]] culture in the [[Mahabharata]], where the [[Pandavas]] are married to one common wife, [[Draupadi]]. Today it is almost exclusively observed in the Toda tribe of [[India]], where it is sometimes the custom for several brothers to have one wife. In this context, the practice is intended to keep land (a precious resource in a populous country like India) from being split up amongst male heirs. Polyandry was traditionally practiced among [[nomad]]ic [[Tibet]]ans, where it meant two poor brothers sharing a wife.
| + | Generally, however, polyandry in [[primates]] and other [[mammal]]s is very rare and usually correlated with reduced or reverse [[sexual dimorphism]]. When males of a species are much larger than females, polygyny is usually practiced. As size difference decreases, or the females are larger than males, a species is more likely to practice [[monogamy]] or polyandry. The non-human great [[ape]]s ([[gorilla]]s, [[orangutan]]s, and [[chimpanzee]]s) are highly dimorphic and practice polygyny. Male and female [[gibbon]]s (lesser apes) are similar in size and form monogamous pairs. |
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| − | [[Group marriage]], or ''circle marriage'', may exist in a number of forms, such as where more than one man and more than one woman form a single [[family]] unit, and all members of the marriage share [[parent]]al responsibility for any children arising from the marriage. Another possible arrangement not thought to exist in reality, although occurring in [[science fiction]] (notably in Robert Heinlein's [[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]), is the long-lived ''line marriage'', in which deceased or departing spouses in the group are continually replaced by others, so that family property never becomes dispersed through inheritance. | + | ==Human occurrence== |
| | + | {{readout||right|250px|Polyandry, the form of [[polygamy]] in which a woman is married to more than one husband, is the least frequent form of [[marriage]] in human society}} |
| | + | Human men and women are less dimorphic in body size than the [[polygyny|polygynous]] great [[ape]]s, and are usually [[monogamy|monogamous]], although a significant amount of polygyny has been observed (Murdock 1981). |
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| − | ==Related terms==
| + | Polyandry is the least frequent system of [[marriage]], or stable sexual relationships, within human society. [[George Peter Murdock]]’s ''World Ethnographic Sample'' (Coult 1965) recorded only four societies where polyandry is practiced, less than one percent of the total number of societies in the world. Most commonly practiced between brothers, it is called fraternal polyandry. If the men are not related, it is non-fraternal polyandry. |
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| − | ===Bigamy=== | + | ===Polyandry in Religion=== |
| | + | [[Islam]] bans polyandry completely. A woman may not have more than one husband. However, [[polygyny]] is allowed for men, permitting marriage to as many as four wives as long as they are able take care of them and love them equally. |
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| − | '''Bigamy''' refers to someone who has two spouses at the same time. Many countries have specific statutes outlawing bigamy, making any secondary marriage a crime.
| + | Both [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]] prohibit polyandry, although [[polygamy]] known as "plural marriage," primarily polygny but sometimes polyandry, was practiced to a limited degree in early [[Mormon]]ism. |
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| − | Note that these laws aren't limited to case of traditional polygamy, where the spouses know about each other. They also cover cases such as a man who breaks up with his wife, and without divorcing her, marries another woman. It even covers the occasional case of a man who sets up a second family with a second wife, keeping his dual marriage a secret from one or both of them. In both of these cases, the effect of these laws is to protect people from being married under false pretenses.
| + | There is at least one reference to polyandry in the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] epic, ''[[Mahabharata]]''. Draupadi marries the five Pandava brothers. This ancient text remains largely neutral to the general concept of polyandry, however, merely accepting this as her way of life. |
| − | The truth is that many states - Nevada for example - are extremely reluctant to prosecute bigamy cases and the laws remain unenforced.
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| − | ===Trigamy===
| + | In the rare instances where polyandry has been observed by [[anthropology|anthropologists]], it seems to be more driven by local unique concerns than [[religion|religious]] beliefs. |
| − | '''Trigamy''' refers to someone who has three spouses at the same time.
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| − | From the legal perspective, this is just seen as two counts of bigamy.
| + | ===Polyandrous societies=== |
| | + | In [[Tibet]], which is the most well-documented cultural domain within which polyandry is practiced, the Toda practiced fraternal polyandry. There is no distinction in paternity with all children being treated the same. Toda say this limits the number of children in a harsh area, and helps to avoid disputes over [[inheritance]] of [[property]]. The Toda are also known to have practiced female [[infanticide]], limiting the number of available females. However, the testimony of certain polyandrists themselves is that this marriage form is difficult to sustain. In Tibet, polyandry has been outlawed, and it is extremely rare to see them replicate polyandrous relationships in the [[refugee]] camps in [[India]] where many fled after the Chinese took over Tibet in 1950. |
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| − | ===Polyamory===
| + | Perhaps the next best documented society that had polyandry was the Sinhalese in [[Sri Lanka]]. They euphemistically referred to the practice as ''eka-ge-kema'' or "eating in one house." The practice is no longer legal, although it is possible that it may still survive in some remote areas. It did not occur in the Aryan tribes in the Vedic age, but only among the non-Aryan or Pandavas. The earliest documentation is of a queen of the region in the fourteenth century, where we find her calling herself the chief consort of the two brother kings named Perakumba. Every aspect that is recorded is remarkably similar to the better known Tibetan form of polyandry. These people are related to tribes in the area inhabited by the Toda, and they are documented as having arrived from the north, so it is possible that the practice was brought from there. |
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| − | ''Main article: [[Polyamory]].''
| + | ==Controversy== |
| | + | Among [[anthropology|anthropologists]], polyandry is a controversial subject. It is extremely rare, and so it is very hard to be studied and understood with any statistical reliability. In many parts of the world, most traditional societies have been drastically altered or destroyed, and so the incidence of polyandry in the past may not be accurately known. |
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| − | The term ''[[polyamory]]'' refers to romantic or sexual relationships involving multiple partners at once, regardless of whether they involve marriage. Any polygamous relationship is polyamorous, and some polyamorous relationships involve multiple spouses. "Polygamy" is usually used to refer to multiple marriage, while "polyamory" implies a relationship defined by negotiation between its members rather than cultural [[norm (sociology)|norm]]s.
| + | Studies (Beckerman and Valentine 2002) have revealed that at least 20 [[Amazon]]ian tribal societies accept that a child could, and ideally should, have more than one father. Members of these societies believe that all men who had a sexual relationship with a woman during her pregnancy contributed to the formation of her baby. This concept of "partible paternity" ensures that each child will be born with several fathers to take responsibility for the child, increasing their chances of survival. |
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| − | ===Poly relationship===
| + | Prince Peter of Greece (1963), who studied information on the polyandry of the Kandyan Sinhalese, the Kerala Tiyyans, and the Tibetans, concluded that there existed a greater unity and solidarity of sibling groups among those practicing fraternal polyandry. He also emphasized the economic function of polyandry which intensified this unity and solidarity. |
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| − | ''Main article: [[Poly relationship]].''
| + | In retrospect, it must be considered that these situations represent very unique situations, and these benefits are marginal at best. The potential harm seems much greater, as disputes over paternity and social disorder are some of the strongest arguments modern society has brought to bear on the issue. |
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| − | Other forms of nonmonogamous relationships are discussed at [[poly relationship]].
| + | ==References== |
| | + | *Beckerman, Stephen and Paul Valentine, eds. 2002. ''Cultures of Multiple Fathers: The Theory and Practice of Partible Paternity in Lowland South America''. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0813024560 |
| | + | *Coult, Allan D. 1965. ''Cross Tabulations of Murdock's World Ethnographic Sample''. University of Missouri. {{ASIN|B0007DESIU}} |
| | + | *Ember, Carol R. and Melvin Ember. 2004. ''Cultural Anthropology''. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131116363 |
| | + | *Hussein, Asiff. [http://www.lankalibrary.com/rit/ekage.htm 'Eka-ge-kema':Fraternal polyandry among the olden-day Sinhalese] WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka. Retrieved December 15, 2007. |
| | + | *Murdock, George P. 1967. ''Ethnographic Atlas''. Pittsburgh, PA: The University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0822931140 |
| | + | *Murdock, George P. 1981. ''Atlas of World Cultures''. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0822934329 |
| | + | *Peter, Prince of Greece. 1963. ''A Study of Polyandry,'' The Hague, Mouton. {{OCLC|804468}} |
| | + | *[http://www.understanding-islam.com/related/text.asp?type=question&qid=617 Why does Islam not Allow Polyandry?] Retrieved December 15, 2007. |
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| − | ==Polygamy worldwide==
| + | {{Credit1|Polyandry|58340729|}} |
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| − | According to the [http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/worldcul/Codebook4EthnoAtlas.pdf ''Ethnographic Atlas Codebook''] derived from George P. Murdock’s ''Ethnographic Atlas'' recorded the marital composition of 1231 societies, from 1960-1980. Of these societies, 186 societies were monogamous. 453 had occasional polygyny, 588 had more frequent polygyny, and 4 had polyandry.
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| − | ===Patterns of occurrence===
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| − | At the same time, even within societies which allow polygyny, the actual practice of polygyny often occurs only rarely. To take on more than one wife often requires considerable resources: this may put polygamy beyond the means of the vast majority of people within those societies. Such appears the case in many traditional Islamic societies, and in Imperial [[China]].
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| − | Within polygynous societies, multiple wives often become a [[status symbol]] denoting wealth and power. Similarly, within societies which formally prohibit polygamy, social opinion may look favorably on persons maintaining mistresses or engaging in [[serial monogamy]].
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| − | Some observers detect a social preference for polygyny in disease-prone (especially tropical) climates, and speculate that (from a potential mother's viewpoint) perceived quality of paternal genes may favour the practice there. The countervailing situation allegedly prevails in harsher climates, where (once again from a potential mother's viewpoint) reliable paternal care as exhibited in monogamous pair-bonding outweighs the importance of paternal genes.
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| − | ===Polygamy and religion===
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| − | ====Hinduism====
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| − | Both polygamy and polyandry were practiced in ancient times among certain sections of the Hindu society. Hinduism does not prohibit polygamy, nor encourage it. The reason for this is because to have more than one wife, again means to be able to support them financially. Historically, only kings, in practice, were polygamous, and this in part because they could afford it. For example, the Vijaynagara emperor, [[Krishnadevaraya]] had multiple wives. In actuality Hinduism, and for that matter other Indian religions such as Buddhism, & Jainism, actually consent for a man or woman to marry more than one person. The problem is most people cannot afford to have more than one partner, and have the time to raise multiple kids with multiple partners. Because of this it is not practiced in India. And as mentioned before, Indian religions allow women to marry more than one man. But again this is rarely practiced, if ever. However, Muslims in India are allowed to have multiple wives. As of October, 2004, marriage laws in India are dependent upon the religion of the subject in question.<sup>[http://www.sudhirlaw.com/Marriages.html]</sup> There have been efforts to propose a uniform marital law that would treat all Indians the same, irrespective of religion, but this has not occurred as of yet.
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| − | Note : Brahmins were never allowed to marry more than once.
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| − | ====Judaism====
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| − | Although classical Jewish literature indicates that polygamy was permitted, the various segments of Judaism have now outlawed polygamy. The first was [[Ashkenazi]] Jewry, which followed [[Rabbenu Gershom]]'s ban since the [[11th century]]. However, there are some who claim the ban was a temporary measure that no longer applies according to the Jewish law and want to restore polygamy. See [http://polygamy.com/Jewish/index.htm Jewish Doctrines Pertaining To Polygamy]. Some [[Sephardi]] and [[Mizrahi]] groups only discontinued polygamy much more recently, to the point that the [[State of Israel]] had to make provisions for polygamic families immigrating after its [[1948]] creation. Many Jewish families from countries such as Iran and Yemen were assimilated to the general common culture of a family made up of a man, two or more wives, and their children.
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| − | ====Christian====
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| − | Saint [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] saw a conflict with Old Testament polygamy, and wrote about it in ''The Good of Marriage'' (chapter 15, paragraph 17), where he stated that though it "was lawful among the ancient fathers: whether it be lawful now also, I would not hastily pronounce. For there is not now necessity of begetting children, as there then was, when, even when wives bear children, it was allowed, in order to a more numerous posterity, to marry other wives in addition, which now is certainly not lawful." He declined to judge the patriarchs, but did not deduce from their practice the ongoing acceptability of polygamy. In another place, he wrote, "Now indeed ''in our time'', and ''in keeping with Roman custom'', it is no longer allowed to take another wife, so as to have more than one wife living [emphasis added]."
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| − | Periodically, Christian reform movements that have aimed at rebuilding Christian doctrine based on the Bible alone (''[[sola scriptura]]'') have at least temporarily accepted polygamy as a Biblical practice. During the [[Protestant]] [[Reformation]], [[Martin Luther]] advised [[Philip of Hesse]] that although he found nothing unbiblical about polygamy, he should keep his second marriage a secret to avoid public scandal. The radical [[Anabaptist]]s of [[Münster]] also practiced polygamy, but they had little influence after the defeat of the [[Münster Rebellion]] in [[1535]]. Other Protestant leaders including [[John Calvin]] condemned polygamy, and sanctioned polygamy did not survive long within Protestantism.
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| − | "On February 14, 1650, the parliament at Nürnberg decreed that because so many men were killed during the Thirty Years’ War, the churches for the following ten years could not admit any man under the age of 60 into a monastery. Priests and ministers not bound by any monastery were allowed to marry. Lastly, the decree stated that every man was allowed to marry up to ten women. The men were admonished to behave honorably, provide for their wives properly, and prevent animosity among them." Larry O. Jensen, A Genealogical Handbook of German Research (Rev. Ed., 1980) p. 59 [http://www.familysearch.org/Eng/Search/Rg/images/Ger_BMD_RefDoc_HandbookGermanResearch.pdf].
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| − | The modern trend towards frequent divorce and remarriage is sometimes referred to by conservative Christians as 'serial polygamy'.
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| − | ====Mormonism====
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| − | ''See main articles'': [[Plural marriage]], [[Polygamous Mormon fundamentalists]].
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| − | Early in its history, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] practiced polygamy in the [[United States]] and referred to it as "[[plural marriage]]". Polygamy was not an original part of the Mormon doctrine. As early as 1831, Joseph Smith Jr., the founder and father of the Mormon religion, received a revelation on Celestial marriage, although it was not recorded until 1843.
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| − | When Brigham Young led the church to [[Utah]], he asked the territory to give the Mormons the right to perform their own marriages. This led to the church taking over the territory and the relaxing of their restrictions on polygamy.
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| − | The public revelation of the Church's practice of polygamy led to persecution. Many novelists began to write books and pamphlets condemning polygamy, portraying it as a legalized form of slavery. The outcry against polygamy eventually led to the federal government's involvement and the enacting of anti-polygamy laws. (The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] made the practice illegal in U.S. Territories in [[1862]]). Many members of the Church were sent to [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]] to set up communities free from prosecution; for example, [[Cyril Ogston]] founded [[Seven Persons, Alberta]].
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| − | Although Latter-day Saints believed that their religiously-based practice of plural marriage was protected by the [[United States Constitution]], opponents used it to delay Utah statehood until [[1896]]. Increasingly harsh anti-polygamy legislation penalized Church members, disincorporated the Church, and permitted the seizure of Church property until the Church ordered the discontinuance of the practice in [[1890]]. According to current Mormon doctrine, polygamy is still endorsed in theory (and for the afterlife), just not acceptable for practice in the here and now.
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| − | National attention in the [[United States]] again focused on potential polygamy among the Church in the early [[20th century]] during the House hearings on Representative-elect [[B. H. Roberts]] and Senate hearings on Senator-elect [[Reed Smoot (U. S. Senator)|Reed Smoot]] (the [[Smoot Hearings]]). This caused Church president Joseph F. Smith to issue his "Second Manifesto" against polygamy in [[1904]]. This manifesto clarified that all members of the LDS Church were prohibited from performing or entering into polygamous marriages, no matter what the legal status of such unions was in their respective countries of residence. Since that time, it has been Church policy to excommunicate any member either practicing or openly advocating the practice of polygamy.
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| − | The ban on polygamy resulted in a schism within the Church, with various splinter groups leaving the Church to continue the practice of polygamy. Polygamy among these groups persists today in Utah, neighboring states, and the spin-off colonies, as well as among isolated individuals with no organized church affiliation. Polygamist churches of Mormon origin are called "[[Mormon_fundamentalism|Mormon fundamentalist]]". According to one source, there are as many as 37,000 Mormon fundamentalists, with less than half of them living in polygamous households [http://www.principlevoices.org/article.php?story=20050828124239994]. Most of the polygamy is believed to be restricted to about a dozen extended groups of [[polygamous Mormon fundamentalists]].
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| − | The practice of informal polygamy among these groups presents itself with interesting legal issues. It has been considered difficult to prosecute polygamists partly because they are not formally married under state laws. Without evidence that suspected offenders have multiple formal or common-law marriages, these groups are merely subject to the laws against [[adultery]] or unlawful [[concubinage|cohabitation]]. These laws are not commonly enforced because they also criminalize other behavior that is otherwise socially sanctioned.
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| − | However, some "Fundamentalist" polygamists marry women prior to the [[age of consent]] or commit fraud to obtain [[Welfare (financial aid)|welfare]] and other public assistance. In [[2005]], the state attorneys-general of [[Utah]] and [[Arizona]] issued a [http://www.attorneygeneral.utah.gov/polygamy.html primer] on helping victims of domestic violence and child abuse in "Mormon fundamentalist" polygamous communities. Enforcement of other crimes such as child abuse, domestic violence, and fraud were emphasized over the enforcement of anti-polygamy laws.
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| − | ====Islam====
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| − | Muslim polygamy, in practice and law, differs greatly throughout the Islamic world. In some Muslim countries, polygamy is relatively common, while in most others, it is often rare or non-existent. Polygamy is most widely practiced by Muslims in [[West Africa]] (where it is also widely practiced by non-Muslims), as well as in certain traditionalist [[Arabia]]n states such as [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]]; in the rest of the Muslim world, it is extremely rare, with some countries even banning it. One of the reasons that polygamy is rarely practiced in much of the Muslim world is because you must be very wealthy in order to have multiple wives: each wife must have her own house, car, etc.{{fact}}
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| − | In Muslim countries where polygamy does occur, there are certain core fundamentals found in common among most of them. According to traditional Islamic law, a man may take up to four wives, and each of those wives must have her own property, assets, and dowry. Usually the wives have little to no contact with each other and lead separate, individual lives in their own houses, and sometimes in different cities, though they all share the same husband. Thus, Muslim polygamy is traditionally restricted to wealthy men, and in some countries it is illegal for a man to marry multiple wives if he is unable to afford to take care of each of them properly.
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| − | The Qur'an allows a man to have four wives at any one time. The [[Qur'an]] in verse 4:3 states (English translation by Dr Muhammad Taqi-ul-Din Al Hilali and Dr Muhammad Muhsin Khan):
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| − | :"''And if you fear you shall not be able to deal justly with the orphan girls, then marry (other) women of your choice; 2, 3 or 4, but if you fear you may not be able to deal justly (with them) then only one.''"
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| − | This verse is linked to the preceding verse which relates to a man taking an orphaned girl as his wife. The caregivers of these orphan girls have an unfair advantage (especially during the time during which the Qur'an was revealed) over them if they wish to marry them. As their guardians, they may be tempted to marry them without paying them their full dowries or in order to confiscate their inheritance. This verse is telling these men that if they fear that they cannot deal justly with the orphans whom they wish to marry, then they should marry other women (not orphaned women but free women with guardians and families who can look over and protect their rights). However, the verse could also have another meaning, such as if a person is worried about on not treating fairly orphan(s) that is/are under his care, he could have a wife or wives to delagate the tasks of taking care of them.
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| − | It's important to note the context within which the term 'orphan girls' is being used here. Orphaned girls (that is, orphaned of both mother and father as well as any immediate family to look after them) at the time when the Qur'an was revealed had very low status in society and virtually no recognisable rights, unless a caregiver chose to take them in. The relationship of the caregiver to the orphaned girl would have to satisfy the criteria set out in the Qur'an verses 4:23 and 4:24 as to which women a man is permitted to marry under Islamic law in order for verse 4:3 to be valid.
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| − | Some Muslims, however, believe that polygamy is restricted (e.g. [http://www.answering-christianity.com/polygamy.htm]). They quote the following verse 4:129, (translation by Yusuf Ali):
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| − | :"''Ye are never able to be fair and just as between women, even if it is your ardent desire: But turn not away (from a woman) altogether, so as to leave her (as it were) hanging (in the air). If ye come to a friendly understanding, and practise self-restraint, Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.''"
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| − | This, combined with the requirement for fairness stated in 4:3 and arguments based on its context, has led them to conclude that polygamy is only sanctioned in exceptional circumstances - e.g. when there is a shortage of male adults after a war - and that monogamy is generally preferable. Opponents of this view believe that verse 4:129 does not seek to discourage polygamy, but instead guides the husband on how to treat all of his wives fairly in practice, even though he will not be able to love and feel the same for them (all).
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| − | ==Legal situation==
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| − | Secular law in most [[Western world|western]] countries with large Jewish and Christian populations does not recognise polygamous marriages. However, few such countries have any laws against living a polygamous lifestyle: they simply refuse to give it any official recognition. Parts of the United States, however, criminalise even the polygamous lifestyle; these laws originated as anti-Mormon legislation, although they are rarely enforced. Polygamists may find it harder to obtain legal immigrant status.
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| − | ===Multiple divorce and marriage for polygamy===
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| − | | |
| − | Some polygamous families use a system of multiple divorce and legal marriage as a [[loophole]] in order to avoid committing a criminal act. In such cases the husband marries the first wife, she takes his last name, he divorces her and then marries the next wife, who takes his name. This is repeated until he has married and divorced all his wives, except possibly the last one. This way the wives feel justified in calling themselves Mrs. [husband's last name] and, while legally they're divorced from the husband, they still act as if married to him and expect those around them to acknowledge and respect this.
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| − | Since only one wife is married to the husband at any one time, no law is being broken and so this type of polygamous family unit can be overt about their relationship.
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| − | | |
| − | The conviction of [[Thomas Arthur Green]] in [[2001]] may have made the legal status of such relationships more precarious in Utah, although Green's bigamy convictions were made possible only by his own public statements.
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| − | | |
| − | ===Recent polygamy cases===
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| − | In [[2001]], the state of [[Utah]] in the [[United States]] convicted [[Thomas Arthur Green|Tom Green]] of criminal non-support and four counts of bigamy for having 5 serially monogamous marriages, while living with previous legally divorced wives. His cohabitation was considered evidence of a common-law marriage to the wives he had divorced while still living with them. That premise was subsequently affirmed by the Utah Supreme Court in [http://www.utcourts.gov/opinions/supopin/greeni090304.htm State v. Green], as applicable only in the State of Utah. Green was also convicted of child rape and criminal non-support. In [[2005]], the state attorneys-general of [[Utah]] and [[Arizona]] issued a [http://www.attorneygeneral.utah.gov/polygamy.html primer] on helping victims of domestic violence and child abuse in polygamous communities. These states are emphasizing enforcement of crimes of child abuse, domestic violence, and fraud over the enforcement of the crime of bigamy. The priorities of local prosecutors are not covered by this statement.
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| − | | |
| − | [[Edith Barlow]], a mother of five in the polygamous community of [[Bountiful]], B.C., was denied permanent residence and has been asked to leave the country after ten years in Canada.
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| − | | |
| − | [http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,405025347,00.html Deseret News article about Tom Green]
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| − | [http://www.rickross.com/reference/polygamy/polygamy400.html Salt Lake Tribune article about Edith Barlow]
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| − | | |
| − | ==Current proponents and opponents==
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| − | | |
| − | [[David Friedman]] and [[Steve Sailer]] have argued that polygamy tends to benefit most women and disadvantage most men. Friedman uses this observation to argue in favor of legalizing polygamy, while Sailer uses it to argue against legalizing it.
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| − | | |
| − | The [[Libertarian Party]] supports complete decriminalization of polygamy as part of a general belief that the government should not regulate marriages.
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| − | | |
| − | [[Individualist feminism]] and advocates such as [[Wendy McElroy]] also support the freedom for adults to voluntarily enter polygamous marriages.
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| − | | |
| − | The illegality of polygamy in certain areas creates, according to certain Bible passages, additional arguments against it. [[Paul of Tarsus]] writes "submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also because of conscience" (Romans 13:5), for "the authorities that exist have been established by God." (Romans 13:1) [[St Peter]] concurs when he says to "submit yourselves for the Lord's sake to every authority instituted among men: whether to the king, as the supreme authority, or to governors, who are sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to commend those who do right." (1 Peter 2:13,14) Pro-polygamists argue that, as long as polygamists currently do not obtain legal marriage licenses for additional spouses, no enforced laws are being broken any more than when monogamous couples who similarly co-habitate without a marriage license. The [http://www.biblicalpolygamy.com/exegesis/law-of-the-land/ "Law of the Land"] page at [http://www.biblicalpolygamy.com BiblicalPolygamy.com] provides and addresses more details on that specific issue.
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| − | The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] supports enforcing laws against polygamy.
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| − | | |
| − | The [[Catholic Church]] clearly condemns polygamy; the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'' lists it in paragraph 2387 under the head "Other offenses against the dignity of marriage" and states that it "is not in accord with the moral law." Also in paragraph 1645 under the head "The Goods and Requirements of Conjugal Love" states "The unity of marriage, distinctly recognized by our Lord, is made clear in the equal personal dignity which must be accorded to man and wife in mutual and unreserved affection. Polygamy is contrary to conjugal love which is undivided and exclusive."
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| − | | |
| − | The [[ACLU]] of Utah is [http://www.aclu.org/ReligiousLiberty/ReligiousLiberty.cfm?ID=8318&c=142 opposed to Utah's law against bigamy].
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| − | | |
| − | Those who advocate a [[Federal Marriage Amendment]] to prohibit [[same-sex marriage]] generally word their proposed laws to also prohibit polygamy.
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| − | | |
| − | [[United States]] Senator [[Rick Santorum]] [[Santorum controversy|opposes polygamy]], comparing it to sodomy and adultery.
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| − | | |
| − | [[Robert A. Heinlein]] was a [[science fiction]] writer who discussed polygyny, polyandry, group marriage, and line marriage in his works.
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| − | | |
| − | [[Christian vegetarian]] activist and leader [[Nathan Braun]] implies a positive stance towards polygamy in the fourth edition of ''The History and Philosophy of Marriage'' (originally published, anonymously, by [[James Campbell]] in 1869).
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| − | | |
| − | ==How polygamists find more spouses==
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| − | Those who live in their own communities tend to find their additional spouses from within their own communities or networks of like-communities. Those who are geographically separated from other polygamists in their culture use other means to find additional spouses. Some polygamists from all groups use the Internet to find additional spouses.
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| − | | |
| − | ===Mormon fundamentalists - aggregate in communities===
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| − | | |
| − | Mormon fundamentalists (who are not associated with the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]) continue to practice polygamy today, more than 100 years after the LDS Church discontinued the practice. These fundamentalists practice polygamy by tending to aggregate in communities where they all commonly share their own specific religious basis for polygamy. Notable polygamous communities (with over 500 residents) are:
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| − | * [[Bountiful, British Columbia]]
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| − | * [[Centennial Park, Arizona]]
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| − | * [[Colorado City, Arizona]]
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| − | * [[Hilldale, Utah]]
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| − | * [[Ozumba, Mexico]]
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| − | * [[Pinesdale, Montana]]
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| − | * [[Rocky Ridge, Utah]]
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| − | | |
| − | ===Muslims & traditionalist cultures===
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| − | | |
| − | Polygamy, and laws concerning polygamy, differ greatly throughout the Islamic world and form a very complex and diverse background from nation to nation. Whereas in some Muslim countries it may be fairly common, in most others it is often rare or non-existent. However, there are certain core fundamentals which are found in most Muslim countries where the practice occurs. According to traditional Islamic law, a man may take up to four wives, and each of those wives must have her own property, assets, and dowry. Usually the wives have little to no contact with each other and lead separate, individual lives in their own houses, and sometimes in different cities, though they all share the same husband. Thus, polygamy is traditionally restricted to men who can manage things, and in some countries it is illegal for a man to marry multiple wives if he is unable to afford to take care of each of them properly.
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| − | | |
| − | In the modern Islamic world, polygamy is mainly found in traditionalist Arab cultures, [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] for instance, whereas in secular Arab states like [[Lebanon]] and non-Arab Muslim countries, [[Turkey]] and [[Malaysia]] for example, it is either extremely rare or even banned outright. In traditionalist cultures where polygamy is still commonplace and legal, Muslim polygamists do not separate themselves from the society at large, since there would be no need as each spouse leads a separate life from the others.
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| − | ===On the Internet - polygamy personals===
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| − | When it comes to seeking polygamous family situations via the internet, the options are very limited.
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| − | | |
| − | For polyandrists, there are no web-sites dedicated to providing ads for single men seeking polyandry or even for polyandrous families seeking such single men. The only online opportunities for such ads would likely be found on [[polyamory]] sites such as [http://www.PolyMatchMaker.com PolyMatchMaker.com].
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| − | | |
| − | However, the very different kinds of relationship-seekers who would advertise on such [[polyamory]] sites involve additional issues with which most polygynists would never be interested in nor comfortable with being associated. Mormon, Muslim, and Christian polygamists are all exclusively polygyny-based, and all typically do not involve bisexual issues. Even most secular polygamists tend to be polygynists too.
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| − | | |
| − | A handful of polygamy web-sites have attempted to offer such "polygamy personals" for polygynists. But such sites accomplish very little because they always lack the most sought-after individuals: single women who are actually and currently interested in marrying polygynously. One site, [http://www.2Wives.com 2Wives.com - Polygamy Personals], has actually ever been able to put a functioning system in place to provide such current ads of such real women.
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| − | | |
| − | Another site offers a free, moderated chatroom link available to individuals interested in polygyny: [http://www.polygamyfamilychat.com] It focuses on family and the dignity of polygynous women in a non-denominational and secular setting. This site also provides links to other polygyny web sites. This site appears to be gaining popularity.
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| − | | |
| − | ==Polygamy in fiction==
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| − | A number of writers have expressed their views on polygamy by writing about a fictional world in which it is the most common type of relationship. These worlds tend to be [[utopian]] or [[dystopian]] in nature. For instance, [[Robert A. Heinlein]] uses this theme in a number of novels, such as [[Stranger in a Strange Land]].
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| − | | |
| − | Polygamy is practiced by the Fremen in [[Frank Herbert]]'s Dune as a means to pinpoint male infertility. It is socially accepted as long as the man provides for all wives equally. Cultures described within the [[Dune]] novel series have intentional similarities to Islamic, Arabic, and other cultures.
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| − | | |
| − | Similarly, the [[Aiel]] society in [[Robert Jordan]]'s [[The Wheel of Time|Wheel of Time]] series practice a form of polygamy, in which multiple women may marry the same man; in that fictional culture, women are the ones who propose marriage.
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| − | | |
| − | [[Sheri Tepper]] uses an extreme portrayal of Mormon polygamy in her book, '[[The Gate to Women's Country]]'. The novel is set in the future, after major calamities and atomic warfare, where a group of Mormons are left to develop as a community. The women of this group are portrayed as sex slaves who also do cooking and laundry.
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| − | | |
| − | Noted libertarian author [[L. Neil Smith]] included a character married to two sisters in his book [[The American Zone]]. The dominant culture in the novel sees one's religion and personal living accommodations as no one else's business, and "acts of capitalism between consenting adults" as the norm instead of something immoral.
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| − | | |
| − | [[A Home at the End of the World]] is a novel and film about a polyandrous family. It explores issues of homosexuality and families.
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| − | | |
| − | In the [[Sci-Fi]] [[Star Trek]] television series [[Star Trek: Enterprise|Enterprise]], the ship's physician, [[Dr. Phlox]] (who is a Denobulan) has three wives, and each of his three wives have three husbands (including Dr. Phlox) of their own. One of Phlox's wives seemed to be interested in having extramarital relations with a Human, to which Phlox himself did not oppose, and even encouraged it.
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| − | | |
| − | In the [[Sci-Fi]] television series [[Babylon 5]] the Centauris allow for men to have more than one wife.
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| − | | |
| − | In [[Star Wars]] [[Expanded Universe]], it is explained that [[List of Star Wars races#cerean|Cereans]] (like [[Ki-Adi-Mundi]]) have a much higher birth-rate of girls than boys. Thus, every male Cerean must have one wife and multiple "honor wives", to increase the chance of giving birth to another male. Jedi Cerean Ki-Adi-Mundi was allowed to marry multiple times, although Jedis were not supposed to marry at his time; but Ki-Adi-Mundi got a dispense of that norm.
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| − | | |
| − | ==See also==
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| − | *[[Polygyny]]
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| − | *[[Polyandry]]
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| − | *[[Marriage]]
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| − | *[[Polyamory]]
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| − | *[[Poly relationship]]
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| − | | |
| − | ==Bibliography==
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| − | *{{Book reference | Author=Cairncross, John | Title=After Polygamy Was Made a Sin: The Social History of Christian Polygamy | Publisher=London: Routledge & Kegan Paul | Year=1974 | ID=ISBN 0710077300}}
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| − | *{{Web reference | author=Campbell, James | title=The History and Philosophy of Marriage | publisher=First published in Boston | publishyear=1869 | work=Re-published online at TruthBearer.org | url=http://www.truthbearer.org/books/history-and-philosophy-of-marriage/ | date=August 5 | year=2005 }}
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| − | *{{Book reference | Author=Chapman, Samuel A. | Title=Polygamy, Bigamy and Human Rights Law | Publisher=Xlibris Corp | Year=2001 | ID=ISBN 1401012442}}
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| − | *{{Book reference | Author=Hillman, Eugene | Title=Polygamy Reconsidered: African Plural Marriage and the Christian Churches | Publisher=New York: Orbis Books | ID=ISBN 0883443910}}
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| − | *{{Book reference | Author=Van Wagoner, Richard S. | Title=[http://www.signaturebooks.com/excerpts/mp.htm Mormon Polygamy: A History] (2nd edition) | Year=1975 | Year=1992 | Publisher=Utah: Signature Books | ID=ISBN 0941214796}}
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| − | *{{Book reference | First = E. O. | Last = Wilson | Authorlink=E. O. Wilson | Title=Sociobiology: The New Synthesis | Publisher=Harvard Univ Pr | Year=2000 | ID=ISBN 0674002350}}
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| − | | |
| − | ==External links==
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| − | | |
| − | ====General====
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| − | *[http://www.pro-polygamy.com Pro-Polygamy.com] - Provides op-eds and press releases on polygamy-related current events for the secular mass media
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| − | *[http://www.anti-polygamy.org Anti-Polygamy.org] - A pro-polygamy website that analyzes anti-polygamy rhetoric and arguments.
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| − | *[http://www.anti-polygamy.com Anti-Polygamy.com] - A discussion forum for both sides of the anti-polygamy debate.
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| − | | |
| − | ====Christian polygamy====
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| − | * [http://www.christianpolygamy.info/ Christian Polygamy Info] - Presents definitions and the [http://www.christianpolygamy.info/history/ history] of the new, modern social [http://www.christianpolygamy.info/movement/ movement] which has [http://www.christianpolygamy.info/christian-polygamy-is-not-mormon-polygamy/ no connection to Mormon polygamy.]
| |
| − | * [http://www.truthbearer.org TruthBearer.org — Organization for Christian polygamy] Provides activists with teachings, resources, support, and [http://www.truthbearer.org/media/ media interviews]
| |
| − | * [http://www.biblicalpolygamy.com Biblical Polygamy] - Presents biblical exegesis of arguments to support polygamy and lists out all the polygamists in the [[Bible]]
| |
| − | [http://www.samchapman.f2s.com/polygamy.htm A defence of Christian polygamy] - discusses and answers objections many Christians have to polygamy with cited evidence in the [[Bible]]
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| − | [http://www.polygamy.net/ Another defense of Christian polygamy]
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| − | | |
| − | ====Mormon polygamy====
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| − | * [http://www.childbrides.org Hope for the Child Brides] - non-profit organization in St. George, Utah, that offers assistance to any victims of abuse who live in specific Mormon polygamous communities where underage marriage occurs
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| − | * [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/essays/mormonpolygamy.htm Mormon Polygamy] - A study of the four major periods of Mormon Polygamy
| |
| − | * [http://www.mormonpolygamy.com MormonPolygamy.com] - A group of Mormon women in Utah called "Principle Voices of Polygamy" who advocate and defend consensual, adult Mormon polygamy
| |
| − | * [http://www.polygamy.org Tapestry Against Polygamy] A group of ex-Mormon fundamentalist polygamous wives in Salt Lake City, Utah, who offer insight and assistance for anyone seeking to leave specific Mormon polygamous communities
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| − | | |
| − | ====Muslim polygamy====
| |
| − | * [http://www.answering-christianity.com/polygamy.htm When is polygamy allowed in Islam?] - from a [[Muslim]] point of view
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| − | | |
| − | ====Jewish polygamy====
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| − | * [http://polygamy.com/Jewish/index.htm Jewish Polygamy]
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| − | {{Credit1|Polyandry||}} | |
Draupadi with her five husbands.
In social anthropology and biology, polyandry (Greek: poly many, andros man) is the situation of a female forming a stable sexual union with more than one male. Polyandry is the specific form of polygamy in which a woman is married to more than one husband simultaneously. On the other hand, polygyny is when a man has multiple wives, which is the more common form of polygamy. The form of polyandry in which two (or more) brothers marry the same woman is known as "fraternal polyandry," and is the most frequently encountered form.
Human polyandry is extremely rare, being found in very few societies historically. It is probable that such occurrences were in response to particular circumstances, such as lack of marriageable women in a society or the need for multiple fathers to assist in the work of feeding and protecting the children, rather than a societal norm. Under more normal conditions, there are sufficient women for all the men in a society to have their own spouse.
Polyandry in nature
In sociobiology, polyandry refers to a mating system in which one female forms more or less permanent bonds to more than one male. It is the converse of polygyny in which a single male mates with many females.
Polyandry in nature can take two different forms. In one, typified by the Northern Jacana and some other ground-living birds, the female takes on much the same role traditionally seen in the male in a polygynous species. She holds a large territory within which several males build nests, lays eggs in all the nests, and plays little part in parental care. In the other form, typified by the Galápagos Hawk, a group of two or more males (which may or may not be related) and one female collectively care for a single nest. Polyandry with shared parental care is more likely in very difficult environments, where the efforts of more than two parents are needed to give a reasonable chance of rearing young successfully.
Polyandry occurs in some primates, such as marmosets, other mammal groups, for example the marsupial mouse species antecchinus, some bird species, such as superb fairy wrens, and insects such as the field cricket gryllus bimaculatus of the invertebrate order orthoptera (containing crickets, grasshoppers, and groundhoppers). Females in this species will mate with any male close to them, including siblings.
The queen bee is usually the only female bee within a hive reproducing with drones, which often come from various hives. She mothers most or all offspring within a given hive.
Honeybees are said to be polyandrous because a queen typically mates with multiple males, even though mating is the only interaction that they have. The males subsequently die, and the queen stores the sperm to fertilize her eggs. The female domestic housecat exhibits a similar pattern of behavior, mating with multiple males, with her eggs fertilized by multiple partners in any one litter. The males often have nothing more to do with their mate afterwards, and are not involved in the care of the newborn.
Polyandry appears to be the dominant social structure in a subfamily of New World monkeys called callitrichids, which include tamarins, marmosets, and other monkeys. They often live in groups that may contain more than one female, with the dominant female suppressing ovulation in subordinates, causing her to be the only one capable of reproduction. A Callimico female regularly births more than one offspring, and her eggs are separately fertilized by more than one male. Paternal investment is high in Callimicos, and males often carry infants on their backs, even when they are not the father. It has been suggested that multiple male mates are related, and therefore cooperation in caring for each other's young is adaptive. However, researchers that tagged and tracked Callimicos over time noticed that unrelated males migrated to new groups to cooperate with non-relatives as well as with relatives to care for young. It has also been suggested that females select cooperative males, and that the multiple offspring of Callimicos require paternal care for survival.
Generally, however, polyandry in primates and other mammals is very rare and usually correlated with reduced or reverse sexual dimorphism. When males of a species are much larger than females, polygyny is usually practiced. As size difference decreases, or the females are larger than males, a species is more likely to practice monogamy or polyandry. The non-human great apes (gorillas, orangutans, and chimpanzees) are highly dimorphic and practice polygyny. Male and female gibbons (lesser apes) are similar in size and form monogamous pairs.
Human occurrence
Did you know?
Polyandry, the form of
polygamy in which a woman is married to more than one husband, is the least frequent form of
marriage in human society
Human men and women are less dimorphic in body size than the polygynous great apes, and are usually monogamous, although a significant amount of polygyny has been observed (Murdock 1981).
Polyandry is the least frequent system of marriage, or stable sexual relationships, within human society. George Peter Murdock’s World Ethnographic Sample (Coult 1965) recorded only four societies where polyandry is practiced, less than one percent of the total number of societies in the world. Most commonly practiced between brothers, it is called fraternal polyandry. If the men are not related, it is non-fraternal polyandry.
Polyandry in Religion
Islam bans polyandry completely. A woman may not have more than one husband. However, polygyny is allowed for men, permitting marriage to as many as four wives as long as they are able take care of them and love them equally.
Both Judaism and Christianity prohibit polyandry, although polygamy known as "plural marriage," primarily polygny but sometimes polyandry, was practiced to a limited degree in early Mormonism.
There is at least one reference to polyandry in the Hindu epic, Mahabharata. Draupadi marries the five Pandava brothers. This ancient text remains largely neutral to the general concept of polyandry, however, merely accepting this as her way of life.
In the rare instances where polyandry has been observed by anthropologists, it seems to be more driven by local unique concerns than religious beliefs.
Polyandrous societies
In Tibet, which is the most well-documented cultural domain within which polyandry is practiced, the Toda practiced fraternal polyandry. There is no distinction in paternity with all children being treated the same. Toda say this limits the number of children in a harsh area, and helps to avoid disputes over inheritance of property. The Toda are also known to have practiced female infanticide, limiting the number of available females. However, the testimony of certain polyandrists themselves is that this marriage form is difficult to sustain. In Tibet, polyandry has been outlawed, and it is extremely rare to see them replicate polyandrous relationships in the refugee camps in India where many fled after the Chinese took over Tibet in 1950.
Perhaps the next best documented society that had polyandry was the Sinhalese in Sri Lanka. They euphemistically referred to the practice as eka-ge-kema or "eating in one house." The practice is no longer legal, although it is possible that it may still survive in some remote areas. It did not occur in the Aryan tribes in the Vedic age, but only among the non-Aryan or Pandavas. The earliest documentation is of a queen of the region in the fourteenth century, where we find her calling herself the chief consort of the two brother kings named Perakumba. Every aspect that is recorded is remarkably similar to the better known Tibetan form of polyandry. These people are related to tribes in the area inhabited by the Toda, and they are documented as having arrived from the north, so it is possible that the practice was brought from there.
Controversy
Among anthropologists, polyandry is a controversial subject. It is extremely rare, and so it is very hard to be studied and understood with any statistical reliability. In many parts of the world, most traditional societies have been drastically altered or destroyed, and so the incidence of polyandry in the past may not be accurately known.
Studies (Beckerman and Valentine 2002) have revealed that at least 20 Amazonian tribal societies accept that a child could, and ideally should, have more than one father. Members of these societies believe that all men who had a sexual relationship with a woman during her pregnancy contributed to the formation of her baby. This concept of "partible paternity" ensures that each child will be born with several fathers to take responsibility for the child, increasing their chances of survival.
Prince Peter of Greece (1963), who studied information on the polyandry of the Kandyan Sinhalese, the Kerala Tiyyans, and the Tibetans, concluded that there existed a greater unity and solidarity of sibling groups among those practicing fraternal polyandry. He also emphasized the economic function of polyandry which intensified this unity and solidarity.
In retrospect, it must be considered that these situations represent very unique situations, and these benefits are marginal at best. The potential harm seems much greater, as disputes over paternity and social disorder are some of the strongest arguments modern society has brought to bear on the issue.
References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Beckerman, Stephen and Paul Valentine, eds. 2002. Cultures of Multiple Fathers: The Theory and Practice of Partible Paternity in Lowland South America. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0813024560
- Coult, Allan D. 1965. Cross Tabulations of Murdock's World Ethnographic Sample. University of Missouri. ASIN B0007DESIU
- Ember, Carol R. and Melvin Ember. 2004. Cultural Anthropology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131116363
- Hussein, Asiff. 'Eka-ge-kema':Fraternal polyandry among the olden-day Sinhalese WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka. Retrieved December 15, 2007.
- Murdock, George P. 1967. Ethnographic Atlas. Pittsburgh, PA: The University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0822931140
- Murdock, George P. 1981. Atlas of World Cultures. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0822934329
- Peter, Prince of Greece. 1963. A Study of Polyandry, The Hague, Mouton. OCLC 804468
- Why does Islam not Allow Polyandry? Retrieved December 15, 2007.
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