Manchu invasion of Korea
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 History of Korea
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Jeulmun Period
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First Manchu Invasion of Korea
The First Manchu invasion of Korea occurred in 1627, when Hong Taiji led the Manchu army against Korea's Joseon dynasty. It was followed by the Second Manchu invasion of Korea.
Background
Joseon helped Ming China with 10,000 soldiers when she attacked Manchus' Later Jin under Nurhaci in 1619, but Korean General Gang Hong-rip surrendered to Nurhaci. Gang insisted that Korea did not hold anything against the Manchus and that she sent reinforcements only to repay an obligation to Ming. Nurhaci and his son Daišan were not interested in conquering Korea either. This antiwar policy lasted until Nurhaci's death.
In Korea the Westerners faction deposed the realist king Gwanghaegun and installed King Injo in 1623. This faction took explicit pro-Ming, anti-Manchu policies. In addition, Ming Mobile Corps Commander Mao Wenlong engaged in guerrilla warfare, based in an island off Korean peninsula.
The first Manchu expedition was triggered by Yi Gwal's rebellion against King Injo in 1624. The revolt was soon crushed but remnants fled to Manchuria. They recommended Hong Taiji to invade Korea.
War
In 1627, Huang Taiji dispatched Amin, Jirgalang, Ajige and Yoto to Korea guided by Gang Hong-rip and other Koreans. The Korean army was ill-prepared for defence against Manchu one, still not recovered from Seven-Year War against Japan. The Manchus managed to march deep within Korean territory. They also defeated Mao Wenlong's troops but failed to capture the commander. When the Manchus advanced southward to Hwangju, King Injo fled from Hanseong (Seoul) to Ganghwa Island in panic.
Despite the dominant situation, the Manchus pushed peace negotiations, probably because Hong Taiji was concerned about the home defence. They offered peace to Korea, which was soon accepted, despite the opposition of some anti-Manchu statesmen who failed to appreciate the strong position of Manchus. The following settlement was agreed upon in Ganghwa Island:
- Korea abandons the Ming era name Tianqi (天啓).
- Korea offers Yi Gak as a hostage as a substitute for a royal prince.
- (Later) Jin and Korea will not violate each other's territory.
In the meantime, Amin in Pyongyang looted the city for days, before he was ordered by Hang Taji to sign the peace agreement. This agreement was more favorable to the Manchus. After the four month expedition, the Manchu army withdrew to Mukden.
Aftermath
The two sides conducted postwar negotiations. The Manchus forced Korea to open markets near the borders because the long conflict with Ming brought economic hardship to the Manchus. Korea also returned the Warka tribe to Later Jin. The Manchus regularly exacted tribute from Korea.
The relationship between Joseon and Later Jin remained uncomfortable and bleak. While the first invasion was not as catastrophic to Korea as the second one in nine years time would be, it was bitterly resented by confucian statesmen and scholars who believed that it was treacherous for Korea to abandon Ming China after the Chinese assistance against Japan during Seven-Year war. This resentment was ignited when Manchus demanded to change the terms of diplomatic relationship from equality to Surezainity-Tributary relationship in 1636. Korean Court, dominated by anti-Manchu hawks, rejected the demand. This led to the second Manchu invasion of Korea in 1636.
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Second Manchu Invasion of Korea
The second Manchu invasion of Korea occurred in 1637, when the Manchu Qing Empire brought Korea's Joseon dynasty into submission. It followed the first Manchu invasion of Korea of 1627.
Background
After the first invasion, the Joseon Dynasty continued to defy the Manchus. Trade was in bad condition and Korea did not return fugitives from Later Jin. In addition, Korea took a defiant attitude when Hong Taiji declared the new dynasty of Qing. Korean delegates refused to kowtow to Hong Taiji at the ceremony and threw away the diplomatic correspondence where Hong Taiji was referred to as the emperor. The Manchu delegates Inggūldai and Mafuta got a cold reception in Hanseong (Seoul) where Korean soldiers stood in the shadow. The delegates were shocked and fled back to Qing.
The Korean court was dominated by the pro-war party. However, they did not enhance military power. In addition, a warlike message to Pyong'ando was carelessly seized by Inggūldai.
War
In the winter, Hong Taiji himself led Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese Banners and Mongol army of 120,000 to Korea. Dodo, leading the vanguard, rushed to Hanseong to prevent King Injo from fleeing to Ganghwa Island as Korean kings traditionally did. Failing to escape to the island, the king took refuge in the Namhansan fortress, which was immediately besieged by the Manchu army. The Korean army in the fortress suffered from scarcity of food and ammunition. While Korean officials had unrealistic debates, Dorgon occupied Ganghwa Island in a day and captured the second son and consorts of King Injo. As the siege continued, the scarcity of food worsened. Also, the strategic situation worsened, as several attempts by Korean forces from regions to break the siege was foiled and charge from the fortress yielded no success. This desperate situation forced Injo to make his submission. King Injo yielded up three pro-war officers to Qing, as well as agreeing to the terms of peace:
- Korea becomes a tributary of the Qing Dynasty.
- Korea breaks away with the suzerain Ming.
- Korea offers the first and second sons of King Injo, and sons or brothers of ministers as hostages.
- Korea pays tribute to Qing as she has done to Ming.
- Korea will serve in the war against Ming.
- Korea offers army and ships to attack an island.
- Qing does not allow Korea to build castles without restraint.
- Qing allows Korea to trade with Japan.
Hong Taiji set up a platform in Samjeondo—the upper reach of the Han River. At the top of the platform he accepted King Injo's submission. King Injo kowtowed to Hong Taiji, who allegedly forced Injo to repeat the humiliating ritual many times.
Aftermath
Northern and middle Korea was devastated by war. Although the Manchu army was strict in discipline, the Mongol soldiers plundered cities.
In accordance with the terms of surrender, Korea sent troops to attack Pi Island at the mouth of the Yalu River.
Hong Taiji ordered Korea to put up a monument in honor of the so-called excellent virtues of the Manchu Emperor. In 1639 the monument was erected at Samjeondo, where the ceremony of submission had been conducted.
Korea continued to take a defiant attitude, although privately, to the Qing Dynasty while she officially yielded obedience as they considered Manchus uncivilised barbarians. Korean scholars secretly used Ming's era name even after her collapse. They thought that Korea should be the legitimate successor of Ming civilization instead of "barbaric" Qing. King Hyojong, who lived as a hostage for seven years in Mukden and who succeeded Injo, planned a possibly unrealistic expedition to Qing called Bukbeol (北伐) during his ten years of reign, though his death on the eve of expedition curbed the plan.
Beginning in 1639 and until 1894, the Korean court trained a corps of professional Korean-Manchu translators. These replaced earlier interpreters of Jurchen, who had been trained using the Jurchen script. The official designation was changed from "Jurchen" to "Manchu" in 1667. The first textbooks for this purpose were drawn up by Sin Gye-am, who had also been an interpreter of Jurchen and transliterated old Jurchen textbooks for the purpose.
Until 1894, Korea remained a tributary of Qing China, even though the influence of Manchus decreased from late 18th Century as Joseon Dynasty began to prosper once again and Qing China began to decline. The official severance of relationship did not come until 1895, when Japan forced Qing China after the First Sino-Japanese War to acknowledge the full independence of Korea, in an attempt to implement their plan to exploit and eventually invade Korea in 20th Century.
See also
- List of Korea-related topics
- History of Korea
- Yeongeunmun Gate
- Samjeondo Monument
- Independence Gate
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