Difference between revisions of "Journey to the West" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{infobox Book | <!-- See [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Novels]] or [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Books]] —>
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[[Image:JourneytotheWest.jpg|thumb|320px|right|The four heroes of the story, left to right: Sūn Wùkōng, Xuánzàng, Zhū Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng.]]
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| name = Journey to the West
 
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| title_orig = 西遊記
 
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| translator = many
 
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| author = [[Wu Cheng'en|Wú Chéng'ēn]]
 
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| country = China
 
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| language = Chinese
 
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| publisher = many
 
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| release_date = 1590s
 
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| media_type = Print ()
 
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| isbn = ISBN
 
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[[Image:JourneytotheWest.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The four heroes of the story, left to right: Sūn Wùkōng, Xuánzàng, Zhū Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng.]]
 
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[[Image:Evl53201b pic.jpg|thumb|150px|right|A block print of ''Journey to the West'', Chinese, 16th century.]]
 
  
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'''''Journey to the West''''' ([[Traditional Chinese character|Traditional Chinese]]: 西遊記; [[Simplified Chinese character|Simplified Chinese]]: 西游记; [[Hanyu Pinyin]]: ''Xīyóu-jì''; [[Wade-Giles]]: ''Hsiyu-chi'') is one of the [[Four Great Classical Novels]] of [[Chinese literature]]. Originally published anonymously in the 1590s during the [[Ming Dynasty]], and even though no direct evidence of its authorship survives, it is ascribed to the scholar [[Wu Cheng'en|Wú Chéng'ēn]] since the [[20th century]].
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'''''Journey to the West''''' ([[Traditional Chinese character|Traditional Chinese]]: 西遊記; [[Simplified Chinese character|Simplified Chinese]]: 西游记; [[Hanyu Pinyin]]: ''Xīyóu-jì''; [[Wade-Giles]]: ''Hsiyu-chi'') is one of the [[Four Great Classical Novels]] of [[Chinese literature]]. It was originally published anonymously in the 1590s during the [[Ming Dynasty]], but since the twentieth century, it has been ascribed to the scholar [[Wu Cheng'en|Wú Chéng'ēn]] (1506? – 1582?).
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{{toc}}
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The novel tells the entertaining story of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk [[Xuanzang|Xuánzàng]] and his three disciples, [[Sun Wukong|Sūn Wùkōng]] (Monkey), [[Zhu Bajie|Zhū Bājiè]] (Eight-Precept Pig)and [[Sha Wujing|Shā Wùjìng]] (Friar Sand), who set out on an arduous pilgrimage to [[India]], where they receive Buddhist scriptures to bring back to [[China]]. During the journey they undergo 81 adventures, usually involving Xuánzàng being captured or threatened by some kind of monster and rescued by his disciples. The story is based on the real-life adventures of the seventh-century monk Xuánzàng and the folklore and literature surrounding him. A spiritual allegory, the story is steeped in Chinese folk religion and Buddhist and [[Daoism|Daoist]] morality; it is also a humorous [[satire]] of Chinese society and bureaucracy at the time. English translations have been published as “Monkey” and “Journey to the West.” 
  
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The tale is also often known simply as '''''[[Monkey (book)|Monkey]]'''''. This was one title used for a popular, abridged translation by [[Arthur Waley]]; as well as being the title of the [[Monkey (TV series)|Japanese TV series]] based on the story. The Waley translation has also been published as '''''Adventures of the Monkey God'''''; and '''''Monkey: [A] Folk Novel of China'''''; and '''''The Adventures of Monkey'''''.
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== Introduction==
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The novel is a [[fiction]]alized account of the legends around the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk [[Xuanzang|Xuánzàng's]] [[pilgrimage]] to [[India]] during the [[Tang dynasty|Táng dynasty]] in order to obtain Buddhist religious texts called [[sutras]]. The [[Bodhisattva]] [[Kuan Yin|Guānyīn]], on instruction from the [[Buddha]], gives this task to the monk and his three protectors in the form of disciples — namely [[Sun Wukong|Sūn Wùkōng]], [[Zhu Bajie|Zhū Bājiè]] and [[Sha Wujing|Shā Wùjìng]] — together with a dragon prince who acts as Xuánzàng's horse mount. These four characters have agreed to help Xuánzàng as an atonement for past sins.  
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[[Image:Evl53201b pic.jpg|thumb|140px|right|A block print of ''Journey to the West'', Chinese, sixteenth century.]]
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''Journey to the West'' (Xiyou-ji) is one of the [[Four Great Classical Novels]] of [[Chinese literature]]. It was originally published anonymously in the 1590s during the [[Ming Dynasty]]. There is no surviving direct evidence of its authorship, but since the twentieth century, it has been ascribed to the scholar [[Wu Cheng'en|Wú Chéng'ēn]] (1506? – 1582?).  
  
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Some scholars propose that the book [[satire|satirises]] the [[wikt:effete|effete]]-ness of the Chinese government at the time. ''Journey to the West'' has a strong background in [[Chinese folk religion]], [[Chinese mythology]] and value systems; the pantheon of [[Taoism|Taoist]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] deities is still reflective of Chinese folk religious beliefs today.
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In the novel, [[Buddha]] instructs the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Kuan Yin|Guānyīn]] to search [[Tang dynasty|Táng]] China for someone to bring the Buddhist [[sutra]]s to the East. The Guānyīn, gives this task to the monk Xuánzàng and his three disciples, who undertake an arduous journey to the West, involving 81 adventures. ''Journey to the West'' has a strong background in [[Chinese folk religion]], [[Chinese mythology]] and value systems; the pantheon of [[Taoism|Taoist]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] deities reflects belief that are still current in modern Chinese folk religion.  
  
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Part of the novel's enduring popularity comes from the fact that it works on multiple levels: it is a first-rate adventure story, a dispenser of spiritual insight, and an extended [[allegory]] in which the group of pilgrims journeying toward India stands for the individual journeying toward [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]].
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The novel is an entertaining adventure story, conveying moral lessons and spiritual insights, and an extended spiritual [[allegory]] in which the group of pilgrims journeying towards India represents for the individual’s journey towards [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. It is also a humorous satire of Chinese society and Chinese [[bureaucracy]].
  
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==Historical Context==
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[[Image:Great Goose Pagoda Day 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|The Big Wild Goose Pagoda of Xī'ān, China. The [[Big Wild Goose Pagoda]] in [[Xi'an|Xī'ān]], [[Shaanxi|Shǎnxī]] Province, China, was both the starting and ending point of this epic journey. A statue of Xuánzàng can be seen near the right of this panorama. ]]
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''Journey to the West'' is a [[fiction]]alized account of the legends surrounding the 16-year pilgrimage of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk [[Xuanzang|Xuánzàng]] (602–664)  to [[India]] during the [[Tang dynasty|Táng dynasty]], to obtain Buddhist religious texts (sutras). Xuánzàng reached India after experiencing innumerable trials and hardships. He lived there for more than a decade, studying classics of Buddhism and Indian culture at [[Nalanda University]], then returned to China, bringing with him copies of many classic Buddhist texts which contributed significantly to the promotion of Buddhism in China. Upon his return to China, he presented the emperor with a detailed account of his travels, "[[Journey to the West in the Great Tang Dynasty]]" (大唐西域記, Ta-T'ang Hsi-yü-chi).
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The story of his pilgrimage was already part of Chinese folklore, poetry, and drama when Wu Ch’eng wrote it as a long and satirical novel. In those earlier versions, dating as far back as the [[Southern Song]] dynasty, a monkey character was already a primary protagonist. It is believed that this character originated from Xuánzàng's accounts of [[Hanuman]], the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] monkey god from the ancient [[Ramayana]] epic. Elements of the Monkey legend were already evident in folklore and literature during the [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] and early [[Ming Dynasty|Ming Dynasties]].
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==Synopsis==
 
==Synopsis==
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The novel comprises 100 chapters. These can be divided into four very unequal parts.  The first, which includes chapters 1–7, is really a self-contained [[prequel]] to the main body of the story.  It deals entirely with the earlier exploits of Sūn Wùkōng, a monkey born from stone who learns the art of fighting and secrets of immortality, and through guile and force makes a name for himself as the ''Qítiān Dàshèng'' ({{zh-st|s=齐天大圣|t=齊天大聖}}), or "Great Sage Equal to Heaven." His powers grow to match the forces of all of the Eastern (Taoist) deities, and the prologue culminates in Sūn's rebellion against Heaven, during a time when he garnered a post in the celestial bureaucracy. [[Hubris]] proves his downfall when the [[Buddha]] manages to trap him under a mountain for five hundred years.
 
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[[Image:Journey.jpg|thumb|150px|left|18th century Chinese illustration of a scene from ''Journey to the West'']]
 
 
[[Image:Xyj-sunwukong.jpg|thumb|200px|An illustrated edition of the story]]
 
[[Image:Xyj-sunwukong.jpg|thumb|200px|An illustrated edition of the story]]
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The novel comprises 100 chapters, which can be divided into three major sections. The first, which includes chapters 1–7, is really a self-contained [[prequel]] to the main body of the story. It deals entirely with the earlier exploits of Sūn Wùkōng, a monkey born from a stone egg, who learns the art of fighting and secrets of immortality, and through guile and force makes a name for himself as the ''Qítiān Dàshèng'' ({{zh-st|s=齐天大圣|t=齊天大聖}}), or "Great Sage Equal to Heaven." His powers grow to match the forces of all of the Eastern ([[Taoism|Taoist]]) deities, and the prologue culminates in Sūn's rebellion against Heaven, at a time when he occupies a post in the celestial [[bureaucracy]]. [[Hubris]] proves his downfall when the [[Buddha]] manages to trap him under a mountain for 500 years.
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[[Image:Journey.jpg|thumb|200px|18th century Chinese illustration of a scene from ''Journey to the West'']]
  
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Only following this introductory story is the nominal main character, Xuánzàng, introduced. Chapters 8–12 provide his early biography and the background to his great journey. Dismayed that "the land of the South knows only greed, hedonism, promiscuity, and sins," the Buddha instructs the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Kuan Yin|Guānyīn]] to search [[Tang dynasty|Táng]] China for someone to take the Buddhist sutras of "transcendence and persuasion for good will" back to the East. Part of the story here also relates to how Xuánzàng becomes a monk (as well as revealing his past life as the "Golden [[Cicada]]" and comes about being sent on this pilgrimage by the [[emperor of China|Emperor]] Táng [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Tàizōng]], who previously escaped death with the help of an underworld official).
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Following this introduction, the nominal main character, Xuánzàng, is introduced. Chapters 8–12 provide his early biography and the background to his great journey. Dismayed that "the land of the South knows only greed, hedonism, promiscuity, and sins," the Buddha instructs the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Kuan Yin|Guānyīn]] to search [[Tang dynasty|Táng]] China for someone to bring the Buddhist sutras of "transcendence and persuasion for good will" to the East. Guānyīn gives this task to the monk Xuánzàng and provides him with three protectors in the form of disciples, [[Sun Wukong|Sūn Wùkōng]], [[Zhu Bajie|Zhū Bājiè]] and [[Sha Wujing|Shā Wùjìng]], together with a dragon prince who acts as Xuánzàng's horse mount. These four characters agree to help Xuánzàng as atonement for past sins. This section of the story relates how Xuánzàng becomes a monk (as well as revealing his past life as the "Golden [[Cicada]]") and is sent on a pilgrimage by the [[emperor of China|Emperor]] Táng [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Tàizōng]], who has previously escaped death with the help of an underworld official.
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The third and longest section of the work is chapters 13–99, an episodic adventure story which combines elements of the [[quest]] as well as the [[picaresque]].  The skeleton of the story is Xuánzàng's quest to bring back Buddhist scriptures from Vulture Peak in India, but the flesh is provided by the conflict between Xuánzàng's disciples and the various evils that beset him on the way.
 
  
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The scenery of this section is, nominally, the sparsely populated lands along the [[Silk Road]] between China and India, including [[Xinjiang]], [[Turkestan]], and [[Afghanistan]]. The geography described in the book is, however, almost entirely fantastic; once Xuánzàng departs [[Chang'an|Cháng'ān]], the Táng capital and crosses the frontier (somewhere in [[Gansu]] province), he finds himself in a wilderness of deep gorges and tall mountains, all inhabited by flesh-eating demons who regard him as a potential meal, with here and there a hidden monastery or royal city-state amid the wilds.
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The third and longest section of the work is chapters 13–100, an episodic adventure story which combines elements of the [[quest]] as well as the [[picaresque]]. The framework of the story is Xuánzàng's quest to bring back Buddhist scriptures from Vulture Peak in India, but the substance is provided by the conflict among Xuánzàng's disciples and the various evils that beset him on the way.
  
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The episodic structure of this section is to some extent formulaic. Episodes consist of 1–4 chapters, and usually involve Xuánzàng being captured and his life threatened, while his disciples try to find an ingenious (and often violent) way of liberating him.  Although some of Xuánzàng's predicaments are political and involve ordinary human beings, they more frequently consist of run-ins with various goblins and ogres—many of whom turn out to be the earthly manifestations of heavenly beings.
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The setting of this section is supposedly the sparsely populated lands along the [[Silk Road]] between China and India, including [[Xinjiang]], [[Turkestan]], and [[Afghanistan]]. The geography described in the book is, however, almost entirely fantastic; once Xuánzàng departs [[Chang'an|Cháng'ān]], the Táng capital and crosses the frontier (somewhere in [[Gansu]] province), he finds himself in a wilderness of deep gorges and tall mountains, all inhabited by flesh-eating demons who regard him as a potential meal, with a hidden monastery or a royal city-state here and there amid the wilds.
  
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Chapters 13–22 do not follow this structure precisely, as they introduce Xuánzàng's disciples, who, inspired or goaded by [[Kuan Yin|Guānyīn]], meet and agree to serve him along the way, in order to atone for their sins in their past lives.
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The episodic structure of this section follows a formula to some extent. Episodes consist of 1– 4 chapters, and usually involve Xuánzàng being captured and his life threatened, while his disciples try to find an ingenious (and often violent) way of liberating him. Although some of Xuánzàng's predicaments are political and involve ordinary human beings, they more frequently consist of run-ins with various goblins and ogres, many of whom turn out to be the earthly manifestations of heavenly beings.
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* The first is [[Sun Wukong|Sūn Wùkōng]] ({{zh-st|s=孙悟空|t=孫悟空}}), or Monkey, previously "Great Sage Equal to Heaven," trapped by Buddha for rebelling against Heaven. He appears right away in Chapter 13.  The most intelligent and violent of the disciples, he is constantly reproved for his violence by Xuánzàng.  Ultimately, he can only be controlled by a magic gold band that the Bodhisattva has placed around his head, which causes him excruciating pain when Xuánzàng says certain magic words.
 
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* The second, appearing in 19, is [[Zhu Bajie|Zhū Bājiè]] ({{zh-st|s=猪八戒|t=豬八戒}}), literally Eight-precepts Pig, sometimes translated as Pigsy or just Pig. He was previously Marshal Tīan Péng ({{zh-st|s=天蓬元帅|t=天蓬元帥}}), commander of the Heavenly Naval forces, banished to the mortal realm for flirting with the Princess of the Moon [[Chang'e]].  He is characterized by his insatiable appetites for food and sex, and is constantly looking for a way out of his duties, but is always kept in line by Sūn Wùkōng.
 
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* The third, appearing in chapter 22, is the river-ogre [[Sha Wujing|Shā Wùjìng]] ({{zh-st|s=沙悟净|t=沙悟淨}}), also translated as Friar Sand or Sandy.  He was previously Great General who Folds the Curtain ({{zh-st|s=卷帘大将|t=捲簾大將 }}), banished to the mortal realm for dropping (and shattering) a crystal goblet of the Heavenly Queen Mother. He is a quiet but generally dependable character, who serves as the straight foil to the comic relief of Sūn and Zhū.
 
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* Possibly to be counted as a fourth disciple is the third prince of the Dragon-King, Yùlóng Sāntàizǐ ({{zh-st|s=玉龙三太子|t=玉龍三太子}}), who was sentenced to death for setting fire to his father's great pearl. He was saved by Guānyīn from execution to stay and wait for his call of duty. He appears first in chapter 15, but has almost no speaking role, as throughout most of the story he appears in the transformed shape of a horse that Xuánzàng rides on.
 
  
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Chapter 22, where Shā is introduced, also provides a geographical boundary, as the river of quicksand that the travelers cross brings them into a new "continent." Chapters 23–86 take place in the wilderness, and consist of 24 episodes of varying length, each characterized by a different magical monster or evil magician. There are impassably wide rivers, flaming mountains, a kingdom ruled by women, a lair of seductive spider-spirits, and many other fantastic scenarios. Throughout the journey, the four brave disciples have to fend off attacks on their master and teacher Xuánzàng from various monsters and calamities.  
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Chapters 13–22 do not follow this structure precisely, as they introduce Xuánzàng's disciples, who, inspired or goaded by the Boddhisatva [[Kuan Yin|Guānyīn]], meet and agree to serve him along the way, in order to atone for their sins in their past lives.
  
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It is strongly suggested that most of these calamities are engineered by fate and/or the Buddha, as, while the monsters who attack are vast in power and many in number, no real harm ever comes to the four travelers. Some of the monsters turn out to be escaped heavenly animals belonging to bodisattvas or Taoist sages and spirits. Towards the end of the book there is a scene where the Buddha literally ''commands'' the fulfillment of the last disaster, because Xuánzàng is one short of the eighty-one disasters he needs to attain [[Buddhahood]].
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[[Sun Wukong|Sūn Wùkōng]] ({{zh-st|s=孙悟空|t=孫悟空}}), or Monkey, previously "Great Sage Equal to Heaven," appears right away in Chapter 13. The second, appearing in Chapter 19, is [[Zhu Bajie|Zhū Bājiè]] ({{zh-st|s=猪八戒|t=豬八戒}}), literally “Eight-precepts Pig,” sometimes translated as Pigsy or just Pig. The third, appearing in Chapter 22, is the river-ogre [[Sha Wujing|Shā Wùjìng]] ({{zh-st|s=沙悟净|t=沙悟淨}}), also translated as Friar Sand or Sandy. The third prince of the Dragon-King, Yùlóng Sāntàizǐ ({{zh-st|s=玉龙三太子|t=玉龍三太子}}) can possibly to be counted as a fourth disciple. He was sentenced to death for setting fire to his father's great pearl, but was saved by Guānyīn from execution to wait for his call of duty. He appears first in chapter 15, but has almost no speaking role, as throughout most of the story he appears in the transformed shape of a horse that Xuánzàng rides on.
  
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In chapter 87, Xuánzàng finally reaches the borderlands of India, and chapters 87–99 present magical adventures in a somewhat more mundane (though still exotic) setting. At length, after a pilgrimage said to have taken fourteen years (the text actually only provides evidence for nine of those years, but presumably there was room to add additional episodes) they arrive at the half-real, half-legendary destination of Vulture Peak, where, in a scene simultaneously mystical and comic, Xuánzàng receives the scriptures from the living Buddha.
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Chapter 22, where Shā is introduced, also provides a geographical boundary, as the river of quicksand that the travelers cross brings them into a new "continent." Chapters 23–86 take place in the wilderness, and consist of 24 episodes of varying length, each characterized by a different magical monster or evil magician. There are impassably wide rivers, flaming mountains, a kingdom ruled by women, a lair of seductive spider-spirits, and many other fantastic scenarios. Throughout the journey, the four brave disciples have to defend their master and teacher Xuánzàng from attacks by various monsters and calamities.  
  
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Chapter 100, the last of all, quickly describes the return journey to the Táng Empire, and the aftermath in which each traveler receives a reward in the form of posts in the bureaucracy of the heavens. Sūn Wùkōng and Xuánzàng achieve [[Buddhahood]], Wùjìng becomes an [[arhat]], the dragon is made a [[Naga]], and Bājiè, whose good deeds have always been tempered by his greed, is promoted to an altar cleanser (i.e. eater of offerings at altars).
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The book strongly suggests that most of these calamities are engineered by fate and/or the Buddha; while the monsters who attack them are vastly powerful and many in number, no real harm ever comes to the four travelers. Some of the monsters turn out to be escaped heavenly animals belonging to bodhisattvas or Taoist sages and spirits. Towards the end of the book there is a scene where the Buddha literally ''commands'' the fulfillment of the last disaster, because Xuánzàng is one short of the 81 disasters he needs to attain [[Buddhahood]].
  
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==Historical context==
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In chapter 87, Xuánzàng finally reaches the borderlands of India, and chapters 87–99 present magical adventures in a somewhat more mundane, though still exotic, setting. At length, after a pilgrimage said to have taken fourteen years (the text actually only provides documentation for nine of those years, presumably to allow room for adding additional episodes) they arrive at the half-real, half-legendary destination of Vulture Peak, where, in a scene simultaneously mystical and comic, Xuánzàng receives the scriptures from the living Buddha.
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[[Image:Great Goose Pagoda Day 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|The Big Wild Goose Pagoda of Xī'ān, China]]
 
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The classic tale of the ''Journey to the West'' was based on real events. The real journey to the west took place during the [[Tang Dynasty]]. The [[Big Wild Goose Pagoda]] in [[Xi'an|Xī'ān]], [[Shaanxi|Shǎnxī]] Province, China, was both the starting and ending point of this epic journey. The statue of Xuánzàng can be seen near the right of this panorama. Xuánzàng reached India after he experienced innumerable trials and hardships, of course without the help of the mighty disciples of the novel. Xuánzàng then lived in India for more than a decade, studying at [[Nalanda University]] and learning classics of Buddhism and Indian culture. Later he returned to China, bringing with him copies of many classic Buddhist texts, which contributed significantly to the promotion of Buddhism in China.
 
  
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Fictionalized stories of Xuánzàng's journey were in existence long before ''Journey to the West'' was written. In these versions, dating as far back as [[Southern Song]], a monkey character was already a primary protagonist. It is believed {{Fact|date=April 2007}} that these legends began forming from Xuánzàng's accounts of [[Hanuman]], the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] monkey god from the ancient [[Ramayana]] epic. During the [[Yuan Dynasty]] and early Ming, elements of the Monkey legend can already be seen.
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Chapter 100, the last of all, quickly describes the return journey to the Táng Empire, and the aftermath, in which each traveler receives a reward in the form of posts in the bureaucracy of the heavens. Sūn Wùkōng and Xuánzàng achieve [[Buddhahood]], Wùjìng becomes an [[arhat]], the dragon is made a [[Naga]], and Bājiè, whose good deeds have always been tempered by his greed, is promoted to an altar cleanser (eater of offerings at altars).
  
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==Main characters==
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==Main Characters==
 
===Tripitaka or Xuánzàng===
 
===Tripitaka or Xuánzàng===
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[[Image:Xyj-tang seng.jpg|thumb|100px|An illustration of Xuanzang]]
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[[Image:Xyj-tang seng.jpg|thumb|200px|An illustration of Xuanzang]]
 
{{main|Xuanzang (fictional character)|l1=Xuanzang}}
 
{{main|Xuanzang (fictional character)|l1=Xuanzang}}
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'''Xuánzàng''' (or '''Táng-Sānzàng''', meaning "Táng-dynasty monk" — ''Sānzàng'' or "Three Baskets," referring to the [[Tripitaka]], was a traditional honorific for a Buddhist monk) is the Buddhist monk who set out to [[India]] to retrieve the [[Buddhist scriptures]] for [[China]]. He is called '''Tripitaka''' in many [[English language|English]] versions of the story. Although he is helpless when it comes to defending himself, the [[bodhisattva]] Guānyīn helps by finding him powerful disciples (Sūn Wùkōng, Zhū Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng) who aid and protect him on his journey. In return, the disciples will receive enlightenment and forgiveness for their sins once the journey is done. Along the way, they help the local inhabitants by defeating various monsters. The fact that most of the monsters and demons are trying to obtain immortality by eating Xuánzàng's flesh, and are even attracted to him as he is depicted as quite handsome, provides much of the plot in the story.
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'''Xuánzàng''' (or '''Táng-Sānzàng''', meaning "Táng-dynasty monk"—''Sānzàng'' or "Three Baskets," referring to the [[Tripitaka]], was a traditional honorific for a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk) is the Buddhist monk who sets out for [[India]] to retrieve the [[Buddhist scriptures]] for [[China]]. He is called '''Tripitaka''' in many [[English language|English]] versions of the story. Although he is helpless when it comes to defending himself, the [[bodhisattva]] Guānyīn helps by finding him three powerful disciples (Sūn Wùkōng, Zhū Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng) who aid and protect him on his journey. In return, the disciples will receive enlightenment and forgiveness for their sins once the journey is done. Along their journey, they help the local inhabitants by defeating various monsters. Much of the story line comes from the fact that most of the monsters and demons are trying to obtain immortality by eating Xuánzàng's flesh, and are even attracted by his handsome appearance.  
  
 
===Monkey or Sūn Wùkōng===
 
===Monkey or Sūn Wùkōng===
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[[Image:Xyj-sun wukong.jpg|thumb|100px|An illustration of Sūn Wùkōng]]
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[[Image:Xyj-sun wukong.jpg|thumb|200px|An illustration of Sūn Wùkōng]]
 
{{main|Sun Wukong}}
 
{{main|Sun Wukong}}
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'''Sūn Wùkōng''' is the name given to this character by his teacher, Patriarch Subodhi, and means "the one who has [[satori|Achieved the Perfect Comprehension of]] [[Shunyata|the Extinction of both Emptiness and non-Emptiness]]"; he is called '''Monkey King''' or simply '''Monkey''' in [[English language|English]].
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The name '''Sūn Wùkōng''' is given to this character by his teacher, Patriarch Subodhi, and means "the one who has [[satori|Achieved the Perfect Comprehension of]] [[Shunyata|the Extinction of both Emptiness and non-Emptiness]]; "he is called '''Monkey King''' or simply '''Monkey''' in [[English language|English]].
  
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He was born out of a rock that had been dormant for ages in [[Bloom Mountains]] that was inhabited/weathered by the sun and moon until a monkey sprang forth. He first distinguished himself by bravely entering the Cave of Water Curtains (pinyin:''Shuǐlián-dòng'' ) at the Mountains of Flowers and Fruits (''Huāguǒ-shān''); for this feat, his monkey tribe gave him the title of ''Měi-hóuwáng'' ("handsome monkey-king"). Later, he started making trouble in Heaven and defeated an army of 100,000 celestial soldiers, led by the [[Four Heavenly Kings]], [[Erlang Shen]], and [[Nezha deity|Nezha]]. Eventually, the [[Jade Emperor]] appealed to [[Buddha]], who subdued and trapped Wukong under a mountain. He was only saved when Xuanzang came by him on his pilgrimage and accepted him as a disciple.
+
Sūn Wùkōng was born out of a rock that had been dormant for ages in [[Bloom Mountains]] that was inhabited/weathered by the sun and moon until a monkey sprang forth. He first distinguished himself by bravely entering the Cave of Water Curtains (pinyin:''Shuǐlián-dòng'' ) at the Mountains of Flowers and Fruits ''(Huāguǒ-shān)''; for this feat, his monkey tribe gave him the title of ''Měi-hóuwáng'' ("handsome monkey-king"). Later, he started making trouble in Heaven and defeated an army of 100,000 celestial soldiers, led by the [[Four Heavenly Kings]], [[Erlang Shen]], and [[Nezha deity|Nezha]]. Eventually, the [[Jade Emperor]] appealed to [[Buddha]], who subdued and trapped Wukong under a mountain. He was only released when Xuanzang came upon him on his pilgrimage and accepted him as a disciple.
  
−
His primary weapon is the ''rúyì-jīngū-bàng'' ("will-following golden-banded staff"), which he can shrink down to the size of a needle and keep behind his ear, as well as expand it to gigantic proportions (hence the "will-following" part of the name). The staff, originally a pillar supporting the undersea palace of the East Sea Dragon King, weighs 13,500 pounds, which he pulled out of its support and swung with ease. The Dragon King, not wanting him to cause any trouble, also gave him a suit of golden armor. These gifts, combined with his devouring of the peaches of immortality and three jars of immortality pills while in Heaven, plus his ordeal in an [[Bagua (concept)|eight-trigram]] furnace (which gave him a steel-hard body and fiery golden eyes), makes Wukong the strongest member by far of the pilgrimage. Besides these abilities, he can also pull hairs from his body and blow on them to transform them into whatever he wishes (usually clones of himself to gain a numerical advantage in battle). Although he has mastered seventy-two methods of transformations, it does not mean that he is restricted to seventy-two different forms. He can also do a ''jīndǒuyún'' ("cloud somersault"), enabling him to travel vast distances in a single leap. Wukong uses his talents to fight demons and play pranks. However, his behavior is checked by a band placed around his head by Guanyin, which cannot be removed by Wukong himself until the journey's end. Xuanzang can tighten this band by chanting the Tightening-Crown spell (taught to him by Guanyin) whenever he needs to chastise him.
+
His primary weapon is the ''rúyì-jīngū-bàng'' ("will-following golden-banded staff"), which he can shrink down to the size of a needle and keep behind his ear, as well as expand it to gigantic proportions (hence the "will-following" part of the name). The staff, originally a pillar supporting the undersea palace of the East Sea Dragon King, which he pulled out of its support and swung with ease, weighs 13,500 pounds. The Dragon King, not wanting him to cause any trouble, also gave him a suit of golden armor. In addition, he has devoured the peaches of immortality and three jars of immortality pills while in Heaven, and endured an ordeal in an [[Bagua (concept)|eight-trigram]] furnace which gave him a steel-hard body and fiery golden eyes, making Wukong the strongest member by far of the pilgrimage. Besides these attributes, he also has the ability to pull hairs from his body and blow on them to transform them into whatever he wishes (usually clones of himself to gain a numerical advantage in battle). Although he has mastered 72 methods of transformation, he is not restricted to only 72 different forms. He can also do a ''jīndǒuyún'' ("cloud somersault"), enabling him to travel vast distances in a single leap. Wukong uses his talents to fight demons and play pranks. However, his behavior is checked by a band placed around his head by Guanyin, which cannot be removed by Wukong himself until the journey's end. Xuanzang can tighten this band by chanting the Tightening-Crown spell (taught to him by Guanyin) whenever he needs to chastise him.
  
−
Wukong's child-like playfulness is a huge contrast to his cunning mind. This, coupled with his acrobatic skills, makes him a likeable hero, though not necessarily a good [[role model]]. His antics present a lighter side in what proposes to be a long and dangerous trip into the unknown.
+
Wukong's child-like playfulness is a huge contrast to his cunning mind. This, coupled with his acrobatic skills, makes him a likeable hero, though not necessarily a good [[role model]]. His antics present a lighter side during the long and dangerous trip into the unknown.
  
 
===Pigsy or Zhū Bājiè===
 
===Pigsy or Zhū Bājiè===
−
[[Image:Xyj-zhu.jpg|thumb|100px|An illustration of Zhū Bājiè]]
+
[[Image:Xyj-zhu.jpg|thumb|200px|An illustration of Zhū Bājiè]]
 
{{main|Zhu Bajie}}
 
{{main|Zhu Bajie}}
 
'''Zhū Bājiè''' ("Pig of the Eight Prohibitions") is also known as '''Zhū Wùnéng''' ("Pig Awakened to Power"), and given the name '''Pigsy''' or '''Pig''' in [[English language|English]].
 
'''Zhū Bājiè''' ("Pig of the Eight Prohibitions") is also known as '''Zhū Wùnéng''' ("Pig Awakened to Power"), and given the name '''Pigsy''' or '''Pig''' in [[English language|English]].
  
−
Once an immortal who was the ''Tiānpéng-yuánshuǎi'' ("Field Marshal Tianpeng") of 100,000 soldiers of the [[Milky Way]], during a celebration of gods, he drank too much and attempted to flirt with [[Chang'e (mythology)|Cháng'é]], the beautiful moon goddess, resulting in his banishment into the mortal world. He was supposed to be reborn as a human, but ended up in the womb of a sow due to an error at the Reincarnation Wheel, which turned him into a half-man half-pig monster. Staying within ''Yúnzhan-dòng'' ("cloud-pathway cave"), he was commissioned by Guanyin to accompany Xuanzang to India and given the new name Zhu Wuneng.
+
Once an immortal who was the ''Tiānpéng-yuánshuǎi'' ("Field Marshal Tianpeng") of 100,000 soldiers of the [[Milky Way]], he drank too much during a celebration of gods, and attempted to flirt with [[Chang'e (mythology)|Cháng'é]], the beautiful moon goddess, resulting in his banishment into the mortal world. He was supposed to be reborn as a human, but ended up in the womb of a sow due to an error at the Reincarnation Wheel, which turned him into a half-man, half-pig monster. While living in ''Yúnzhan-dòng'' ("cloud-pathway cave"), he is commissioned by Guanyin to accompany Xuanzang to [[India]] and given the new name Zhu Wuneng.
  
−
However, Wuneng's desire for women led him to Gao Village, where he posed as a normal being and took a wife. Later, when the villagers discovered that he was a monster, Wuneng hid the girl away. At this point, Xuanzang and Wukong arrived at Gao Village and helped subdue him. Renamed Zhu Bajie by Xuanzang, he consequently joined the pilgrimage to the West.
+
However, Wuneng's desire for women leads him to Gao Village, where he poses as a normal being and takes wife. Later, when the villagers discovered that he is a monster, Wuneng hides the girl away. At this point, Xuanzang and Wukong arrive at Gao Village and help subdue him. Renamed Zhu Bajie by Xuanzang, he consequently joins the pilgrimage to the West.
  
−
His weapon of choice is the ''jiǔchǐdīngpá'' ("nine-tooth iron rake"). He is also capable of thirty-six transformations (as compared to Wukong's seventy-two), and can travel on clouds, but not as fast as Wukong. However, Bajie is noted for his fighting skills in the water, which he used to combat Sha Wujing, who later joined them on the journey.
+
Zhu Bajie is characterized by his insatiable appetites, and is constantly looking for a way to avoid his duties, but is always kept in line by Sūn Wùkōng. His weapon of choice is the ''jiǔchǐdīngpá'' ("nine-tooth iron rake"). He is also capable of thirty-six transformations (as compared to Wukong's 72), and can travel on clouds, but not as fast as Wukong. However, Bajie is noted for his fighting skills in the water, which he uses to combat Sha Wujing, who later joins them on the journey.
  
 
===Sandy or Shā Wùjìng===
 
===Sandy or Shā Wùjìng===
−
[[Image:Xyj-sha seng.jpg|thumb|100px|An illustration of Shā Wùjìng]]
+
[[Image:Xyj-sha seng.jpg|thumb|200px|An illustration of Shā Wùjìng]]
 
{{main|Sha Wujing}}
 
{{main|Sha Wujing}}
−
'''Shā Wùjìng''' (literally meaning "Sand Awakened to Purity"), given the name '''Friar Sand''' or '''Sandy''' in [[English language|English]], was once the Curtain Raising General, who stood in attendance by the imperial chariot in the Hall of Miraculous Mist. He was exiled to the mortal world and made to look like a monster because he accidentally smashed a crystal goblet belonging to the Heavenly Queen Mother during the Peach Banquet. The now-hideous immortal took up residence in the Flowing Sands River, terrorizing the surrounding villages and travelers trying to cross the river. However, he was subdued by Sūn Wùkōng and Zhū Bājiè when the Sānzàng party came across him. They consequently took him in to be a part of the pilgrimage to the West.
+
'''Shā Wùjìng''' (literally meaning "Sand Awakened to Purity"), given the name '''Friar Sand''' or '''Sandy''' in [[English language|English]], was once the Curtain Raising General, who stood in attendance by the imperial chariot in the Hall of Miraculous Mist. He was exiled to the mortal world and made to look like a monster because he accidentally smashed a crystal goblet belonging to the Heavenly Queen Mother during the Peach Banquet. The now-hideous immortal took up residence in the Flowing Sands River, terrorizing the surrounding villages and travelers trying to cross the river. However, he is subdued by Sūn Wùkōng and Zhū Bājiè when the Sānzàng party comes across him, and they include him in their pilgrimage to the West.
  
−
Shā Wùjìng's weapon is the ''yuèyáchǎn'' ("Crescent-Moon-Shovel" or "[[Monk's Spade]]"). Aside from that, he knows eighteen transformations and is highly effective in water combat. He is about as strong as Bājiè , and is much stronger than Wùkōng in water. However, Bājiè can beat Wujing in a test of endurance, and Wùkōng can beat him out of water.
+
Shā Wùjìng's weapon is the ''yuèyáchǎn'' ("Crescent-Moon-Shovel" or "[[Monk's Spade]]"). Aside from that, he knows 18 transformations and is highly effective in water combat. He is almost as strong as Bājiè , and is much stronger than Wùkōng in water. Bājiè can beat Wujing in a test of endurance, and Wùkōng can beat him out of water.
  
−
Shā Wùjìng is known to be the most obedient, logical, and polite of the three disciples, and always takes care of his master, seldom engaging in the bickeries of his fellow-disciples. Ever reliable, he carries the luggage for the travellers. Perhaps this is why he is sometimes seen as a minor character; the lack of any particular perks confers the lack of distinguishing and/or redeeming characteristics.
+
Shā Wùjìng is known to be the most obedient, logical, and polite of the three disciples, and always takes care of his master, seldom engaging in the bickering of his fellow-disciples. Ever reliable, he carries the luggage for the travelers. Perhaps this is why he is sometimes seen as a minor character.  
  
−
Wùjìng eventually becomes an Arhat at the end of the journey, giving him a higher level of exaltation than Bājiè, who is relegated to cleaning every altar at every Buddhist temple for eternity, but is still lower spiritually than Wùkōng or Sānzàng who are granted Buddhahood.
+
Wùjìng eventually becomes an Arhat at the end of the journey, placing him at a higher level of exaltation than Bājiè, who is relegated to cleaning every altar at every Buddhist temple for eternity, but is still lower spiritually than Wùkōng or Sānzàng, who are granted Buddhahood.
  
 
==List of Demons==
 
==List of Demons==
−
There are many demons in the story. They are listed below:
+
There are many demons in the story:
 
* Black-Bear-Demon ([[pinyin]]: ''Hēixióngguǐ'')
 
* Black-Bear-Demon ([[pinyin]]: ''Hēixióngguǐ'')
 
* Yellow Wind Demon (Huáng Fung Guǐ)
 
* Yellow Wind Demon (Huáng Fung Guǐ)
Line 115: Line 92:
 
* Yellow Robe Demon ([[pinyin]]: ''Huángpáoguǐ'')
 
* Yellow Robe Demon ([[pinyin]]: ''Huángpáoguǐ'')
 
* Gold-Horn and Silver-Horn ([[pinyin]]: ''Jīnjiǎo'' and ''Yínjiǎo'')
 
* Gold-Horn and Silver-Horn ([[pinyin]]: ''Jīnjiǎo'' and ''Yínjiǎo'')
−
* [[Red Boy|Red-Boy]] a.k.a. Holy Baby King ([[pinyin]]: ''Hóng-hái'ér''; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''[[Kougaiji|Kōgaiji]]'')
+
* [[Red Boy|Red-Boy]], or Holy Baby King ([[pinyin]]: ''Hóng-hái'ér''; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''[[Kougaiji|Kōgaiji]]'')
 
* Tiger Power, Deer Power and Goat (or Antelope) Power
 
* Tiger Power, Deer Power and Goat (or Antelope) Power
 
* Black River Dragon Demon (Hēi Shui Hé Yuan Lóng Guǐ)
 
* Black River Dragon Demon (Hēi Shui Hé Yuan Lóng Guǐ)
Line 121: Line 98:
 
* Green-Ox-Demon ([[pinyin]]: ''Qīngniújīng'')
 
* Green-Ox-Demon ([[pinyin]]: ''Qīngniújīng'')
 
* Scorpion-Demon ([[pinyin]]: ''Xiēzijīng'')
 
* Scorpion-Demon ([[pinyin]]: ''Xiēzijīng'')
−
* Six Ear Monkey Demon a.k.a Fake Sun Wukong
+
* Six Ear Monkey Demon, a fake Sun Wukong
−
* Ox-Demon-King ([[pinyin]]: ''Niúmówáng''; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''[[List of humans in Dragon Ball#Ox King|Gyū]][[Gyumaoh|maō]]'')
+
* Ox-Demon-King ([[pinyin]]: ''Niúmówáng''; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''Gyū Maō'')
 
* Demon Woman (Luo Cha Nǚ)
 
* Demon Woman (Luo Cha Nǚ)
 
* Jade-Faced Princess ([[pinyin]]: ''Yùmiàn-gōngzhǔ''; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''[[Gyokumen Koushou|Gyokumen-kōshū]]'')
 
* Jade-Faced Princess ([[pinyin]]: ''Yùmiàn-gōngzhǔ''; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''[[Gyokumen Koushou|Gyokumen-kōshū]]'')
Line 135: Line 112:
 
* Gold-Nosed, White Mouse Demon (Lao Shu Jīng)
 
* Gold-Nosed, White Mouse Demon (Lao Shu Jīng)
 
* Dream-Demon
 
* Dream-Demon
−
 
−
==Notable English-language translations==
 
−
* ''[[Monkey: A Folk-Tale of China]]'' (1942), an abridged translation by [[Arthur Waley]]. For many years, the best translation available in [[English language|English]]; it only translates thirty out of the hundred chapters. (Penguin reprint ISBN 0-14-044111-5)
 
−
* ''Journey to the West'', a complete translation by W.J.F. Jenner published by the Foreign Languages Press in Beijing 1955 (three volumes; 1982/1984 edition: ISBN 0-8351-1003-6, ISBN 0-8351-1193-8, ISBN 0-8351-1364-7)
 
−
* ''The Journey to the West'' (1977–1983), a complete translation in four volumes by [[Anthony C. Yu]].<br/>University of Chicago Press: HC ISBN 0-226-97145-7, ISBN 0-226-97146-5, ISBN 0-226-97147-3, ISBN 0-226-97148-1; PB ISBN 0-226-97150-3, ISBN 0-226-97151-1; ISBN 0-226-97153-8; ISBN 0-226-97154-6. This translation has good reviews, but is much more costly than Jenner's.
 
  
 
==Media adaptations==
 
==Media adaptations==
−
===Comics, manga and anime===
 
−
* ''[[Alakazam the Great]]'': One of the first [[anime]] [[film]]s produced by [[Toei Animation]], a retelling of first part of the story based on the characters designed by [[Osamu Tezuka]].
 
−
* ''[[American Born Chinese]]'': An American graphic novel by Gene Yang. Nominated for the National Book Award (2006).
 
−
* ''[[Doraemon]]'': A special tells the story of ''Journey To The West'' casting the ''Doraemon'' characters as the characters of the legend.
 
−
* ''[[Dragon Ball]]'': [[Japan]]ese [[manga]] and anime series loosely inspired by ''Journey to the West''.
 
−
* ''[[Eyeshield 21]]'': Three of the players for the Shinryuji Nagas are referred to as the ''Saiyuki Trio'' based upon their appearances and personalities.
 
−
* ''[[Excel Saga]]'': Excel (dressed as monkey) starts a "discipleship" with a girl (dressed as Tripitaka).
 
−
* ''[[Gensomaden Saiyuki|Gensōmaden Saiyūki]]'': manga and anime series inspired by the legend. Follow-up series include ''[[Saiyuki Reload|Saiyūki Reload]]'' and ''[[Saiyuki Reload Gunlock|Saiyūki Reload Gunlock]]''.
 
−
* ''[[Havoc in Heaven]]'' (also known as ''Uproar in Heaven''): Original animation from China.
 
−
* ''[[InuYasha]]'': The characters meet descendants of three of the main characters of the ''Journey of the West'' in one episode and main character, [[Kagome Higurashi]], says a few lines about the whole book and story.
 
−
* ''[[Kaleido Star]]'': The cast performs ''Saiyuki'' on stage a few times in the beginning of the second half of the series.
 
−
* ''[[Love Hina]]'': The characters put on a play based on the story in anime episode 16.
 
−
* ''[[Monkey Magic (animated series)|Monkey Magic]]'': An animated retelling of the legend.
 
−
* ''[[Monkey Typhoon]]'': A manga and anime series based on the ''Journey to the West'' saga, following a futuristic [[steampunk]]-retelling of the legend.
 
−
* ''[[Naruto]]'': [[Temari (Naruto)|Temari]], a character from ''Naruto'', is based on [[Princess Iron Fan]] from the legend. [[List of Naruto summons#Enma|Enma]] is a summoned monkey who bears resemblance to Sun Wukong. He has the ability to transform into a staff similar to the ''rúyì-jīngū-bàng'', which can alter its size at will.
 
−
* ''[[Paprika (2006 film)|Paprika]]'': A standalone movie where the main character, Paprika/Chiba, has the antics/cunning duality of the Monkey-king; in one scene Paprika rides a cloud wielding a staff.
 
−
* ''[[Patalliro Saiyuki]]'': A [[shōnen-ai]] series in both anime and manga formats with the ''[[Patalliro]]'' cast playing out the [[Zaiyuji]] storyline with a [[yaoi]] twist.
 
−
* ''[[Ranma 1/2]]'': Pastiches of the characters appear throughout the manga and movies.
 
−
* "[[Saiyuki]]"
 
−
* ''[[Shinzo]]'': An anime loosely based on ''Journey to the West''.
 
−
* ''[[Starzinger]]'': An animated [[science fiction]] version of the story.
 
−
* ''[[The Monkey King (manga)|The Monkey King]]'': A gruesome manga inspired by the tale.
 
−
* ''[[XIN]]'': An American comic mini-series produced by [[Anarchy Studio]].
 
−
 
 
===Film===
 
===Film===
−
* ''[[A Chinese Odyssey]]'' by [[Stephen Chow]].
+
* ''A Chinese Odyssey'' by Stephen Chow.
−
* ''[[A Chinese Tall Story]]'': 2005 live action movie starring [[Nicholas Tse]] as Xuánzàng.
+
* ''A Chinese Tall Story'': 2005 live action movie starring Nicholas Tse as Xuánzàng.
−
* ''[[Heavenly Legend]]'': A 1998 film by [[Tai Seng Entertainment]] starring [[Kung Fu]] kid [[Sik Siu Loong]] is partially based on this legend.
+
* ''Heavenly Legend'': A 1998 film by Tai Seng Entertainment starring Kung Fu kid Sik Siu Loong is partially based on this legend.
−
* ''[[Monkey Goes West]]'': The [[Shaw Brothers]]'s 1966 [[Cinema of Hong Kong|Hong Kong film]] ([[Cantonese language|Cantonese]]: [[Sau yau gei]]. Also known as "Monkey with 72 Magic"
+
* ''Monkey Goes West'': The Shaw Brothers's 1966 Hong Kong film (Cantonese: Sau yau gei. Also known as "Monkey with 72 Magic"
−
===Games===
 
−
* ''[[Yuu Yuu Ki]]'': A [[video game]] for the [[Famicom Disk System]], based directly on the story.
 
−
* ''[[Pokémon Diamond and Pearl]]'': A [[video game]] and multiseries in which the [[Pokémon]] creatures [[Chimchar]], [[Monferno]], and mainly [[Infernape]] are based on Sūn Wùkōng.
 
−
* ''[[Rai Rai Gokuu]]'': A Japanese [[pachinko|pachislot]] (pachinko slot machine) with this theme.
 
−
* ''[[Saiyuki: Journey West]]'': A tactical [[role-playing game]] (RPG) videogame for the [[PlayStation]] developed by [[KOEI]].
 
−
* ''[[SonSon]]'': A video game and character of the same name created by [[Capcom]] whose title character is a female version of Sūn Wùkōng.
 
−
* ''[[Soul Calibur]]'': A series of video games by [[Namco]] features the character [[Kilik]], who wields a staff. In the second installment to the series (not including its prequel, ''[[Soul Edge|Soul Blade]]''), Kilik's ultimate weapon is called the Jingu Staff, a reference to Son Wukong's ''rúyì-jīngū-bàng''. In ''[[Soul Calibur III]]'', custom characters can use the Staff discipline, allowing them to wield a staff that can change its length and thickness.
 
−
* ''[[Westward Journey]]'': A [[massively multiplayer online role-playing game]] (MMORPG).
 
−
* ''[[Genso Suikoden II]]'': The main character's head ring is identical to that of Sūn Wùkōng.
 
  
 
===Live action television===
 
===Live action television===
Line 192: Line 131:
 
* ''[[Monkey: Journey to the West]]'': A stage musical version is currently in development by [[Damon Albarn]] and [[Jamie Hewlett]]. It premiered as part of the 2007 [[Manchester International Festival]] at the Palace Theatre on June 28.
 
* ''[[Monkey: Journey to the West]]'': A stage musical version is currently in development by [[Damon Albarn]] and [[Jamie Hewlett]]. It premiered as part of the 2007 [[Manchester International Festival]] at the Palace Theatre on June 28.
  
−
==External links==
+
==References==
 +
*Kherdian, David, and Cheng'en Wu. ''Monkey: a journey to the West: a retelling of the Chinese folk novel by Wu Chʼeng-en.'' Boston: Shambhala, 1992. ISBN 0877736529 ISBN 9780877736523
 +
* Perkins, Dorothy. ''Encyclopedia of China:  The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture''. New York: Roundtable Press, 1999. ISBN 0816026939 ISBN 9780816026937
 +
*Wu, Cheng'en, and Anthony C. Yu. ''The journey to the west''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977. ISBN 0226971457 ISBN 9780226971452
  
−
{{wikisourcelang|zh|西遊記|Journey to the West (in Chinese)}}
+
===A Note on English-language translations===
−
{{commons|西遊記}}
+
* ''Monkey: A Folk-Tale of China'' An abridged translation by Arthur Waley. For many years, this was the best translation available in English; it only translates thirty out of the hundred chapters. (Penguin reprint, 1942. ISBN 0140441115)
−
{{commonscat|Journey to the West}}
+
* ''Journey to the West'', a complete translation by W.J.F. Jenner, published by the Foreign Languages Press in Beijing 1955 (three volumes; 1982/1984 edition: ISBN 0835110036 ISBN 0835111938 ISBN 0835113647)
−
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/imagine/episode/damon_and_jamie.shtml Monkey, Journey To The West opera on BBC Imagine...]
+
* ''The Journey to the West'' (1977–1983), a complete translation in four volumes by Cheng'en Wu and Anthony C. Yu. University of Chicago Press (see above)
−
* [http://www.greatsage.net Monkey - Great Sage equal of Heaven - fansite.]
 
−
* [http://www.chine-informations.com/fichiers/jourwest.pdf Journey to the West] - Freeware complete English text version in PDF format (2.56MB). From [http://www.chine-informations.com Chine Informations]
 
−
* [http://www.vbtutor.net/Xiyouji/journeytothewest.htm Journey to the West] - Comprehensive and detailed website with in-depth information about Journey to the West.
 
−
* [http://www.china-on-site.com/pages/comic/1.php Story of Sun Wukong and the beginning of ''Journey to the West''] with [[manhua]]
 
−
* [http://xahlee.org/p/monkey_king/monkey_king.html Complete novel] in Simplified Characters (utf-16 encoding).
 
−
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0469050 A recent Hong Kong film based on one episode in the journey] - see also here [http://www.karazen.com/reviews/movies/achinesetallstory.php for images] ''A Chinese Tall Story'' (Ching din dai sing).
 
−
* [http://www.china-guide.com/entertainment/journey.html Television Series: Most Popular CCTV Series, Xi You Ji]
 
−
* [http://www.journeytothewestthemusical.com Journey to the West - The Musical] -The stage musical currently in development.
 
−
* [http://www.monkeyheaven.com/ Monkey Heaven] A site with extensive information on the television adaptation, Monkey Magic.
 
−
* [http://www.geocities.com/solarguard/china/monk/index1.html Solarguard Monkey] Plot summary (one paragraph for each of one hundred in novel) plus summary of book on historical Xuanzang.
 
  
 +
==External Links==
 +
All links retrieved September 7, 2022.
 +
* [http://www.greatsage.net Monkey - Great Sage equal of Heaven - fansite].
 +
* [http://www.chine-informations.com/fichiers/jourwest.pdf Journey to the West] – Freeware complete English text version in PDF format (2.56MB).
 +
* [http://www.vbtutor.net/Xiyouji/journeytothewest.htm Journey to the West] – Comprehensive and detailed website with in-depth information about Journey to the West.
 +
* [http://www.monkeyheaven.com/ Monkey Heaven] – A site with extensive information on the television adaptation, Monkey Magic.
 +
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[[Category:Art, music, literature, sports and leisure]]
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[[Category:Chinese classic novels]]
 
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[[Category:Epics]]
 
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[[Category:Journey to the West|*]]
 
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[[mn:Баруун этгээдэд зорчсон тэмдэглэл]]
 
 
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Latest revision as of 01:59, 8 September 2022

The four heroes of the story, left to right: Sūn Wùkōng, Xuánzàng, Zhū Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng.

Journey to the West (Traditional Chinese: 西遊記; Simplified Chinese: 西游记; Hanyu Pinyin: Xīyóu-jì; Wade-Giles: Hsiyu-chi) is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. It was originally published anonymously in the 1590s during the Ming Dynasty, but since the twentieth century, it has been ascribed to the scholar Wú Chéng'ēn (1506? – 1582?).

The novel tells the entertaining story of the Buddhist monk Xuánzàng and his three disciples, Sūn Wùkōng (Monkey), Zhū Bājiè (Eight-Precept Pig)and Shā Wùjìng (Friar Sand), who set out on an arduous pilgrimage to India, where they receive Buddhist scriptures to bring back to China. During the journey they undergo 81 adventures, usually involving Xuánzàng being captured or threatened by some kind of monster and rescued by his disciples. The story is based on the real-life adventures of the seventh-century monk Xuánzàng and the folklore and literature surrounding him. A spiritual allegory, the story is steeped in Chinese folk religion and Buddhist and Daoist morality; it is also a humorous satire of Chinese society and bureaucracy at the time. English translations have been published as “Monkey” and “Journey to the West.”

Introduction

A block print of Journey to the West, Chinese, sixteenth century.

Journey to the West (Xiyou-ji) is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. It was originally published anonymously in the 1590s during the Ming Dynasty. There is no surviving direct evidence of its authorship, but since the twentieth century, it has been ascribed to the scholar Wú Chéng'ēn (1506? – 1582?).

In the novel, Buddha instructs the Bodhisattva Guānyīn to search Táng China for someone to bring the Buddhist sutras to the East. The Guānyīn, gives this task to the monk Xuánzàng and his three disciples, who undertake an arduous journey to the West, involving 81 adventures. Journey to the West has a strong background in Chinese folk religion, Chinese mythology and value systems; the pantheon of Taoist and Buddhist deities reflects belief that are still current in modern Chinese folk religion.

The novel is an entertaining adventure story, conveying moral lessons and spiritual insights, and an extended spiritual allegory in which the group of pilgrims journeying towards India represents for the individual’s journey towards enlightenment. It is also a humorous satire of Chinese society and Chinese bureaucracy.

Historical Context

The Big Wild Goose Pagoda of Xī'ān, China. The Big Wild Goose Pagoda in Xī'ān, Shǎnxī Province, China, was both the starting and ending point of this epic journey. A statue of Xuánzàng can be seen near the right of this panorama.

Journey to the West is a fictionalized account of the legends surrounding the 16-year pilgrimage of the Buddhist monk Xuánzàng (602–664) to India during the Táng dynasty, to obtain Buddhist religious texts (sutras). Xuánzàng reached India after experiencing innumerable trials and hardships. He lived there for more than a decade, studying classics of Buddhism and Indian culture at Nalanda University, then returned to China, bringing with him copies of many classic Buddhist texts which contributed significantly to the promotion of Buddhism in China. Upon his return to China, he presented the emperor with a detailed account of his travels, "Journey to the West in the Great Tang Dynasty" (大唐西域記, Ta-T'ang Hsi-yü-chi).

The story of his pilgrimage was already part of Chinese folklore, poetry, and drama when Wu Ch’eng wrote it as a long and satirical novel. In those earlier versions, dating as far back as the Southern Song dynasty, a monkey character was already a primary protagonist. It is believed that this character originated from Xuánzàng's accounts of Hanuman, the Hindu monkey god from the ancient Ramayana epic. Elements of the Monkey legend were already evident in folklore and literature during the Yuan and early Ming Dynasties.

Synopsis

An illustrated edition of the story

The novel comprises 100 chapters, which can be divided into three major sections. The first, which includes chapters 1–7, is really a self-contained prequel to the main body of the story. It deals entirely with the earlier exploits of Sūn Wùkōng, a monkey born from a stone egg, who learns the art of fighting and secrets of immortality, and through guile and force makes a name for himself as the Qítiān Dàshèng (Simplified Chinese: 齐天大圣; Traditional Chinese: 齊天大聖), or "Great Sage Equal to Heaven." His powers grow to match the forces of all of the Eastern (Taoist) deities, and the prologue culminates in Sūn's rebellion against Heaven, at a time when he occupies a post in the celestial bureaucracy. Hubris proves his downfall when the Buddha manages to trap him under a mountain for 500 years.

18th century Chinese illustration of a scene from Journey to the West

Following this introduction, the nominal main character, Xuánzàng, is introduced. Chapters 8–12 provide his early biography and the background to his great journey. Dismayed that "the land of the South knows only greed, hedonism, promiscuity, and sins," the Buddha instructs the Bodhisattva Guānyīn to search Táng China for someone to bring the Buddhist sutras of "transcendence and persuasion for good will" to the East. Guānyīn gives this task to the monk Xuánzàng and provides him with three protectors in the form of disciples, Sūn Wùkōng, Zhū Bājiè and Shā Wùjìng, together with a dragon prince who acts as Xuánzàng's horse mount. These four characters agree to help Xuánzàng as atonement for past sins. This section of the story relates how Xuánzàng becomes a monk (as well as revealing his past life as the "Golden Cicada") and is sent on a pilgrimage by the Emperor Táng Tàizōng, who has previously escaped death with the help of an underworld official.

The third and longest section of the work is chapters 13–100, an episodic adventure story which combines elements of the quest as well as the picaresque. The framework of the story is Xuánzàng's quest to bring back Buddhist scriptures from Vulture Peak in India, but the substance is provided by the conflict among Xuánzàng's disciples and the various evils that beset him on the way.

The setting of this section is supposedly the sparsely populated lands along the Silk Road between China and India, including Xinjiang, Turkestan, and Afghanistan. The geography described in the book is, however, almost entirely fantastic; once Xuánzàng departs Cháng'ān, the Táng capital and crosses the frontier (somewhere in Gansu province), he finds himself in a wilderness of deep gorges and tall mountains, all inhabited by flesh-eating demons who regard him as a potential meal, with a hidden monastery or a royal city-state here and there amid the wilds.

The episodic structure of this section follows a formula to some extent. Episodes consist of 1– 4 chapters, and usually involve Xuánzàng being captured and his life threatened, while his disciples try to find an ingenious (and often violent) way of liberating him. Although some of Xuánzàng's predicaments are political and involve ordinary human beings, they more frequently consist of run-ins with various goblins and ogres, many of whom turn out to be the earthly manifestations of heavenly beings.

Chapters 13–22 do not follow this structure precisely, as they introduce Xuánzàng's disciples, who, inspired or goaded by the Boddhisatva Guānyīn, meet and agree to serve him along the way, in order to atone for their sins in their past lives.

Sūn Wùkōng (Simplified Chinese: 孙悟空; Traditional Chinese: 孫悟空), or Monkey, previously "Great Sage Equal to Heaven," appears right away in Chapter 13. The second, appearing in Chapter 19, is Zhū Bājiè (Simplified Chinese: 猪八戒; Traditional Chinese: 豬八戒), literally “Eight-precepts Pig,” sometimes translated as Pigsy or just Pig. The third, appearing in Chapter 22, is the river-ogre Shā Wùjìng (Simplified Chinese: 沙悟净; Traditional Chinese: 沙悟淨), also translated as Friar Sand or Sandy. The third prince of the Dragon-King, Yùlóng Sāntàizǐ (Simplified Chinese: 玉龙三太子; Traditional Chinese: 玉龍三太子) can possibly to be counted as a fourth disciple. He was sentenced to death for setting fire to his father's great pearl, but was saved by Guānyīn from execution to wait for his call of duty. He appears first in chapter 15, but has almost no speaking role, as throughout most of the story he appears in the transformed shape of a horse that Xuánzàng rides on.

Chapter 22, where Shā is introduced, also provides a geographical boundary, as the river of quicksand that the travelers cross brings them into a new "continent." Chapters 23–86 take place in the wilderness, and consist of 24 episodes of varying length, each characterized by a different magical monster or evil magician. There are impassably wide rivers, flaming mountains, a kingdom ruled by women, a lair of seductive spider-spirits, and many other fantastic scenarios. Throughout the journey, the four brave disciples have to defend their master and teacher Xuánzàng from attacks by various monsters and calamities.

The book strongly suggests that most of these calamities are engineered by fate and/or the Buddha; while the monsters who attack them are vastly powerful and many in number, no real harm ever comes to the four travelers. Some of the monsters turn out to be escaped heavenly animals belonging to bodhisattvas or Taoist sages and spirits. Towards the end of the book there is a scene where the Buddha literally commands the fulfillment of the last disaster, because Xuánzàng is one short of the 81 disasters he needs to attain Buddhahood.

In chapter 87, Xuánzàng finally reaches the borderlands of India, and chapters 87–99 present magical adventures in a somewhat more mundane, though still exotic, setting. At length, after a pilgrimage said to have taken fourteen years (the text actually only provides documentation for nine of those years, presumably to allow room for adding additional episodes) they arrive at the half-real, half-legendary destination of Vulture Peak, where, in a scene simultaneously mystical and comic, Xuánzàng receives the scriptures from the living Buddha.

Chapter 100, the last of all, quickly describes the return journey to the Táng Empire, and the aftermath, in which each traveler receives a reward in the form of posts in the bureaucracy of the heavens. Sūn Wùkōng and Xuánzàng achieve Buddhahood, Wùjìng becomes an arhat, the dragon is made a Naga, and Bājiè, whose good deeds have always been tempered by his greed, is promoted to an altar cleanser (eater of offerings at altars).

Main Characters

Tripitaka or Xuánzàng

An illustration of Xuanzang

Xuánzàng (or Táng-Sānzàng, meaning "Táng-dynasty monk"—Sānzàng or "Three Baskets," referring to the Tripitaka, was a traditional honorific for a Buddhist monk) is the Buddhist monk who sets out for India to retrieve the Buddhist scriptures for China. He is called Tripitaka in many English versions of the story. Although he is helpless when it comes to defending himself, the bodhisattva Guānyīn helps by finding him three powerful disciples (Sūn Wùkōng, Zhū Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng) who aid and protect him on his journey. In return, the disciples will receive enlightenment and forgiveness for their sins once the journey is done. Along their journey, they help the local inhabitants by defeating various monsters. Much of the story line comes from the fact that most of the monsters and demons are trying to obtain immortality by eating Xuánzàng's flesh, and are even attracted by his handsome appearance.

Monkey or Sūn Wùkōng

An illustration of Sūn Wùkōng

The name Sūn Wùkōng is given to this character by his teacher, Patriarch Subodhi, and means "the one who has Achieved the Perfect Comprehension of the Extinction of both Emptiness and non-Emptiness; "he is called Monkey King or simply Monkey in English.

Sūn Wùkōng was born out of a rock that had been dormant for ages in Bloom Mountains that was inhabited/weathered by the sun and moon until a monkey sprang forth. He first distinguished himself by bravely entering the Cave of Water Curtains (pinyin:Shuǐlián-dòng ) at the Mountains of Flowers and Fruits (Huāguǒ-shān); for this feat, his monkey tribe gave him the title of Měi-hóuwáng ("handsome monkey-king"). Later, he started making trouble in Heaven and defeated an army of 100,000 celestial soldiers, led by the Four Heavenly Kings, Erlang Shen, and Nezha. Eventually, the Jade Emperor appealed to Buddha, who subdued and trapped Wukong under a mountain. He was only released when Xuanzang came upon him on his pilgrimage and accepted him as a disciple.

His primary weapon is the rúyì-jīngū-bàng ("will-following golden-banded staff"), which he can shrink down to the size of a needle and keep behind his ear, as well as expand it to gigantic proportions (hence the "will-following" part of the name). The staff, originally a pillar supporting the undersea palace of the East Sea Dragon King, which he pulled out of its support and swung with ease, weighs 13,500 pounds. The Dragon King, not wanting him to cause any trouble, also gave him a suit of golden armor. In addition, he has devoured the peaches of immortality and three jars of immortality pills while in Heaven, and endured an ordeal in an eight-trigram furnace which gave him a steel-hard body and fiery golden eyes, making Wukong the strongest member by far of the pilgrimage. Besides these attributes, he also has the ability to pull hairs from his body and blow on them to transform them into whatever he wishes (usually clones of himself to gain a numerical advantage in battle). Although he has mastered 72 methods of transformation, he is not restricted to only 72 different forms. He can also do a jīndǒuyún ("cloud somersault"), enabling him to travel vast distances in a single leap. Wukong uses his talents to fight demons and play pranks. However, his behavior is checked by a band placed around his head by Guanyin, which cannot be removed by Wukong himself until the journey's end. Xuanzang can tighten this band by chanting the Tightening-Crown spell (taught to him by Guanyin) whenever he needs to chastise him.

Wukong's child-like playfulness is a huge contrast to his cunning mind. This, coupled with his acrobatic skills, makes him a likeable hero, though not necessarily a good role model. His antics present a lighter side during the long and dangerous trip into the unknown.

Pigsy or Zhū Bājiè

An illustration of Zhū Bājiè

Zhū Bājiè ("Pig of the Eight Prohibitions") is also known as Zhū Wùnéng ("Pig Awakened to Power"), and given the name Pigsy or Pig in English.

Once an immortal who was the Tiānpéng-yuánshuǎi ("Field Marshal Tianpeng") of 100,000 soldiers of the Milky Way, he drank too much during a celebration of gods, and attempted to flirt with Cháng'é, the beautiful moon goddess, resulting in his banishment into the mortal world. He was supposed to be reborn as a human, but ended up in the womb of a sow due to an error at the Reincarnation Wheel, which turned him into a half-man, half-pig monster. While living in Yúnzhan-dòng ("cloud-pathway cave"), he is commissioned by Guanyin to accompany Xuanzang to India and given the new name Zhu Wuneng.

However, Wuneng's desire for women leads him to Gao Village, where he poses as a normal being and takes wife. Later, when the villagers discovered that he is a monster, Wuneng hides the girl away. At this point, Xuanzang and Wukong arrive at Gao Village and help subdue him. Renamed Zhu Bajie by Xuanzang, he consequently joins the pilgrimage to the West.

Zhu Bajie is characterized by his insatiable appetites, and is constantly looking for a way to avoid his duties, but is always kept in line by Sūn Wùkōng. His weapon of choice is the jiǔchǐdīngpá ("nine-tooth iron rake"). He is also capable of thirty-six transformations (as compared to Wukong's 72), and can travel on clouds, but not as fast as Wukong. However, Bajie is noted for his fighting skills in the water, which he uses to combat Sha Wujing, who later joins them on the journey.

Sandy or Shā Wùjìng

An illustration of Shā Wùjìng

Shā Wùjìng (literally meaning "Sand Awakened to Purity"), given the name Friar Sand or Sandy in English, was once the Curtain Raising General, who stood in attendance by the imperial chariot in the Hall of Miraculous Mist. He was exiled to the mortal world and made to look like a monster because he accidentally smashed a crystal goblet belonging to the Heavenly Queen Mother during the Peach Banquet. The now-hideous immortal took up residence in the Flowing Sands River, terrorizing the surrounding villages and travelers trying to cross the river. However, he is subdued by Sūn Wùkōng and Zhū Bājiè when the Sānzàng party comes across him, and they include him in their pilgrimage to the West.

Shā Wùjìng's weapon is the yuèyáchǎn ("Crescent-Moon-Shovel" or "Monk's Spade"). Aside from that, he knows 18 transformations and is highly effective in water combat. He is almost as strong as Bājiè , and is much stronger than Wùkōng in water. Bājiè can beat Wujing in a test of endurance, and Wùkōng can beat him out of water.

Shā Wùjìng is known to be the most obedient, logical, and polite of the three disciples, and always takes care of his master, seldom engaging in the bickering of his fellow-disciples. Ever reliable, he carries the luggage for the travelers. Perhaps this is why he is sometimes seen as a minor character.

Wùjìng eventually becomes an Arhat at the end of the journey, placing him at a higher level of exaltation than Bājiè, who is relegated to cleaning every altar at every Buddhist temple for eternity, but is still lower spiritually than Wùkōng or Sānzàng, who are granted Buddhahood.

List of Demons

There are many demons in the story:

  • Black-Bear-Demon (pinyin: Hēixióngguǐ)
  • Yellow Wind Demon (Huáng Fung Guǐ)
  • Zhen Yuan Holy Man (He is not a demon, but an immortal, who got annoyed by those disciples who stole his previous immortal-fruits.)
  • White-Bone-Demon (pinyin: Báigǔjīng)
  • Yellow Robe Demon (pinyin: Huángpáoguǐ)
  • Gold-Horn and Silver-Horn (pinyin: Jīnjiǎo and Yínjiǎo)
  • Red-Boy, or Holy Baby King (pinyin: Hóng-hái'ér; Japanese: Kōgaiji)
  • Tiger Power, Deer Power and Goat (or Antelope) Power
  • Black River Dragon Demon (Hēi Shui Hé Yuan Lóng Guǐ)
  • Carp Demon (Li Yu Jīng)
  • Green-Ox-Demon (pinyin: Qīngniújīng)
  • Scorpion-Demon (pinyin: Xiēzijīng)
  • Six Ear Monkey Demon, a fake Sun Wukong
  • Ox-Demon-King (pinyin: Niúmówáng; Japanese: Gyū Maō)
  • Demon Woman (Luo Cha Nǚ)
  • Jade-Faced Princess (pinyin: Yùmiàn-gōngzhǔ; Japanese: Gyokumen-kōshū)
  • Boa Demon (Hong She Jīng)
  • Nine-Headed Bird Demon (Jiǔ Tou Fu Ma)
  • Seven-Spider-Demons (pinyin: Zhīzhū-jīng)
  • Hundred-Eyed Taoist (Bǎi Yan Mo Jun)
  • Green Lion Demon (pinyin: Qīngshījīng)
  • White-Elephant-Demon (pinyin: Báixiàngjīng)
  • Falcon Demon (Sun Jīng)
  • Biqiu Country Minister a.k.a Deer Demon
  • Gold-Nosed, White Mouse Demon (Lao Shu Jīng)
  • Dream-Demon

Media adaptations

Film

  • A Chinese Odyssey by Stephen Chow.
  • A Chinese Tall Story: 2005 live action movie starring Nicholas Tse as Xuánzàng.
  • Heavenly Legend: A 1998 film by Tai Seng Entertainment starring Kung Fu kid Sik Siu Loong is partially based on this legend.
  • Monkey Goes West: The Shaw Brothers's 1966 Hong Kong film (Cantonese: Sau yau gei. Also known as "Monkey with 72 Magic"

Live action television

  • Journey to the West: A Chinese 1986 live action series and some other adaptations.
  • Journey to the West: A two-part television series produced by Hong Kong studio, TVB.
  • Monkey: The well-known 1970s Japanese television series based on Journey to the West translated into English by the BBC.
  • The Monkey King: Sci Fi Channel's TV adaptation of this legend, also called The Lost Empire.
  • Saiyūki: A 2006 Japanese television series starring the SMAP star Shingo Katori.

Stage

  • Journey to the West: The Musical: A stage musical which received its world premiere at the New York Musical Theatre Festival on September 25, 2006.
  • Monkey: Journey to the West: A stage musical version is currently in development by Damon Albarn and Jamie Hewlett. It premiered as part of the 2007 Manchester International Festival at the Palace Theatre on June 28.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

A Note on English-language translations

  • Monkey: A Folk-Tale of China An abridged translation by Arthur Waley. For many years, this was the best translation available in English; it only translates thirty out of the hundred chapters. (Penguin reprint, 1942. ISBN 0140441115)
  • Journey to the West, a complete translation by W.J.F. Jenner, published by the Foreign Languages Press in Beijing 1955 (three volumes; 1982/1984 edition: ISBN 0835110036 ISBN 0835111938 ISBN 0835113647)
  • The Journey to the West (1977–1983), a complete translation in four volumes by Cheng'en Wu and Anthony C. Yu. University of Chicago Press (see above)

External Links

All links retrieved September 7, 2022.

NuWa Fuxi CMyth.jpg
 Topics in Chinese mythology
General topics: Creation myth · Astrology · Dragons · Religion in China
Folk religion ·List of deities · I Ching
Important beings: Deities · Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors · Eight Immortals
Mythical creatures:

Xuán Wǔ · Qīng Lóng · Bái Hǔ · Zhū Què
Qilin · Fenghuang · Hu li jing · Shi
List of mythical creatures

Mythical places: Xuanpu · Yaochi · Fusang · Queqiao
Penglai · Longmen · Diyu
Literary sources: Shan Hai Jing · Shui Jing Zhu · Ten Brothers · Hei'an Zhuan
Fengshen Yanyi · Journey to the West · Baishe Zhuan
Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio

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