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'''Jihad''' ({{lang-ar|جهاد}}) is an Islamic term referring to the religious duty of [[Muslim]]s to strive, or “struggle” in ways related to Islam, both for the sake of internal, spiritual growth, and for the defense and expansion of Islam in the world. In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the word ''jihād'' is a noun meaning the act of "striving, applying oneself, struggling, persevering."<ref name = kaef2007>Khaled M. Abou El Fadl, ''The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists'' (HarperOne, 2007, ISBN 978-0061189036).</ref> A person engaged in jihad is called a ''[[Mujahideen|mujahid]]'' ({{lang-ar|مجاهد|links=no}}), the plural of which is ''mujahideen'' ({{lang|ar|مجاهدين}}). The word ''jihad'' appears frequently in the [[Qur’an]], often in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God ''(al-jihad fi sabil [[Allah]])''", to refer to the act of striving to serve the purposes of God on this earth.<ref name=kaef2007/><ref name="morgan2010"> Diane Morgan, ''Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice'' (Praeger, 2009, ISBN 978-0313360251).</ref>
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[[Image:Flag of Jihad.svg|thumb|right|Flag, featuring the first [[Kalimah]], the [[Shahadah|Shahada]], used by Muslims' Army during early Islam. {{Fact|date=August 2007}}]]
 
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'''Jihad''' ({{lang-ar|جهاد}} {{IPA2| ʤi'haːd}}), meaning "to strive" or "to struggle", in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], is an [[List of Islamic terms in Arabic|Islamic term]] and a duty for [[Muslims]]. It appears frequently in the [[Quran]] and common usage as the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God ''(al-jihad fi sabil Allah)''".<ref>Wendy Doniger, Ed. "Jihad", ''Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions'', (Merriam-Webster, 1999. ISBN 0877790442), 571.</ref><ref>Josef W. Meri, Ed. "Jihad", ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia''. {Routledge, 2005. ISBN 0415966906), 419.</ref> A person engaged in jihad is called a '''[[mujahid]]''', and a group '''[[mujahideen]]'''.
 
  
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A minority among the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni scholars]] sometimes refer to this [[Islam]]ic duty as the sixth [[Five Pillars of Islam|pillar of Islam]], though it occupies no such official status.<ref>John Esposito. ''Islam: The Straight Path'', (2005), 93.</ref> In [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a Islam]], however, Jihad is one of the 10 [[Practices of the Religion]].  
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Muslims and scholars do not all agree on its definition.<ref name=UnholyWar>John L. Esposito, ''Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam'', (Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0195168860).</ref> Many observers—both Muslim and non-Muslim<ref>Rudolph Peters, ''Islam and Colonialism'' (Mouton Publishers, 1980, ISBN 978-9027933478).</ref>—as well as the ''Dictionary of Islam'',<ref name="morgan2010"/> talk of jihad as having two meanings: an inner spiritual struggle (the "greater jihad"), and an outer physical struggle against the enemies of Islam (the "lesser jihad")<ref name="morgan2010"/> which may take a violent or non-violent form.<ref name=kaef2007/> Jihad is often translated as "Holy War,"<ref>Lloyd Steffen, ''Holy War, Just War: Exploring the Moral Meaning of Religious Violence'' (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007, ISBN 978-0742558489).</ref> although this term is controversial.<ref>Patricia Crone, ''Medieval Islamic Political Thought'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0748621941).</ref>
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Jihad is sometimes referred to as the sixth [[Five Pillars of Islam|pillar of Islam]], though it occupies no such official status.<ref>John L. Esposito, ''Islam: The Straight Path'' (Oxford University Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0199381456).</ref> In [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a Islam]], however, jihad is one of the ten [[Practices of the Religion]].<ref name=practices>[http://www.al-islam.org/invitation-to-islam-moustafa-al-qazwini/part-2-islamic-practices Part 2: Islamic Practices] ''al-Islam.org''. Retrieved August 1, 2017.</ref>
  
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Jihad requires [[Muslims]] to "struggle in the way of God" or "to struggle to improve one's self and/or society."<ref name="jih">Esposito (2005), 93.</ref><ref name="Humphreys">Stephen Humphreys. ''Between Memory and Desire''. (University of California Press, 2005. ISBN 0520246918) 174-176.</ref> Jihad is directed against the devil's inducements, aspects of one's own self, or against a visible enemy.<ref name="Merriam"/><ref name="firestone">Rueven Firestone. ''Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam''. (Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0195125800), 17.</ref> The four major categories of jihad that are recognized are Jihad against one's own self (self-perfection), Jihad of the tongue, Jihad of the hand, and Jihad of the sword.<ref name="firestone"/>
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==Origins==
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In [[Literary Arabic|Modern Standard Arabic]], the term ''jihad'' is used to mean struggle for causes, both religious and [[secularism|secular]]. The Hans Wehr ''Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic'' defines the term as "fight, battle; jihad, holy war (against the infidels, as a religious duty)."<ref name=hanswehr>Hans Wehr, ''Arabic-English Dictionary: The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic'' (Spoken Language Services, 1993, ISBN 978-0879500030)</ref> Nonetheless, it is usually used in the religious sense and its beginnings are traced back to the [[Qur'an]] and words and actions of the Prophet [[Muhammad]].<ref name="Berkey-2003">Jonathan P. Berkey, ''The Formation of Islam'' (Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0521588133).</ref> In the Qur'an and in later Muslim usage, jihad is commonly followed by the expression ''fi sabil illah'', "in the path of God."<ref> For a listing of all appearances in the Qur'an of jihad and related words, see Hanna E. Kassis, ''A Concordance of the Qur'an'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983, ISBN 978-0520043275), 587–588.</ref> [[Muhammad Abdel Haleem]] states that it indicates "the way of truth and justice, including all the teachings it gives on the justifications and the conditions for the conduct of war and peace."<ref>Muhammad Abdel Haleem, ''Understanding the Qur’ān: Themes and Style'' (London: Tauris, 2010, ISBN 978-1845117894), 62.</ref> It is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word "[[crusade]]" (as in "a crusade against drugs").<ref name=OISO>[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1199 Jihad] ''Oxford Islamic Studies Online''. Retrieved November 20, 2020. </ref>
  
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==Usage of the term ==
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It was generally supposed that the order for a general war could only be given by the [[Caliph]] (an office that was claimed by the Ottoman sultans), but Muslims who did not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate (which has been vacant since 1923)—such as non-Sunnis and non-Ottoman Muslim states—always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of  jihad. There has been no overt, universal warfare by Muslims on non-believers since the early caliphate.  
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The term Jihad used without any qualifiers is generally understood to be referring to war on behalf of Islam.<ref name="firestone"/>  In broader usage and interpretation, the term has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. It can imply striving to live a moral and virtuous life, spreading and defending Islam as well as fighting injustice and oppression, among other things.<ref>Esposito (2002a), p.26</ref> The relative importance of these two forms of jihad is a matter of controversy.
 
  
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===Jihad as warfare (Jihad bis saif)===
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Khaled Abou El Fadl stresses that the Islamic theological tradition did not have a notion of "Holy war" (in Arabic ''al-harb al-muqaddasa'') saying this is not an expression used by the Qur’anic text, nor Muslim theologians. In Islamic theology, war is never holy; it is either justified or not. The Qur’an does not use the word ''jihad'' to refer to warfare or fighting; such acts are referred to as ''qital''.<ref name = kaef2007/>  
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Within [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible under [[Sharia|Islamic law]], and may be declared against [[Apostasy|apostates]], rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, unIslamic leaders or non-Muslim combatants, but there are other ways to perform jihad as well including [[civil disobedience]].<ref name="JPeters">R. Peters (1977), 3-5</ref><ref name="firestone"/>
 
  
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In the classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence, the [[Rules of war in Islam|rules associated with armed warfare]] are covered at great length.<ref name="JPeters"/> Such rules include not killing women, children and non-combatants, as well as not damaging cultivated or residential areas.<ref>Maududi. ''Human Rights in Islam, Chapter Four''. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref> More recently, modern Muslims have tried to re-interpret the Islamic sources, stressing that Jihad is essentially defensive warfare aimed at protecting Muslims and Islam.<ref name="JPeters"/> Although [[Opinion of Islamic scholars on Jihad|some Islamic scholars have differed on the implementation of Jihad]], there is consensus amongst them that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression.<ref name="jihad">Javed Ghamidi. "The Islamic Law of Jihad", ''Mizan''. (Dar ul-Ishraq, 2001. OCLC 52901690)</ref>
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===Qur’anic use and Arabic forms===
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According to Ahmed al-Dawoody, seventeen derivatives of jihād occur altogether forty-one times in eleven [[Meccan surah|Meccan]] texts and thirty [[Medinan surah|Medinan]] ones, with the following five meanings: striving because of religious belief (21), war (12), non-Muslim parents exerting pressure, that is, jihād, to make their children abandon Islam (2), solemn oaths (5), and physical strength (1).<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"> Ahmed Al-Dawoody, ''The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, ISBN 978-0230111608).</ref>
  
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The primary aim of armed jihad is not always the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the [[Islamic state]]. Thereafter, non-Muslims within the Islamic state would be encouraged to convert pursuant to [[Sharia]] Law and the [[Dhimmi]] system.
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===Hadith===
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The context of the Qur’an is elucidated by [[Hadith]] (the teachings, deeds and sayings of Prophet Muhammad). Of the 199 references to jihad in perhaps the most standard collection of hadith—[[Sahih Bukhari|Bukhari]]—all assume that jihad means warfare.<ref name=bukhari>Douglas E. Streusand, [http://www.meforum.org/357/what-does-jihad-mean What Does Jihad Mean?] ''Middle East Quarterly'', September 1997, 9–17. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref>
  
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Jihad has also been applied to offensive, aggressive warfare, as exemplified by early movements like the [[Kharijite]]s and the contemporary [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] organization (which assassinated [[Anwar Al Sadat]]) as well as Jihad organizations in [[Lebanon]], the [[Gulf states]], and [[Indonesia]].<ref name="jih"/> When used to describe warfare between Islamic groups or individuals, such as [[Al-Qaeda]]'s attacks on civilians in Iraq, perpetrators of violence often cite collaboration with non-Islamic powers as a justification.<ref name=VII-ATTACKS-ON-CIVILIANS>{{cite web
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According to [[Oriental studies|orientalist]] [[Bernard Lewis]], "the overwhelming majority of classical theologians, jurists," and specialists in the [[hadith]] "understood the obligation of jihad in a military sense."<ref name=Lewis-Political>Bernard Lewis, ''The Political Language of Islam'' (University of Chicago Press, 1991, ISBN 978-0226476933).</ref> [[Javed Ahmad Ghamidi]] claims that there is consensus among Islamic scholars that the concept of jihad always includes armed struggle against wrong doers.<ref name="jihad-ghamidi"> Javed Ahmad Ghamidi, [https://www.javedahmedghamidi.org/#!/renaissance/5adb7281b7dd1138372da70b?articleId=5adb728eb7dd1138372da9c7&decade=2020&year=2020 The Islamic Law of Jihad] ''Renaissance'', June 1, 2002. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref>
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|title=VII. Attacks on Civilians Applying for the Iraqi Security Forces
 
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|url=http://hrw.org/reports/2005/iraq1005/7.htm 
 
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|date=October 2005
 
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|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]
 
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|accessdate=November 27, 2007}}</ref> The terrorist attacks like September 11, 2001 planned and executed by radical Islamic fundamentalists have not been sanctioned by more centrist groups of Muslims.<ref> John K. Roth, ''Ethics'', p.775 </ref>
 
  
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When Muslim populations are attacked on the basis of religion, Jihad becomes mandatory on the government of that particular state (and all Muslims) until all hostile forces are either eliminated or negotiated out of the occupied land. If the threat continues to persist, the Islamic State may have to eliminate the threat through force.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
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Among reported sayings of Prophet Muhammad involving jihad are
  
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The word itself is recorded in English since 1869, in the Muslim sense, and has been used for any doctrinal crusade since c. 1880.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary</ref>
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<blockquote>The best Jihad is the word of Justice in front of the oppressive sultan.<ref> Mohammad Hashim Kamali, ''Shari'ah Law: An Introduction'' (Oneworld Publications, 2008, ISBN 978-1851685653).</ref></blockquote>
  
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===Non-violent jihad===
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and
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Some Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad regarded the inner struggle for faith a greater Jihad than even fighting [by force] in the way of God,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_2.shtml | title=BBC - Religion & Ethics - Jihad: The internal Jihad | accessdate=November 27, 2007}}</ref> and quote the famous but controversial hadith which has the prophet saying: "We have returned from the lesser jihad (battle) to the greater jihad (jihad of the soul)." <ref>[http://www.religioscope.com/info/doc/jihad/azzam_caravan_6_conclusion.htm JOIN THE CARAVAN Imam Abdullah Azzam] Retrieved November 27, 2007</ref>
 
  
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In [[Literary Arabic|Modern Standard Arabic]], ''jihad'' is one of the correct terms for a struggle for any cause, violent or not, religious or secular (though كفاح ''kifāḥ'' is also used). For instance, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s struggle for [[Indian independence]] is called a "jihad" in Modern Standard Arabic (as well as many other dialects of Arabic) even though it was neither an Islamic struggle nor conducted violently; the same terminology is applied to the fight for [[feminism|women's liberation]].<ref> {{cite book | Mahmoud Al-Batal | coauthors = Kristen Brustad, and Abbas Al-Tonsi | title = Al-Kitaab fii Ta<sup>c</sup>llum al-<sup>c</sup>Arabiyya, Part II | edition = 2 | month =  | publisher = Georgetown University Press. 2006 | location = (Washington, DC | language = Arabic, English | isbn = 9781589010963) | chapter = 6-"من رائدات الحركة النسائية العربية" (One of the Pioneers of the Arabic Feminist Movement) ref = }}</ref>
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<blockquote>Ibn Habbaan  narrates: The Messenger of Allah was asked about the best jihad. He said: “The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain and your blood is spilled.” So the one who is killed has practiced the best jihad. <ref>Ibn Nuhaas, [https://web.archive.org/web/20091229051337/http://www.kalamullah.com/Books/MashariAl-AshwaqilaMasarial-Ushaaq-RevisedEdition.pdf ''The Book of Jihad''], translated by Nuur Yamani, 107. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref></blockquote>
  
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===Controversy===
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According to another hadith, supporting one’s parents is also an example of jihad.<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/> It has also been reported that Prophet Muhammad considered performing [[hajj]] to be the best jihad for Muslim women.<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/>
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Middle East Historian [[Bernard Lewis]] points out that some modern Muslims sources try to portray jihad in a spiritual and moral sense when addressing non-Muslims.  But "the overwhelming majority of classical theologians, jurists, and traditionalists [i.e., specialists in the hadith] ... understood the obligation of jihad in a military sense."<ref>Bernard Lewis. ''The Political Language of Islam''. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 72.</ref>
 
  
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According to scholar David Cook:
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===Evolution of jihad===
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<blockquote>In reading Muslim literature — both contemporary and classical — one can see that the evidence for the primacy of spiritual jihad is negligible. Today it is certain that no Muslim, writing in a non-Western language (such as [[Arabic]], [[Persian]], [[Urdu]]), would ever make claims that jihad is primarily nonviolent or has been superseded by the spiritual jihad. Such claims are made solely by Western scholars, primarily those who study [[Sufism]] and/or work in interfaith dialogue, and by Muslim apologists who are trying to present Islam in the most innocuous manner possible.<ref>David Cook. ''Understanding Jihad,'' (University of California Press, 2005. ISBN 0520242033), 165-6.</ref></blockquote>
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Some observers have noted evolution in the rules of jihad—from the original “classical” doctrine to that of twenty-first century [[Salafi jihadism]].<ref name=Kadri/><ref name=gorka>Sebastian Gorka, [https://ctc.usma.edu/understanding-historys-seven-stages-of-jihad/ Understanding History’s Seven Stages of Jihad] ''Combating Terrorism Center'', October 3, 2009. Retrieved November 20, 2020. </ref> According to legal historian Sadarat Kadri, in the last couple of centuries incremental changes of Islamic legal doctrine, (developed by Islamists who otherwise condemn any ''[[Bid‘ah]]'' (innovation) in religion), have “normalized” what was once  “unthinkable."<ref name=Kadri/> "The very idea that Muslims might blow themselves up for God was unheard of before 1983, and it was not until the early 1990s that anyone anywhere had tried to justify killing innocent Muslims who were not on a battlefield.” <ref name=Kadri/>
  
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And according to Douglas Streusand, "in [[hadith]] collections, jihad means armed action; for example, the 199 references to jihad in the most standard collection of hadith, Sahih al-Bukhari, all assume that jihad means warfare."<ref>Muhammad ibn Isma'il Bukhari, ''The Translation of the Meaning of Sahih al-Bukhari'', trans. Muhammad Muhsin Khan, 8 vols. (Medina: Dar al-Fikr, 1981), 4:34-204. Quoted in
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The  first or “classical” doctrine of jihad developed towards the end of the eighth century, dwelled on jihad of the sword (''jihad bil-saif'') rather than “jihad of the heart”,<ref name=Lewis-Political/> but had many legal restrictions developed from Qur’an and hadith, such as detailed rules involving “the initiation, the conduct, the termination” of jihad, treatment of prisoners, distribution of booty, etc. Unless there was a sudden attack on the Muslim community, jihad  was not a personal obligation (fard ayn) but a collective one (fard al-kifaya),<ref name=Khadduri/>  which had to be discharged `in the way of God` (fi sabil Allah), and could only be directed by the caliph, "whose discretion over its conduct was all but absolute."<ref name=Kadri/> (This was designed in part to avoid incidents like the Kharijia’s jihad against and killing of the Caliph Ali, who they judged a non-Muslim.)
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[http://www.meforum.org/article/357 Douglas Streusand, `What Does Jihad Mean?`] ''Middle East Quarterly'', September 1997. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref>
 
  
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In Muslim tradition, the world is divided into two houses: the House of Islamic Peace ([[Dar al-Salam]]), in which Muslim governments rule and Muslim law prevails, and the House of War ([[Dar al-Harb]]), the rest of the world, still inhabited and, more important, ruled by [[infidel]]s. The presumption is that that by natural law these domains will compete and fighting is inevitable therefore the duty of jihad will continue, interrupted only by truces, until all the world either adopts the Muslim faith or submits to Muslim rule. Those who fight in the jihad qualify for rewards in both worlds—booty in this one, paradise in the next. For most of the recorded history of Islam, from the lifetime of the Prophet [[Muhammad]] onward, the word jihad was used in a primarily military sense. ''<ref>Bernard Lewis. [[The Crisis of Islam]], (2001), Chapter 2.</ref>
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Based on the twentieth century interpretations of [[Sayyid Qutb]], [[Abdullah Azzam]], [[Ruhollah Khomeini]], [[Al-Qaeda]] and others, many if not all of those self-proclaimed jihad fighters believe defensive global jihad is a personal obligation, that no caliph or Muslim head of state need declare. Killing yourself in the process of killing the enemy is an act of martyrdom and brings a special place in heaven, not hell; and the killing of Muslim bystanders, (never mind non-Muslims), should not impede acts of jihad. One analyst described the new interpretation of jihad, the “willful targeting of civilians by a non-state actor through unconventional means.”<ref name=gorka/>
  
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== Views of Jihad of different Muslim groups ==
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==History of usage and practice==
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===Sunni view of Jihad===
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The practice of periodic raids by [[Bedouin]] against enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils predates the revelations of the [[Qur'an]]. It has been suggested that Islamic leaders "instilled into the hearts of the warriors the belief" in jihad "holy war" and ''ghaza'' (raids), but the "fundamental structure" of this Bedouin warfare "remained, ... raiding to collect booty. Thus the standard form of desert warfare, periodic raids by the nomadic tribes against one another and the settled areas, was transformed into a centrally directed military movement and given an ideological rationale."<ref name=johnson-147>James Turner Johnson, ''Holy War Idea in Western and Islamic Traditions'' (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0271016320).</ref>
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{{see also|Opinion of Islamic scholars on Jihad}}
 
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Jihad has been classified either as ''al-jihād al-akbar'' (the greater jihad), the struggle against one's soul (''nafs''), or ''al-jihād al-asghar'' (the lesser jihad), the external, physical effort, often implying fighting.  
 
  
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[[Gibril Haddad]] has analyzed the basis for the belief that internal jihad is the "greater jihad", ''Jihad al-akbar''. Haddad identifies the primary historical basis for this belief in a pair of similarly worded [[hadith|hadeeth]], in which Muhammed is reported to have told warriors returning home that they had returned from the lesser jihad of struggle against non-Muslims to a greater jihad of struggle against lust. Although Haddad notes that the authenticity of both hadeeth is questionable, he nevertheless concludes that the underlying principle of superiority internal jihad does have a reliable basis in the Qur'an and other writings.<ref name="Haddad-LivingIslam">{{cite web|url=http://www.livingislam.org/n/dgjh_e.html |title=Documentation of "Greater Jihad" hadith |accessdate= November 27, 2007 | Gibril Haddad |authorlink=Gibril Haddad |coauthors= |date=2005-02-28 |year= |month= |format=HTML |work= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate=}}</ref><ref name="Haddad-SunniPath">{{cite web|url=http://www.sunnipath.com/resources/Questions/qa00002862.aspx |title=RE: Accusations on Shaykh Hamza Yusuf |accessdate= |accessdate=November 27, 2007| Gibril Haddad |authorlink=Gibril Haddad |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format=HTML |work= |publisher=sunnipath.com |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate=}}</ref><!--Note: In my opinion, Gibril meets reliable source standards because he's a published Islamic translator and scholar, writing within the area of his expertise-TheronJ—>
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According to [[Jonathan Berkey]], jihad in the Qur’an was may originally intended against Prophet Muhammad's local enemies, the [[pagan]]s of [[Mecca]] or the [[Jews]] of [[Medina]], but the Qur’anic statements supporting jihad could be redirected once new enemies appeared.<ref name="Berkey-2003"/>  
  
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On the other hand, the [[Hanbali]] scholar [[Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya]] did believe that "internal Jihad" is important<ref>http://www.abc.se/~m9783/n/dgjh_e.html. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref> but he suggests those [[hadith]] as weak which consider "Jihad of the heart/soul" to be more important than "Jihad by the sword". <ref>[http://www.peacewithrealism.org/jihad/jihad03.htm ''Jihad'' in the ''Hadith''], ''Peace with Realism'', April 16, 2006. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref>  Contemporary Islamic scholar [[Abdullah Yusuf Azzam]] has argued the hadith is not just weak but "is in fact a false, fabricated hadith which has no basis. It is only a saying of Ibrahim Ibn Abi `Abalah, one of the Successors, and it contradicts textual evidence and reality."<ref>[http://www.religioscope.com/info/doc/jihad/azzam_caravan_6_conclusion.htm JOIN THE CARAVAN]. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref>  
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According to another scholar (Majid Khadduri), it was the shift in focus to the conquest and spoils collecting of non-Bedouin unbelievers and away from traditional inter-Bedouin tribal raids, that may have made it possible for Islam not only to expand but to avoid self-destruction.<ref name=Khadduri>Majid Khadduri, ''War and Peace in the Law of Islam'' (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955, ISBN 978-0801803369).</ref>
  
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Muslim scholars explained there are five kinds of ''jihad fi sabilillah'' (struggle in the cause of God):<ref name="Encarta-jihad">{{cite web
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===Classical===
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  | title = Jihad
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"From an early date Muslim law [stated]” that jihad (in the military sense) is "one of the principal obligations" of both "the head of the Muslim state", who declares jihad, and the Muslim community.<ref name=Lewis> Bernard Lewis, ''Islam and the West'' (University Of Chicago Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0195090611).</ref>
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  | work = [[Encarta|Encarta® Online Encyclopedia]]
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According to legal historian Sadakat Kadri, Islamic jurists first developed classical doctrine of jihad towards the end of the eighth century, using the doctrine of ''[[naskh (tafsir)|naskh]]'' (that God gradually improved His revelations over the course of the Prophet Muhammad's mission) they subordinated verses in the Qur’an emphasizing harmony to the more "confrontational" verses from Prophet Muhammad's later years, and then linked verses on striving (''jihad'') to those of fighting (''qital'').<ref name=Kadri>Sadakat Kadri, ''Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia to the Streets of the Modern Muslim World'' (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013, ISBN 978-0374533731).</ref>  
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  | publisher = ([[(Microsoft|Microsoft®]], 2006)
 
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  | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761582255/Jihad.html
 
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  | accessdate = November 27, 2007. }}</ref>  
 
  
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* '''Jihad of the heart/soul''' ''(jihad bil qalb/nafs)'' is an inner struggle of good against evil in the mind, through concepts such as [[tawhid]].  
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Muslim jurists of the eighth century developed a paradigm of international relations that divides the world into three conceptual divisions, dar al-Islam/dar al-‛adl/dar al-salam (house of Islam/house of justice/house of peace), dar al-harb/dar al-jawr (house of war/house of injustice, oppression), and dar al-sulh/dar al-‛ahd/dār al-muwada‛ah (house of peace/house of covenant/house of reconciliation).<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/> <ref> Hilmi Zawati, ''Is Jihad a Just War?: War, Peace, and Human Rights Under Islamic and Public International Law'' (Edwin Mellen Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0773473041).</ref> The second/eighth century jurist [[Sufyan al-Thawri]] (d. 161/778) headed what [[Majid Khadduri|Khadduri]] calls a pacifist school, which maintained that jihad was only a defensive war,<ref name=Khadduri/><ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/> He also states that the jurists who held this position, among whom he refers to [[Hanafi]] jurists, [[Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i|al-Awza‛i]] (d. 157/774), [[Malik ibn Anas]] (d. 179/795), and other early jurists, "stressed that tolerance should be shown unbelievers, especially scripturaries and advised the Imam to prosecute war only when the inhabitants of the dar al-harb came into conflict with Islam."<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/><ref name=Khadduri/>
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* '''Jihad by the tongue''' ''(jihad bil lisan)'' is a struggle of good against evil waged by writing and speech, such as in the form of [[dawah]] (proselytizing), [[Khutba]]s (sermons), etc.
 
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* '''Jihad by the pen and knowledge''' ''(jihad bil qalam/lim)'' is a struggle for good against evil through scholarly study of Islam, [[ijtihad]] (legal reasoning), and through sciences.
 
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* '''Jihad by the hand''' ''(jihad bil yad)'' refers to a struggle of good against evil waged by actions or with one's wealth, such as going on the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage (seen as the best jihad for women), taking care of elderly parents, or political activity for furthering the cause of  [[Islam]].
 
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* '''Jihad by the sword''' ''(jihad bis saif)'' refers to ''qital fi sabilillah'' (armed fighting in the way of God, or holy war), the most common usage by [[Salafi]] Muslims and offshoots of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]].
 
  
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Some contemporary Islamists have succeeded in replacing the greater jihad, the fight against desires, with the lesser jihad, the holy war to establish, defend and extend the Islamic state.<ref>[http://www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/3431076.html ''Understanding Jihad'', February, 2005]. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref>
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The duty of Jihad was a collective one (''fard al-kifaya''). It was to be directed only by the caliph who might delayed it when convenient, negotiating truces for up to ten years at a time.<ref name=Kadri/> Within classical [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]] – the development of which is to be dated into the first few centuries after the prophet's death – jihad consisted of wars against unbelievers, [[Apostasy|apostates]], and was the only form of warfare permissible.<ref name=Khadduri/> Another source—[[Bernard Lewis]]—states that fighting rebels and bandits was legitimate though not a form of jihad,<ref name=lewis-crisis>Bernard Lewis, ''The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror'' (Random House, 2004, ISBN 978-0812967852)</ref>  and that while the classical perception and presentation of the jihad was warfare in the field against a foreign enemy, internal jihad "against an infidel renegade, or otherwise illegitimate regime was not unknown."<ref>Bernard Lewis, ''The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years'' (Scribner, 1997, ISBN 978-0684832807).</ref>
  
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===Shi'a view of Jihad===
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The primary aim of jihad as warfare is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the [[Islamic state]].<ref name=Peters-Medieval>Rudolph Peters, ''Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam'' (Brill Academic Publishers, 1977, ISBN 978-9004048546).</ref> In theory, jihad was to continue until "all mankind either embraced Islam or submitted to the authority of the Muslim state." There could be truces before this was achieved, but no permanent peace.<ref name=Lewis/>  
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[[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a Muslims]] classify Jihad into two; the '''Greater Jihad''' and the '''Lesser Jihad'''.<ref>[http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/jihad-nasr.htm "The Spiritual Significance of Jihad".] Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref> The '''Lesser Jihad''' refers to defending oneself, one's family and community against oppression and tyranny, upon which there are strict regulations.<ref>[http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/books/jihad/3.htm Defense - The Quiddity of Jihad.] Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref> The '''Greater Jihad''' refers to the struggle inside oneself to obey God ([[Arabic]]: Allah) and reject [[sin]].<ref>[http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/greater_jihad.htm "The Greater Jihad".] Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref> The '''Greater Jihad''', or the struggle to follow God (Allah) and reject sin, is one of the [[Twelver]] ([[Arabic]]: Ithna 'Ashariyya) Shia [[Practices of the Religion]].
 
  
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===Sufic view of Jihad===
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One who died 'on the path of God' was a [[martyr]], (''[[Shahid]]''), whose sins were remitted and who was secured "immediate entry to paradise."<ref> [http://qdl.scs-inc.us/2ndParty/Pages/6609.html Islam (1,500)] ''SCS-INC.US''. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref> However, some argue [[martyrdom]] is never automatic because it is within God's exclusive province to judge who is worthy of that designation. According to [[Khaled Abou El Fadl]], only God can assess the intentions of individuals and the justness of their cause, and ultimately, whether they deserve the status of being a martyr.  
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The Sufic view classifies "Jihad" into two; the "[[Greater Jihad]]" and the "[[Lesser Jihad]]". It is [[Muhammad]] who put the emphasis on the "greater Jihad" by saying that "Holy is the warrior who wrestles ("struggles") with himself". Here [[Muhammad]] was inferring Jacob's "wrestling" with the angel by which he gained the name "[[Israel]]". In this sense external wars and strife are seen but a satanic counterfeit of the true "jihad" which can only be fought and won within; no other Salvation existing can save man without the efforts of the man himself being added to the work involved of self-refinement. In this sense it is the western view of the [[Holy Grail]] which comes closest to the Sufic ideal; for to the Sufis Perfection is the Grail; and the Holy Grail is for those who after they become perfect by giving all they have to the poor then go on to become "Abdal" or "changed ones" like Enoch who was "taken" by God because he "walked with God". ([[Genesis]]:5:24) here the "Holy Ones" gain the surname "Hadrat" or "The Presence".
 
  
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==Jihad as warfare==<!-- This section is linked from [[True Lies]] —>
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The Qur’anic text does not recognize the idea of unlimited warfare, and it does not consider the simple fact that one of the belligerents is Muslim to be sufficient to establish the justness of a war. Moreover, according to the Qur'an, war might be necessary, and might even become binding and obligatory, but it is never a moral and ethical good. The Qur'an does not use the word jihad to refer to warfare or fighting; such acts are referred to as ''qital''. While the Qur’an's call to jihad is unconditional and unrestricted, such is not the case for qital. Jihad is a good in and of itself, while qital is not.<ref name = kaef2007/>
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{{seealso|Offensive jihad|Defensive jihad|Ghazw|Opinion of Islamic scholars on Jihad|Itmam al-hujjah}}
 
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The Qur’an asserts that if the use of force would not have been allowed in curbing the evils by nations, the disruption and disorder caused by insurgent nations could have reached the extent that the places of worship would have become deserted and forsaken. As it states:
 
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{{quote|And had it not been that Allah checks one set of people with another, the monasteries and churches, the synagogues and the mosques, in which His praise is abundantly celebrated would have been utterly destroyed.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|22|40}}||}}
 
  
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[[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi]] divides just warfare into two types:<ref name="jihad">"The Islamic Law of Jihad".</ref>
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Classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence often contained a section called ''Book of Jihad'', with [[Rules of war in Islam|rules governing the conduct of war]] covered at great length. Such rules include treatment of nonbelligerents, women, children (also cultivated or residential areas),<ref>Muhammad Hamidullah, ''The Muslim Conduct of State'' (Kazi Publications Inc., 1992, ISBN 978-1567443400).</ref> and division of spoils.<ref name=Bonner>Michael Bonner, ''Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice'' (Princeton University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0691138381).</ref> Such rules offered  protection for civilians. Spoils include ''Ghanimah'' (spoils obtained by actual fighting), and ''fai'' (obtained without fighting i.e. when the enemy surrenders or flees).<ref name="chaudhry-spoils">Muhammad Sharif Chaudhry, [http://www.muslimtents.com/shaufi/b17/b176.htm Spoils of War] ''Dynamics of Islamic Jihad''. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref>
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# Against injustice and oppression
 
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# Against the rejecters of truth after it has become evident to them
 
  
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The first type of Jihad is generally considered eternal, but Ghamidi holds that the second is specific to people who were selected by God for delivering the truth as an obligation. They are called witnesses of the truth (Arabic:'''{{lang|ar|شهادة}}''', see also [[Itmam al-hujjah]]); the implication being that they bear witness to the truth before other people in such a complete and ultimate manner that no one is left with an excuse to deny the truth.<ref name="jjihad">"The Islamic Law of Jihad".</ref> There is a dispute among Islamic jurists as to whether the act of being "witness" was only for the [[Sahaba|Companions]] of Muhammad or whether this responsibility is still being held by modern Muslims, which may entitle them to take actions to subdue other Non-Muslim nations. Proponents of [[Sahaba|Companions]] of Muhammad as being "the witness" translate the following verse only for the [[Sahaba|Companions]]<ref name="jjihad"/> while others translate it for the whole [[Ummah|Muslim nation]].<ref>[http://www.translatedquran.com/meaning.asp?sno=2&tno=79 Translatedquran.com.][[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]], [[The Meaning of the Qur'an (tafsir)]], commentary on verse 2:143.</ref> As in Qur'an:
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The first documentation of the law of jihad was written by 'Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i and [[Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani]]. Although Islamic scholars have differed on the implementation of jihad, there is consensus that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression.<ref name="jihad-ghamidi"/>
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{{quote|And similarly [O [[Sahaba|Companions]] of the [[Muhammad|Prophet]]!] We have made you an intermediate group<ref>This means that this group stands between Muhammad and the rest of the world who were able to observe the whole process of ''witnessing''</ref> so that you be witnesses [to this [[Islam|religion]]] before the nations, and the [[Muhammad|Messenger]] be such a witness before you.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|2|143}}||}}
 
  
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Similarly, proponents of [[Sahaba|Companions]] of Muhammad as being "the witness" present following verse to argue that [[Sahaba|Companions]] of Muhammad were chosen people as witnesses just as God chooses Messengers from mankind. As in Qur'an:<ref name="jjihad"/>
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As important as jihad was, it was/is not considered one of the "[[Five Pillars of Islam|pillars of Islam]]". According to [[Majid Khadduri]] this is most likely because unlike the pillars of [[Salah|prayer]], [[Sawm|fasting]], and so forth, jihad was  a "collective obligation" of the whole Muslim community," (meaning that "if the duty is fulfilled by a part of the community it ceases to be obligatory on others"), and was to be carried out by the Islamic state. This was the belief of "all jurists, with almost no exception", but did not apply to ''defense'' of the Muslim community from a sudden attack, in which case jihad was and "individual obligation" of all believers, including women and children.<ref name=Khadduri/>
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{{quote|He has chosen you, and has imposed no difficulties on you in religion; it is the religion of your father Abraham. It is He Who has named you Muslims, both before and in this [Qur’an]: [He chose you so that] the Messenger may be a witness [of this religion] to you, and you be witnesses of this religion to non-Muslims [of your times].|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|22|78}}||}}
 
  
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Following is the first verse of the Qur’an in which the [[Sahaba|Companions]] of Muhammad, who had migrated from [[Mecca]] were given permission to fight back if they were attacked:<ref name="jjihad"/>
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====Early Muslim conquests====
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{{quote|Permission to take up arms is hereby given to those who are attacked because they have been oppressed – Allah indeed has power to grant them victory – those who have been unjustly driven from their homes, only because they said: “Our Lord is Allah”.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc-range|22|39|40}}||}}
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[[Image:Map of expansion of Caliphate.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Age of the [[Caliph]]s {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under Prophet [[Muhammad]], 622–632/A.H. 1-11}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the [[Rashidun Empire|Rashidun Caliphate]], 632–661/A.H. 11-40}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], 661–750/A.H. 40-129}}]]
  
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The reason for this directive in [[Medina]] instead of [[Mecca]] considered by most Muslim scholars is that without political authority armed offensives become tantamount to spreading disorder and anarchy in the society. As one of Islamic jurist writes:
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In the early era that inspired classical Islam ([[Rashidun Empire|Rashidun Caliphate]]) and lasted less than a century, “jihad” spread the realm of Islam to include millions of subjects, and an area extending "from the borders of India and China to the Pyrenees and the Atlantic".<ref name=Lewis/>
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{{quote|Among ''Kafayah'' obligations, the third category is that for which the existence of a ruler is necessary e.g., ''Jihad'' and execution of punishments. Therefore, only a ruler has this prerogative. Because, indeed, no one else has the right to punish another person.|30px|30px|Sayyid Sabiq|Fiqhu’l-Sunnah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Fikr, 1980), p. 30}}
 
  
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=== Directive of warfare ===
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The role of religion in these early conquests is debated. Medieval Arabic authors believed the conquests were commanded by God, and presented them as orderly and disciplined, under the command of the caliph.<ref name=Bonner/> Many modern historians question whether hunger and desertification, rather than jihad, was a motivating force in the conquests. The famous historian [[William Montgomery Watt]] argued that “Most of the participants in the [early Islamic] expeditions probably thought of nothing more than booty ... There was no thought of spreading the religion of Islam.”<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/> Similarly, Edward J. Jurji argues that the motivations of the Arab conquests were certainly not “for the propagation of Islam ... Military advantage, economic desires, [and] the attempt to strengthen the hand of the state and enhance its sovereignty ... are some of the determining factors.”<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/> Some recent explanations cite both material and religious causes in the conquests.<ref name=Bonner/>
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The directive of the Jihad given to Muslims in Qur'an is:<ref name="jjihad"/>
 
  
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These verses told Muslims that they should not merely fight the [[Banu Quraish]] if they resist them in offering [[Hajj]], but the Qur’an goes on to say that they should continue to fight the [[Banu Quraish]] until the persecution perpetrated by them is uprooted and Islam prevails in the whole of Arabia. Initially Muslims were required to fulfill this responsibility even if the enemy was ten times their might. Afterwards, the Qur'an reduced the burden of this responsibility.<ref name="jjihad"/> As in Qur'an:
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===Post-Classical usage===
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{{quote|Prophet! Rouse the believers to wage war. If there are twenty amongst you, patient and persevering, they will subdue two hundred: if a hundred, they will subdue a thousand of the disbelievers: for these are a people without understanding.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|8|65}}||}}
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While most Islamic theologians in the classical period (750–1258 C.E.) understood jihad to be a military endeavor, after Muslim driven conquest stagnated and the caliphate broke up into smaller states the "irresistible and permanent jihad came to an end."<ref name=Lewis-Political/> As jihad became unfeasible it was "postponed from historic to messianic time."<ref name=Lewis-revolt>Bernard Lewis, [https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2001/11/19/the-revolt-of-islam The Revolt of Islam] ''The New Yorker'', November 19, 2001. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref>
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{{quote|[From] now, God has lightened your [task] for He knows that there is now weakness amongst you: But [ever so], if there are a hundred of you, patient and persevering, they will subdue two hundred, and if a thousand, they will subdue two thousand, with the leave of God: for God is with those who patiently persevere.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|8|66}}||}}
 
  
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Some interpret above verses that ''Jihad'' never becomes obligatory unless the military might of the Muslims is up to a certain level. In the times of Muhammad, when large scale conversions took place in the later phase, the Qur'an reduced the Muslim to enemy ratio to 1:2. It seems that Muslims should not only consolidate their moral character, but it is also imperative for them to build their military might if they want to wage ''Jihad'' when the need arises. The Qur’an gave a similar directive to Muslims of Muhammad times in the following words:<ref name="jjihad"/>  
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With the stagnation of Muslim driven expansionism, the concept of jihad became internalized as a moral or spiritual struggle. Later Muslims (in this case modernists such as [[Muhammad Abduh]] and [[Rashid Rida]]) emphasized the defensive aspect of jihad, which was similar to the Western concept of a "[[Just War]]."<ref name=Peters-Classical>Rudolph Peters, ''Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam'' (Markus Wiener Publishers, 2005, ISBN 978-1558763593).</ref> According to historian [[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|Hamilton Gibb]], "in the historic [Muslim] Community the concept of jihad had gradually weakened and at length been largely reinterpreted in terms of Sufi ethics."<ref> Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb, ''Mohammedanism: An Historical Survey'' (Mentor Books, 1955).</ref>
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{{quote|Muster against them all the men and cavalry at your disposal so that you can strike terror into the enemies of Allah and of the believers and others beside them who may be unknown to you, though Allah knows them. And remember whatever you spend for the cause of Allah shall be repaid to you. You shall not be wronged.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|8|60}}||}}
 
  
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While other scholars consider the later command of ratio 1:2 only for a particular time.<ref>[http://www.translatedquran.com/meaning.asp?sno=8&tno=253 Verse 8:66][[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]]. ''[[Tafhim al-Qur'an]]''. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref>
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===Contemporary fundamentalist usage===
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[[File:Fula jihad states map general c1830.png|thumb|250px|The [[Fula jihads|Fulani jihad states]] of West Africa, c. 1830]]
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With the [[Islamic revival]], a new "fundamentalist" movement arose, with some different interpretations of Islam, often with an increased emphasis on jihad. The [[Wahhabi]] movement which spread across the Arabian peninsula starting in the eighteenth century, emphasized jihad as armed struggle.<ref name=Gold>Dore Gold, ''Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism'' (Regnery Publishing, 2004, ISBN 978-0895260611).</ref> Wars against Western colonial forces were often declared jihad: the Sanusi religious order proclaimed it against [[Italo-Turkish War|Italians in Libya]] in 1912, and the "[[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdi]]" in the Sudan declared jihad against the British and the Egyptians in 1881.
  
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A policy was adopted regarding the extent of requirement that arose in wars that the Muslims had to fight. In the battles of [[Battle of Badr|Badr]], [[Uhud]] and [[Tabuk]], the responsibility was much more and each Muslim was required to present his services as a combatant.<ref name="jjihad"/> As in Qur'an:
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Other early anti-colonial conflicts involving jihad include:
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{{quote|Not equal are those of the believers who sit [at home] without any [genuine] excuse and those who strive hard and fight in the cause of Allah with their wealth and their lives. Allah has given preference by a degree to those who strive hard and fight with their wealth and their lives above those who sit [at home]. [In reality], for each, Allah has made a good promise and [in reality] Allah has preferred those who strive hard and fight above those who sit [at home] by a huge reward. Degrees of [higher] grades from Him and forgiveness and mercy. And Allah is Ever Forgiving, Most Merciful.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc-range|4|95|96}}||}}
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* [[Padri War]] (1821–1838)
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* [[Java War]] (1825–1830)
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* [[Syed Ahmad Barelvi#Reform/Resistance Movement|Barelvi Mujahidin war]] (1826-1831)
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* [[Caucasus War]] (1828–1859)
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* [[French rule in Algeria#Resistance of Abd al Qadir|Algerian resistance movement]] (1832 - 1847)
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* [[Dervish state|Somali Dervishes]] (1896–1920)
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* [[Moro Rebellion]] (1899–1913)
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* [[Aceh War]] (1873–1913)
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* [[Basmachi Movement]] (1916–1934)
  
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Qur'an also states that turning backs in the battle field, except for tactical purposes, is a big sin and will bring wrath of God.<ref>[[Amin Ahsan Islahi]], [[Tadabbur-i-Qur'an]], 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), 450-1</ref> As in Qur'an:
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None of these jihadist movements were victorious.<ref name=Lewis/> The most powerful, the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], lasted about a century until the British defeated it in 1903.
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{{quote|O you who believe! when you meet those who disbelieve marching for war, then turn not your backs to them. And whoever shall turn his back to them on that day— unless he turn aside for the sake of fighting or withdraws to a company— then he, indeed, becomes deserving of Allah's wrath, and his abode is hell; and an evil destination shall it be.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc-range|8|15|16}}||}}
 
  
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=== The driving force ===
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====Early Islamism====
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Islamic scholars agree that ''Jihad'' should not be undertaken to gratify one’s whims nor to obtain wealth and riches. Many also consider that it must also not be undertaken to conquer territories and rule them or to acquire fame or to appease the emotions of communal support, partisanship and animosity. On the contrary, it should be undertaken only and only for the cause of Allah as is evident from the words.<ref name="jjihad"/> As in Qur'an:
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In the twentieth century, many Islamist groups appeared, all having been strongly influenced by the social frustrations following the economic crises of the 1970s and 1980s.<ref>Pippi Van Slooten, “Dispelling Myths about Islam and Jihad”, ''Peace Review'', 17(2) (2005): 289-290.</ref> One of the first Islamist groups, the Muslim Brotherhood, emphasized physical struggle and martyrdom in its credo: "God is our objective; the Qur’an is our constitution; the Prophet is our leader; struggle (jihad) is our way; and death for the sake of God is the highest of our aspirations."<ref name=sacred>Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, ''The Age of Sacred Terror: Radical Islam's War Against America'' (Random House, 2003, ISBN 978-0812969849).</ref><ref name=slogan>[https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hamas.asp The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement: Article Eight] Hamas Covenant 1988, Yale Law School, Avalon Project. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref> In a tract "On Jihad", founder Hasan al-Banna warned readers against "the widespread belief among many Muslims" that struggles of the heart were more demanding than struggles with a sword, and called on Egyptians to prepare for jihad against the British.<ref>Hasan Al-Banna, ''Five Tracts of Hasan Al-Banna, (1906-49): A Selection from the "Majmu'at Rasa'il al-Imam al-Shahid Hasan al-Banna"'' (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978, ISBN 978-0520095847).</ref>
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{{quote|Those who believe, fight in the cause of Allah, and those who disbelieve, fight in the cause of Satan. So fight you against the friends of Satan. Ever feeble indeed is the plot of Satan.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|4|76}}||}}
 
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Prophet Muhammad, at various instances, also explained very forcefully this purport of the Qur’an:
 
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* Abu Musa Ash‘ari (rta) narrates that once a person came to the Prophet (sws) and said that some people fight for the spoils of war, some for fame and some to show off their valor; he then asked the Prophet (sws): “Which one of them fights in the way of Allah”. The Prophet (sws) replied: “Only that person fights in the way of Allah who sets foot in the battlefield to raise high the name of Allah”. [[Sahih Bukhari]] 2810
 
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* Abu Hurayrah (rta) narrates from the Prophet (sws): “I swear by the Almighty that a person who is wounded in the way of Allah – and Allah knows full well who is actually wounded in His way – he would be raised on the Day of Judgement such that his colour be the colour of blood with the fragrance of musk around him”. [[Sahih Bukhari]] 2803
 
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* Ibn Jabr narrates from the Prophet (sws): “A person whose feet become dust ridden because of [striving] in the way of Allah will never be touched by the flames of Hell”. [[Sahih Bukhari]] 2811
 
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* Sahal Ibn Sa‘ad says that the Prophet (sws) once said: “To reside in a border area for a day to protect [people] against an enemy [invasion] is better than this world and everything it has”. [[Sahih Bukhari]] 2892
 
  
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Similarly as a reward for participation in such a strive, the Qur'an states:
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According to Rudolph Peters and [[Natana J. DeLong-Bas]], the new "fundamentalist" movement brought a reinterpretation of Islam and their own writings on jihad. These writings tended to be less interested and involved with legal arguments, what the different of schools of Islamic law had to say, or in solutions for all potential situations. "They emphasize more the moral justifications and the underlying ethical values of the rules, than the detailed elaboration of those rules." They also tended to ignore the distinction between Greater and Lesser jihad because it distracted Muslims "from the development of the combative spirit they believe is required to rid the Islamic world of Western influences".<ref name=WahhabiIslam>Natana DeLong-Bas, ''Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad'' (Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0195333015).</ref><ref name=Peters-Classical/>
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{{quote|Consider not those who are killed in the way of Allah as dead. Nay, they are alive with their Lord, and they will be provided for. They rejoice in what Allah has bestowed upon them of His bounty and rejoice for the sake of those who have not yet joined them, but are left behind [not yet martyred] that on them too no fear shall come, nor shall they grieve. They rejoice in a grace and a bounty from Allah, and that Allah will not waste the reward of the believers.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc-range|3|169|171}}||}}
 
  
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=== Ethical limits ===
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In the 1980s the Muslim Brotherhood cleric [[Abdullah Azzam]], sometimes called "the father of the modern global jihad", opened the possibility of successfully waging jihad against unbelievers in the here and now.<ref name=Riedel>Bruce Riedel [https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/the-911-attacks-spiritual-father/ The 9/11 Attacks’ Spiritual Father] ''Brookings'', September 11, 2011. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref> Azzam issued a [[fatwa]] calling for jihad against the Soviet occupiers of [[Afghanistan]], declaring it an individual obligation for all able bodied Muslims because it was a defensive jihad to repel invaders.  
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{{main|Rules of war in Islam}}
 
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[[Sharia|Islamic Law]], based upon the Quran and practices of Muhammad has set down a set of laws to be observed during the lesser Jihad.  
 
  
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Qur'an forbids fighting in sacred month and similarly within the boundaries of [[Haram]]. But if non-Muslims disregard these sanctities, Muslims are asked to retaliate in equal measure.<ref>[[Amin Ahsan Islahi]], [[Tadabbur-i-Qur'an]], 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), 479-80.</ref> It is stated in Qur'an:
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Azzam claimed that "anyone who looks into the state of Muslims today will find that their great misfortune is their abandonment of ''Jihad''", and warned that "without ''Jihad'', ''shirk'' ( the sin of practicing idolatry or polytheism, i.e. the deification or worship of anyone or anything other than the singular God, Allah. ) will spread and become dominant".<ref name=Azzam>Abdullah Azzam, [http://www.religioscope.com/info/doc/jihad/azzam_caravan_3_part1.htm Reasons for Jihad] ''Join the Caravan''. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref><ref name=Gold/> Jihad was so important that to "repel" the unbelievers was was "the most important obligation after Iman [faith]."<ref name=Gold/>
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{{quote|A sacred month for a sacred month; [similarly] other sacred things too are subject to retaliation. So if any one transgresses against you, you should also pay back in equal coins. Have fear of Allah and [keep in mind that] Allah is with those who remain within the bounds [stipulated by religion].|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|2|194}}||}}
 
  
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Observance of treaties and pacts is stressed in Qur'an. When some Muslims were still in [[Mecca]], and they couldn't migrate to [[Medina]], the Qur'an stated:
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Azzam also argued for a broader interpretation of who it was permissible to kill in jihad, an interpretation that some think may have influenced important students of his, including [[Osama bin Laden]].<ref name=Gold/>
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{{quote|And to those who accepted faith but did not migrate [to Madinah], you owe no duty of protection to them until they migrate; but if they seek your help in religion, it is your duty to help them except against a people with whom you have a treaty of mutual alliance; and Allah is the All-Seer of what you do.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|8|72}}||}}
 
  
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Similar reports are attributed to Muhammad:
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<blockquote>Many Muslims know about the hadith in which the Prophet ordered his companions not to kill any women or children, etc., but very few know that there are exceptions to this case ... In summary, Muslims do not have to stop an attack on mushrikeen, if non-fighting women and children are present.<ref name=Gold/></blockquote>
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*Abu Sa‘id (rta) narrates from the Prophet (sws): “On the Day of Judgment, to proclaim the traitorship of a traitor and the betrayal of a person who betrayed his words, a flag shall be hoisted which would be as high as [the extent of his] traitorship”, and [the Prophet (sws) also said]: “Remember that no traitor and betrayer of promises is greater than the one who is the leader and ruler of people”. [[Sahih Muslim]] 1738
 
  
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=== Objectives of warfare ===
+
Having tasted victory in Afghanistan, many of the thousands of fighters returned to their home country such as Egypt, Algeria, Kashmir or to places like Bosnia to continue jihad. Not all the former fighters agreed with Azzam's chioice of targets (Azzam was assassinated in November 1989) but former Afghan fighters led or participated in serious insurgencies in Egypt, Algeria, Kashmir, Somalia in the 1990s and later creating a "transnational jihadist stream."<ref>David Commins, ''The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia'' (IB Tauris, 2009).</ref>
−
According to verses {{Quran-usc-range|2|190|194}}, the Qur'an implies two objectives:<ref name="jjihad"/>
 
−
#Uproot ''fitnah'' ('''{{lang|ar|فتنة}}''') or persecution
 
−
#Establish supremacy of Islam in the world
 
  
−
==== Against persecution ====
+
Contemporary fundamentalists were often influenced by jurist [[Ibn Taymiyya]]'s, and journalist [[Sayyid Qutb]]'s, ideas on jihad. Ibn Taymiyya's hallmark themes included:
−
Directives for action against persecution and unbelief:  
+
* the permissibility of overthrowing a ruler who is classified as an unbeliever due to a failure to adhere to Islamic law,
−
{{quote|And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah altogether and everywhere; but if they cease, verily Allah doth see all that they do.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc-range|8|39}}|}}
+
* the absolute division of the world into ''dar al-kufr'' and ''dar al-Islam'',
 +
* the labeling of anyone not adhering to one's particular interpretation of Islam as an unbeliever, and
 +
* the call for blanket warfare against non-Muslims, particularly Jews and Christians.<ref name=WahhabiIslam/>
  
−
Also:
+
Ibn Taymiyya recognized "the possibility of a jihad against `heretical` and `deviant` Muslims within ''dar al-Islam''. He identified as heretical and deviant Muslims anyone who propagated innovations (bida') contrary to the Qur’an and Sunna ... legitimated jihad against anyone who refused to abide by Islamic law or revolted against the true Muslim authorities." He used a very "broad definition" of what constituted aggression or rebellion against Muslims, which would make jihad "not only permissible but necessary."<ref name=WahhabiIslam/> Ibn Taymiyya also paid careful and lengthy attention to the questions of martyrdom and the benefits of jihad: "It is in jihad that one can live and die in ultimate happiness, both in this world and in the Hereafter. Abandoning it means losing entirely or partially both kinds of happiness."<ref name=Peters-Classical/>
−
{{quote|And what has come over you that you fight not in the cause of Allah, and for those weak, ill-treated and oppressed among men, women, and children, whose cry is: ‘Our Lord! Rescue us from this town whose people are oppressors, and raise for us from You one who will protect, and raise for us from You one who will help. [You should know that] those who believe fight in the cause of Allah, and those who disbelieve, fight in the cause of Satan. So fight you against the friends of Satan. Ever feeble indeed is the plot of Satan.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc-range|4|75|76}}||}}
+
[[File:Qutb.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Sayyid Qutb]], Islamist author]]
 +
The highly influential Muslim Brotherhood leader, [[Sayyid Qutb]], preached in his book ''Milestones'' that jihad, "is not a temporary phase but a permanent war ... Jihad for freedom cannot cease until the Satanic forces are put to an end and the religion is purified for God in toto."<ref name=Milestones>Sayed Qutb, ''Milestones'' (Islamic Book Service, 2006, ISBN 978-8172312442).</ref><ref name=WahhabiIslam/> Like Ibn Taymiyya, Qutb focused on martyrdom and jihad, but he added the theme of the treachery and enmity towards Islam of Christians and especially Jews. If non-Muslims were waging a "war against Islam", jihad against them was not offensive but defensive. He also insisted that Christians and Jews were ''mushrikeen'' (not monotheists) because (he alleged) gave their priests or rabbis "authority to make laws, obeying laws which were made by them [and] not permitted by God" and "obedience to laws and judgments is a sort of worship"<ref name=Milestones/><ref name=Symon>Fiona Symon, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1603178.stm Analysis: The roots of jihad] ''BBC'', September 7, 2014. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref>
  
−
Most Muslim scholars consider it an eternal directive and believe that all types of oppression should be considered under this directive.<ref name="jjihad"/><ref>[http://www.islamonline.net Islamonline.net] ''Concept of Dar Al-Islam and Dar Al-Harb''. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref>.Similarly, if a group of Muslims commit unwarranted aggression against some of their brothers and does not desist from it even after all attempts of reconciliation, such a group according to the Qur’an should be fought with:
+
Also influential was Egyptian [[Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj]], who wrote the pamphlet ''Al-Farida al-gha'iba'' (Jihad, the Neglected Duty). While Qutb felt that jihad was a proclamation of "liberation for humanity", Farag stressed that jihad would enable Muslims to rule the world and to reestablish the caliphate.<ref> David Cook, ''Understanding Jihad'' (University of California Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0520287327).</ref> He emphasized the importance of fighting the "near enemy"—Muslim rulers he believed to be apostates, such as the president of Egypt, [[Anwar Sadat]], whom his group assassinated—rather than the traditional enemy, Israel. Faraj believed that if Muslims followed their duty and waged jihad, ultimately supernatural divine intervention would provide the victory, a belief he based on Qur'an 9:14.
−
{{quote|And if two parties or groups among the believers start fighting, then make peace between them both. But if one of them outrages against the other, then fight you against the one which outrages till it complies with the command of Allah. Then if it complies, make reconciliation between them justly, and be equitable. Verily! Allah loves those who are the equitable. The believers are brothers to one another. So make reconciliation between your brothers, and fear Allah that you may receive mercy.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc-range|49|9|10}}||}}
 
  
−
If Muslims do not have a state, then in such a situation, Muhammad while answering a question raised by one of his followers, directed Muslims to dissociate themselves from such anarchy and disorder:
+
==Shi'a==
−
:I asked: If there is no state or ruler of the Muslims? He replied: In this situation, dissociate yourself from all groups, even if you have to chew the roots of a tree at the time of your death. [[Sahih Bukhari]] 7084
+
In [[Shi'a Islam]], Jihad is one of the ten [[Practices of the Religion]], (though not one of the five pillars).<ref name=practices/> Traditionally, Twelver Shi'a doctrine has differed from that of [[Sunni]] on the concept of jihad, with jihad being "seen as a lesser priority" in Shi'a theology and "armed activism" by Shi'a being "limited to a person's immediate geography."<ref name=nationalae/>
  
−
====Supremacy of Islam in the Arabian peninsula====
+
According to a number of sources, Shi'a doctrine taught that jihad (or at least full scale jihad<ref name=kohlberg/>) can only be carried out under the leadership of the [[Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)|Imam]].<ref name=bukhari/> However, "struggles to defend Islam" are permissible before his return.<ref name=kohlberg>Etan Kohlberg, "The Development of the Imami Shi'i Doctrine of Jihad." ''Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen Laendischen Gesellschaft'', 126 (1976): 64-86.</ref>
−
It is stated in Qur'an:
 
−
{{quote|Indeed those who are opposing Allah and His Messenger are bound to be humiliated. The Almighty has ordained: ‘‘I and My Messengers shall always prevail’’. Indeed Allah is Mighty and Powerful.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc-range|58|20|21}}||}}
 
  
−
After [[Itmam al-hujjah]] (clarification of religion to the addressees in its ultimate form), [[Jew]]s were the ones who were subdued first. They had been granted amnesty because of various pacts. Those among them who violated these pacts were given the punishment of denying a Messenger of God.<ref name="jjihad"/> Muhammad exiled the tribe of [[Banu Qaynuqa]] to [[Khyber]] and that of [[Banu Nadir]] to [[Syria]].<ref>[[Ibn Hisham]], al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), 40-2 / Ibid. vol. 3, 151-160.</ref> The power they wielded at [[Khyber]] was crushed by an attack at their strongholds.<ref>Ibid., 40-2. / Ibid., 151-160.</ref> Prior to this, [[Abu al-Rafi ibn Abu al-Huqayq|Abu al-Rafi]] and [[Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf]] were put to death in their houses.<ref>Ibid., 43-8 / Ibn Sa‘ad, al-Tabaqatu’l-Kubra, vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1960), 28.</ref> The tribe of [[Banu Qurayza]] was guilty of treachery and disloyalty in the battle of the Ahzab.<ref>[[Ibn Hisham]], al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), 180-2/</ref> When the clouds of war dispersed and the chances of an external attack no longer remained, Muhammad laid siege around them. When no hope remained, they asked Muhammad to appoint [[Sa'd ibn Mua'dh]] as an arbitrator to decide their fate. Their request was accepted. Since, at that time, no specific punishment had been revealed in the Qur’an about the fate of the Jews, [[Sa'd ibn Mua'dh]] announced his verdict in accordance with the [[Torah]]. As per the Torah, the punishment in such situations was that all men should be put to death; the women and children should be made slaves and the wealth of the whole nation should be distributed among the conquerors.<ref>[[Deuteronomy]], [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=5&CHAPTER=20 20:10-14] ''Navigating the Bible''. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref><ref>[[Caesar E. Farah]]. [[Islam: Beliefs and Observances]], 52</ref> In accordance with this verdict pronounced, all men were executed.<ref>[[Ibn Hisham]], al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), 188-9</ref> [[John Esposito]] writes that Muhammad's use of warfare in general was alien neither to Arab custom nor to that of the Hebrew prophets, as both believed that God had sanctioned battle with the enemies of the Lord.<ref>[[John Esposito]](2005), ''Islam: The Straight Path'', p.15</ref>
+
Jihad has been used by Shi'a Islamists in the twentieth Century: Ayatollah [[Ruhollah Khomeini]], the leader of the [[Iranian Revolution]] and founder of the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], wrote a treatise on the "Greater Jihad" (internal/personal struggle against sin).<ref name=Khomeini-greater>Ruhollah Khomeini, [https://www.al-islam.org/jihad-al-akbar-greatest-jihad-combat-self-sayyid-ruhullah-musawi-khomeini Jihad al-Akbar, The Greatest Jihad: Combat with the Self] Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref> Khomeini declared jihad on [[Iraq]] in the [[Iran–Iraq War]], and the Shi'a bombers of Western embassies and peacekeeping troops in [[Lebanon]] called themselves, "[[Islamic Jihad Organization|Islamic Jihad]]."
  
−
No other incident of note took place regarding the Jews until the revelation of [[At-Tawba]], the final judgement, was declared against them:<ref name="jjihad"/>
+
Until recently jihad did not have the high profile or global significance among Shi'a Islamist that it had among the Sunni.<ref name=nationalae/> This changed with the [[Syrian Civil War]], where, "for the first time in the history of Shi'a Islam, adherents are seeping into another country to fight in a holy war to defend their doctrine."<ref name=nationalae>Hassan Hassan, [https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/the-rise-of-shia-jihadism-in-syria-will-fuel-sectarian-fires-1.444963 The rise of Shi'a jihadism in Syria will fuel sectarian fires] ''The National, June 5, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref>
−
{{quote|Fight those who believe not in Allah or the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the Religion of Truth, from among the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizyah with willing submission and are subdued.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|9|29}}||}}
 
  
−
This directive related to both the Jews and the Christians. The punishment mentioned in these verses is a show of lenience to them because they were originally adherents to monotheism. However, they did not benefit from this lenience because after the death of Muhammad they once again allegedly resorted to  fraud and treachery.<ref>[[Sahih Bukhari]], 2730</ref><ref>[[Abu Yusuf]], Kitab al-kharaj, Fasl fi’l-Fay wa al-Khiraj, (1302 AH), 42</ref><ref>[[Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri]], Futuhu’l-Buldan, (Qumm: Manshurat al-Arummiyyah, 1404 AH), 73</ref><ref>[[Ibn Athir]], Al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh, 1st ed., vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Beirut, 1965), 112.</ref> Consequently, the Jews of [[Khyber]] and the Christians of [[Najran]] were exiled once and for all from the Arabian peninsula by [[Umar]]. This exile actually fulfilled the following declaration of the Qur’an about them:<ref name="jjihad"/>
+
==Current usage==
−
{{quote|And had it not been that Allah had decreed exile for them, He would certainly have punished them in this world; and in the Hereafter theirs shall be the torment of the Fire.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc|59|3}}||}}
+
The term 'jihad' has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. According to [[John Esposito]], it can simply mean striving to live a moral and virtuous life, spreading and defending Islam as well as fighting injustice and oppression, among other things.<ref name=UnholyWar/> The relative importance of these two forms of jihad is a matter of controversy.
  
−
When the polytheists of Arabia had been similarly subdued, it was proclaimed in [[At-Tawba]] that in future no pact would be made with them. They would be given a final respite of four months and then they would be humiliated in retribution of their deeds and would in no way be able to escape from this punishment. After this time limit, the declaration is made in the Qur’an:<ref name="jjihad"/>
+
According to scholar of Islam and Islamic history Rudoph Peters, in the contemporary Muslim world,
−
{{quote|And a declaration should be made from Allah and His Messenger to these people on the day of the great Hajj that Allah is free from [all] obligations to these Idolaters and so is His Messenger. So if you [O Idolaters!] repent, it is better for you, but if you turn away, then know that you cannot escape from the grasp of Allah. And give tidings [O Muhammad (sws)] of a painful torment to these disbelievers. Except those of these Idolaters with whom you have a treaty, and who have not shown treachery in it nor have supported anyone against you. So fulfill their treaty to the end of their term. Indeed, Allah loves those who abide by the limits. Then when the sacred months [after the [[Hajj]]] have passed, kill these Idolaters wherever you find them, and capture them and besiege them, and lie in wait for them in each and every ambush. But if they repent and establish the prayer, and give Zakah, then leave them alone. Indeed, Allah is Ever Forgiving, Most Merciful.|[[Qur'an]]|{{Quran-usc-range|9|3|5}}||}}
+
*Traditionalist Muslims look to classical works on [[fiqh]]" in their writings on jihad, and "copy phrases" from those;
 +
*[[Islamic Modernism|Islamic Modernists]] "emphasize the defensive aspect of jihad, regarding it as tantamount to ''[[Just war theory|bellum justum]]'' in modern international law; and  
 +
*Islamist/revivalists/fundamentalists ([[Abul Ala Maududi]], [[Sayyid Qutb]], [[Abdullah Azzam]], etc.) view it as a struggle for the expansion of Islam and the realization of Islamic ideals."<ref name=Peters-Classical/>
  
−
After the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]], Muhammad himself singled out nations by writing letters to them. In all, they were written to the heads of eight countries.<ref>The names of these heads of state are: 1. Negus of Abyssinia, 2. Maqawqas of Egypt, 3. Khusro Parvez of Persia, 4. Qaysar of Rome, 5. Mundhar Ibn Sawi of Bahrain, 6. Hudhah Ibn ‘Ali of Yamamah, 7. Harith Ibn Abi Shamr of Damascus, 8. Jayfar of Amman.</ref> Consequently, after consolidating their rule in the Arabian peninsula, the [[Sahaba|Companions]] launched attacks against these countries giving them two options if they wanted to remain alive: to accept [[Islam|faith]] or to accept a life of [[dhimmi|subjugation]] by paying [[Jizya]]. None of these nations were considered to be adherents to [[polytheism]], otherwise they would have been treated in the same way as the Idolaters of Arabia.<ref name="jihad"/>"The Islamic Law of Jihad".</ref>
+
===Distinction of "greater" and "lesser" jihad===
 +
In his work, ''The History of Baghdad'', [[Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi]], an 11th-century Islamic scholar, referenced a statement by the [[Sahaba|companion of Prophet Muhammad]] [[Jabir ibn Abd-Allah]]. The reference stated that Jabir said, "We have returned from the lesser jihad (''al-jihad al-asghar'') to the greater jihad (''al-jihad al-akbar'')." When asked, "What is the greater jihad?," he replied, "It is the struggle against oneself."<ref name="bbcislam">[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_1.shtml Jihad] ''BBC'', August 3, 2009. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref><ref name=bukhari/> This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two forms of jihad: "greater" and "lesser."<ref name="bbcislam"/>
  
−
== Warfare in Muslim societies ==
+
The hadith does not appear in any of the authoritative collections, and according to the Muslim Jurist [[Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani]], the source of the quote is unreliable:
−
History records instances of the "call for jihad" being invoked by Islamic leaders to 'legitimate' wars of conquest. The major imperial Muslim dynasties of Ottoman Turkey (Sunni) and Persia (Shia) each established systems of authority around traditional Islamic institutions. Part of this incorporation involved various interpretations of jihad.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} For example, in the Ottoman empire the concept of [[ghaza]] was promulgated as a sister obligation to jihad. The Ottoman ruler [[Mehmed II]] is said to have insisted on the conquest of Constantinople (Christian Byzantium) by justifying ''ghaza'' as a basic duty.  Later Ottoman rulers would apply ''ghaza'' to justify military campaigns against the Persian [[Safavid]] dynasty. Thus both rival empires established a tradition that a ruler was only considered truly in charge when his armies has been sent into the field in the name of the true faith, usually against ''giaurs'' or heretics -often meaning each other-, often invoking some [[Sufi]] or other theological dispute, but rather driven by the universal craving for power, prestige, and if possible booty or territory.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The 'missionary' vocation of the Muslim dynasties was prestigious enough to be officially reflected in a formal title as part of a full ruler style- the Ottoman (many also had Ghazi as part of their name) Sultan [[Murad Khan II Khoja-Ghazi]], 6th Sovereign of the House of Osman (1421 - 1451), literally used [[Sultan ul-Mujahidin]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
 
−
 
−
The so-called [[Fulbe jihad state]]s and a few other jihad states in [[western Africa]] were established by a series of offensive wars.[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/uniform/usman1804.htm]
 
  
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The commands inculcated in the Quran (in five suras from the period after Muhammad had established his power) on Muslims to put to the sword those who will neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (''[[Jizya]]'') were not interpreted as a general injunction on all Muslims constantly to make war on the infidels (originally only polytheists who claimed to be monotheists, not "People of the Book", Jesus is seen as the last of the precursors of the Prophet Muhammed; the word infidel had different historical uses, notably used by the Crusaders to refer to the Muslims they were fighting against). It was generally supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the [[Caliph]] (an office that was claimed by the Ottoman sultans), but Muslims who did not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate (which is vacant), such as non-Sunnis and non-Ottoman Muslim states, always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Muslims on non-believers since the early caliphate. Some proclaimed Jihad by claiming themselves as [[mahdi]], e.g. the Sudanese [[Mahommed Ahmad]] in 1882.
+
<blockquote>This saying is widespread and it is a saying by Ibrahim ibn Ablah according to Nisa'i in al-Kuna. Ghazali mentions it in the Ihya' and al-`Iraqi said that Bayhaqi related it on the authority of Jabir and said: There is weakness in its chain of transmission.
 +
:—Hajar al Asqalani, Tasdid al-qaws; see also Kashf al-Khafaa’ (no. 1362)<ref>Shaykh Hisham Kabbani, [http://www.sunnah.org/tasawwuf/jihad004.html Jihad Al Akbar] ''Islamic Beliefs and Doctrine According to Ahl al-Sunna: A Repudiation of "Salafi" Innovations''. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref></blockquote>
  
−
== Non-Muslim opinions ==
+
[[Abdullah Azzam]] attacked it as "a false, fabricated hadith which has no basis. It is only a saying of Ibrahim Ibn Abi `Abalah, one of the Successors, and it contradicts textual evidence and reality."<ref name=Azzam/>
−
=== Barbary Pirates ===
 
−
The [[Barbary Pirate]]s is what Europe and the United States called the 18th century Jihad<ref>Andrew C. Hess. The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of the Oceanic Discoveries, 1453-1525. The American Historical Review, Vol. 75, No. 7 (Dec., 1970), 1892-1919.</ref> <ref>H. W. Crocker III. [http://www.crisismagazine.com/december2006/croker.htm "Lepanto, 1571: The Battle That Saved Europe".] Crisis Magazine. Retrieved November 27, 2007. </ref>by Ottoman corsairs, an Islamic group that attacked as far north in Europe as Iceland.
 
  
−
=== Modern Views ===
+
Nonetheless, the concept has had "enormous influence" in Islamic mysticism (Sufism).<ref name=bukhari/>  
−
The [[United States]] [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] has used its own ''ad hoc'' definitions of jihad in indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities:
 
−
*"As used in this First Superseding Indictment, 'Jihad' is the Arabic word meaning 'holy war'. In this context, jihad refers to the use of violence, including paramilitary action against persons,  governments deemed to be enemies of the fundamentalist version of Islam."
 
−
*"As used in this Superseding Indictment, 'violent jihad' or 'jihad' include planning, preparing for, and engaging in, acts of physical violence, including murder, maiming, kidnapping, and hostage-taking."<ref>[http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/padilla/uspad111705ind.pdf News.findlaw.com]. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref> in the indictment against several individuals including [[José Padilla (prisoner)|José Padilla]].
 
  
−
[[Karen Armstrong]] in her book [[Muhammad: a Biography of the Prophet (book)|"Muhammed"]], writes:
+
[[Hanbali]] scholar [[Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya]] believed that "internal Jihad" is important<ref>G.F. Haddad, [https://www.livingislam.org/n/dgjh_e.html Documentation of "Greater Jihad" hadith] ''Living Islam'', February 28, 2005. Retrieved November 20, 2020. </ref> but suggests those [[hadith]] which consider "Jihad of the heart/soul" to be more important than "Jihad by the sword," are weak.<ref>[http://www.peacewithrealism.org/jihad/jihad03.htm ''Jihad'' in the ''Hadith''], ''Peace with Realism'', April 16, 2006. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref>
  
−
:"Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle."<ref name="Robinson">{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_jihad.htm |title= The Concept of Jihad "Struggle" in Islam|accessmonthday= November 27 |accessyear=2007 |author= B.A. Robinson
+
===Other spiritual, social, economic struggles===
−
|authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |format=  |publisher= Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, March 2003 |archiveurl= |archivedate=}}</ref>
+
Muslim scholar Mahmoud Ayoub states that "The goal of true ''jihad'' is to attain a harmony between ''islam'' (submission), ''[[Iman (concept)|iman]]'' (faith), and ''[[ihsan]]'' (righteous living)."<ref> Mahmoud M. Ayoub, ''Islam: Faith and History'' (Oneworld Publications, 2005, ISBN 978-1851683505).</ref>
  
−
The [[Orientalist]], [[Maxime Rodinson]], wrote that "Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle &ndash; two ingredients common to many ideological movements." (Maxime Rodinson. ''Muhammad''. Random House, Inc., New York, 2002. p. 351.)
+
In modern times, [[Pakistan]]i scholar and professor [[Fazlur Rahman Malik]] has used the term to describe the struggle to establish "just moral-social order",<ref> Fazlur Rahman, ''Major Themes of the Qur’an'' (University Of Chicago Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0226702865). </ref> while President [[Habib Bourguiba]] of [[Tunisia]] has used it to describe the struggle for economic development in that country.<ref name=Peters-Classical/>
  
−
In English-speaking countries, especially the United States, the term '''jihadist''', technically a euphemism of [[mujahid]], is frequently used to describe [[militant Islam]]ic groups, including but not restricted to [[Islamic terrorism]].
+
A third meaning of jihad is the struggle to build a good society. In a commentary of the hadith [[Sahih Muslim]], entitled al-Minhaj, the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic]] scholar [[Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi]] stated that "one of the collective duties of the community as a whole (fard kifaya) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct".<ref>Shaykh Hisham Kabbani, Shaykh Seraj Hendricks, and Shaykh Ahmad Hendricks, [http://www.sunnah.org/fiqh/jihad_judicial_ruling.htm Jihad – A Misunderstood Concept from Islam] ''The Muslim Magazine''. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref>
  
−
==See also==
+
Majid Khadduri and Ibn Rushd list four kinds of ''jihad fi sabilillah'' (struggle in the cause of God)<ref name="Khadduri"/>:
−
* [[Islamic military jurisprudence]]
+
* Jihad of the heart ''(jihad bil qalb/nafs)'' is concerned with combatting [[the devil]] and in the attempt to escape his persuasion to evil. This type of Jihad was regarded as the greater jihad (''al-jihad al-akbar'').
−
* [[Itmam al-hujjah]]
+
* Jihad by the tongue ''(jihad bil lisan)'' (also Jihad by the word, ''jihad al-qalam'') is concerned with speaking the truth and spreading the word of Islam with one's tongue.
−
* [[Mujahidin]], cognate
+
* Jihad by the hand ''(jihad bil yad)'' refers to choosing to do what is right and to combat injustice and what is wrong with action.
−
* [[Opinion of Islamic scholars on Jihad]]
+
* Jihad by the sword ''(jihad bis saif)'' refers to ''qital fi sabilillah'' (armed fighting in the way of God, or holy war), the most common usage by [[Salafi]] Muslims and offshoots of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]].<ref name=Khadduri/>
−
* [[Aslim Taslam]]
 
−
* [[Hirabah]]
 
  
−
=== Political and military aspects ===
+
Natana J. Delong-Bas lists a number of types of "jihad" that have been proposed by Muslims
−
* [[Islam as a political movement]], [[Islamism]]
+
* educational jihad (''jihad al-tarbiyyah'');
−
* [[Militant Islam]]
+
* missionary jihad or calling the people to Islam (''jihad al-da'wah'')<ref name=WahhabiIslam/>
−
* [[Muhammad as a general]]
 
−
* [[Almoravid dynasty]]
 
−
* [[Muhammad Ahmad]]
 
−
* [[Imam Shamil]]
 
−
* [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]
 
−
* [[Timur|Timur the Lame]]
 
−
* [[Muslim conquests|Islamic conquests]]
 
−
* [[List of wars in the Muslim world]]
 
  
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=== Similar concepts in other religions and in secularism ===
+
===Warfare:Jihad by the sword (Jihad bil Saif)===
−
* [[Church Militant]], [[Zealot]] movement
+
Whether the Qur'an sanctions defensive warfare only or commands an all-out war against non-Muslims depends on the interpretation of the relevant passages.<ref>Fred M. Donner, ''The Sources of Islamic Conceptions of War'', in James Turner Johnson, ''Just War and Jihad'' (Greenwood Press, 1991).</ref> However, according to the majority of jurists, the Qur’ānic ''[[casus belli]]'' (justification of war) are restricted to aggression against Muslims and ''fitna''—persecution of Muslims because of their religious belief.<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/> They hold that unbelief in itself is not the justification for war. These jurists therefore maintain that only combatants are to be fought; noncombatants such as women, children, clergy, the aged, the insane, farmers, serfs, the blind, and so on are not to be killed in war. Thus, the Hanafī Ibn Najīm states: "the reason for jihād in our [the Hanafīs] view is ''kawnuhum harbā ‛alaynā'' [literally, their being at war against us]."<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/>
−
* religion: [[Religious Wars]]
 
−
* militant: [[Crusade]], [[Crusade (modern)]], [[Just war]], [[Goumiere]]
 
−
* political: [[Proselytism]], [[Inquisition]]
 
−
* spiritual: [[Tapas (Sanskrit)]], [[Mortification]], [[Yoga]], [[Hopi]]
 
  
−
=== Philosophers of Jihad doctrine ===
+
The Hanafī jurists al-Shaybānī and al-Sarakhsī state that "although kufr [unbelief in God] is one of the greatest sins, it is between the individual and his God the Almighty and the punishment for this sin is to be postponed to the ''dār al-jazā’'', (the abode of reckoning, the Hereafter)."<ref name="Al-Dawoody1"/><ref>Khaled Abou El Fadl, "The Rules of Killing at War: An Inquiry into Classical Sources," ''The Muslim World'' 89(2), (April 1999): 152.</ref>
−
*[[Ibn Taymiyyah]]
 
−
*[[Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab|Ibn Abdul Wahhab Najdi]]
 
−
*[[Syed Ahmad Shaheed|Syed Ahmed Barelwi and Maulvi Ismail]]
 
−
*[[Hasan al-Banna]]
 
−
*[[Sayyid Qutb]]
 
−
*[[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi|Abdul Ala Maudoodi]]
 
−
*[[Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami]]
 
−
*[[Abdullah Yusuf Azzam]]
 
−
*[[Osama bin Laden]]
 
−
*[[Fazlur Rahman]]
 
−
*[[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi]]
 
  
−
==Notes==
+
==Views of other groups==
−
{{reflist|2}}
 
  
−
== References ==
+
===Ahmadiyya===
−
*  Phares, Walid. Future Jihad Terrorist Strategies against America. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. ISBN 1403970742.
+
In [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadiyya Islam]], 'Jihad' is a purely religious concept. It is primarily one's personal inner struggle for self-purification. Armed struggle or military exertion is the last option only to be used in defense, to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of religious persecution, whilst not being able to follow one's fundamental religious beliefs.  
−
* Williams, Paul L. The Al Qaeda Connection International Terrorism, Organized Crime, and the Coming Apocalypse. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2005. ISBN 1591023491.
 
−
* Spencer, Robert. Onward Muslim Soldiers How Jihad Still Threatens America and the West. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Pub, 2003. ISBN 0895261006.
 
−
* Bostom, Andrew G. The Legacy of Jihad Islamic Holy War and the Fate of Non-Muslims. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2005. ISBN 1591023076.
 
−
* Bat Yeʼor. The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam From Jihad to Dhimmitude: Seventh-Twentieth Century. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996. ISBN 0838636780.
 
−
* Hanson, Victor Davis. An Autumn of War What America Learned from September 11 and the War on Terrorism. New York: Anchor Books, 2002. ISBN 1400031133.
 
−
* Kepel, Gilles. Jihad The Trail of Political Islam. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 0674008774.
 
−
* Ghāmirī, Jāved Aḥmad. Mīzān. Lāhaur: Dārulishrāq, 2001. ISBN 52901690.
 
  
−
==Sources and external links ==
+
It is not permissible that jihad be used to spread Islam violently or for political motives, or that it be waged against a government that maintains religious freedom. Political conflicts (even from a defensive stand) over independence, land and resources or reasons other than religious belief cannot be termed jihad. Thus there is a clear distinction, in Ahmadi theology, between Jihad (striving) and ''qitāl'' or ''jihad bil-saif'' (fighting or warfare). While Jihad may involve fighting, not all fighting can be called Jihad. Rather, according to Ahmadiyya belief, ''qitāl'' or military jihad  is applicable, as a defensive measure in very strictly defined circumstances and those circumstances do not exist at present.
  
−
===Encyclopedic and various non-specialized sites===
+
"Ahmad declared that jihad by the sword had no place in Islam. Instead, he wanted his followers to wage a bloodless, intellectual jihad of the pen to defend Islam."<ref>Siobhain McDonagh, [https://www.theyworkforyou.com/whall/?id=2010-10-20b.284.0 Ahmadiyya Community], Westminster Hall Debate, October 20, 2010. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref>
  
−
All links retrieved November 27, 2007
+
===Qur’anist===
 +
[[Quranism|Quranists]] do not believe that the word jihad means holy war. They believe it means to struggle, or to strive. They believe it can incorporate both military and non-military aspects. When it refers to the military aspect, it is understood primarily as defensive warfare.<ref>Aisha Y. Musa, [https://www.academia.edu/1236890/Towards_a_Qur_anically_Based_Articulation_of_the_Concept_of_Just_War_ Towards a Qur’anically-Based Articulation of the Concept of “Just War”] ''International Institute of Islamic Thought''. Retrieved November 20, 2020.</ref><ref>Caner Taslaman, ''The Rhetoric of "Terror" and the Rhetoric of "Jihad"'' (Cosmo Publishing, 2020, ISBN 978-1949872361).</ref>
  
−
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761582255 Jihad],  [[Encarta|Encarta Encyclopedia]]
+
== Notes ==
−
*[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?tocId=9368558 Jihad], [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
+
<references/>
−
*{{1911}}
 
−
*[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=jihad&searchmode=none EtymologyOnLine]
 
−
*[http://www.jihadmonitor.org/ JihadMonitor.org] Open Sources Project on Jihadist doctrine and groups
 
  
−
=== Islamic sites discussing Jihad===
+
==References==
 +
* Abou El Fadl, Khaled M. ''The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists''. HarperOne, 2007. ISBN 978-0061189036
 +
* Al-Banna, Hasan. ''Five Tracts of Hasan Al-Banna, (1906-49): A Selection from the "Majmu'at Rasa'il al-Imam al-Shahid Hasan al-Banna"''. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0520095847
 +
* Al-Dawoody, Ahmed. ''The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. ISBN 978-0230111608
 +
* Ayoub, Mahmoud M. ''Islam: Faith and History''. Oneworld Publications, 2005. ISBN 978-1851683505
 +
* Benjamin, Daniel, and Steven Simon. ''The Age of Sacred Terror: Radical Islam's War Against America''. Random House, 2003. ISBN 978-0812969849
 +
* Berkey, Jonathon P. ''The Formation of Islam''. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0521588133
 +
* Bonner, Michael. ''Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice''.  Princeton University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0691138381
 +
* Commins, David. ''The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia''.  IB Tauris, 2009. {{ASIN|B008YSQ27K}}
 +
* Cook, David. ''Understanding Jihad''. University of California Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0520287327
 +
* Crone, Patricia. ''Medieval Islamic Political Thought''. Edinburgh University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0748621941
 +
* DeLong-Bas, Natana. ''Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad''. Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0195333015
 +
* Esposito, John L. ''Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam''. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0195168860
 +
* Esposito, John L. ''Islam: The Straight Path''. Oxford University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0199381456
 +
* Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen. ''Mohammedanism: An Historical Survey''. Mentor Books, 1955. {{ASIN|B007B4ETVE}}
 +
* Gold, Dore. ''Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism''. Regnery Publishing, 2004. ISBN 978-0895260611
 +
* Haleem, Muhammad Abdel. ''Understanding the Qur’ān: Themes and Style''. London: Tauris, 2010. ISBN 978-1845117894
 +
* Hamidullah, Muhammad. ''The Muslim Conduct of State''. Kazi Publications Inc., 1992. ISBN 978-1567443400
 +
* Kadri, Sadakat. ''Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia to the Streets of the Modern Muslim World''. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013. ISBN 978-0374533731
 +
* Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. ''Shari'ah Law: An Introduction''. Oneworld Publications, 2008. ISBN 978-1851685653
 +
* Kassis, Hanna E. ''A Concordance of the Qur'an''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0520043275
 +
* Khadduri, Majid. ''War and Peace in the Law of Islam''. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955. ISBN 978-0801803369
 +
* Lewis, Bernard. ''The Political Language of Islam''. University Of Chicago Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0226476933
 +
* Lewis, Bernard. ''Islam and the West''. University Of Chicago Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0195090611
 +
* Lewis, Bernard. ''The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years''.  Scribner, 1997. ISBN  978-0684832807
 +
* Lewis, Bernard. ''The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror''. Random House, 2004. ISBN 978-0812967852
 +
* Morgan, Diane. ''Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice''. Praeger, 2009. ISBN 978-0313360251
 +
* Peters, Rudolph. ''Islam and Colonialism''. Mouton Publishers, 1980. ISBN 978-9027933478
 +
* Peters, Rudolph. ''Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam''. Brill Academic Publishers, 1977. ISBN 978-9004048546
 +
* Peters, Rudolph. ''Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam''. Markus Wiener Publishers, 2005. ISBN  978-1558763593
 +
* Qutb, Sayed. ''Milestones''. Islamic Book Service, 2006. ISBN 978-8172312442
 +
* Rahman, Fazlur. ''Major Themes of the Qur’an''. University Of Chicago Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0226702865
 +
* Steffen, Lloyd. ''Holy War, Just War: Exploring the Moral Meaning of Religious Violence''. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007. ISBN 978-0742558489
 +
* Taslaman, Caner. ''The Rhetoric of "Terror" and the Rhetoric of "Jihad"''. Cosmo Publishing, 2020. ISBN 978-1949872361
 +
* Zawati, Hilmi. ''Is Jihad a Just War?: War, Peace, and Human Rights Under Islamic and Public International Law''. Edwin Mellen Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0773473041
 +
* Wehr, Hans. ''Arabic-English Dictionary: The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic''. Spoken Language Services, 1993. ISBN 978-0879500030
  
−
All links retrieved November 27, 2007
+
== External links ==
 +
All links retrieved August 1, 2022.
 +
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_1.shtml Jihad] ''BBC: Religions''
 +
*[http://www.muslim.org/islam/jihad.htm The True Spirit of Jihad] by Sarah Ahmad, ''The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement''
 +
*[http://www.aboutjihad.com/jihad/jihad_explained.php What is Jihad?] ''About Jihad''
  
−
*[http://www.quranicstudies.com/listbook8.html Online book about Jihad: "Jihad in the Qur'an: The Truth from the Source"]
+
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
−
*[http://mac.abc.se/~onesr/ez/isl/0-sbm/Wanton.Destruction.html Excerpts from the Qur'an and Hadiths Condemning Wanton Destruction and Indiscriminate Killing]
 
−
*[http://www.youngmuslims.ca/online_library/books/jihad/ Jihad] Hasan al-Banna
 
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*[http://www.islam-qa.com/index.php?ref=20214&ln=eng  Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid: Ruling on jihad and kinds of jihad]
 
−
*[http://www.allaahuakbar.net/JIHAAD/murder_manslaughter_terrorism.htm Murder, Manslaughter & Terrorism All in the Name of Allah]
 
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*[http://macdonald.hartsem.edu/articles/jacksonart1.pdf Classical Muslim scholars' condemnation of terrorism]
 
−
*[http://www.understanding-islam.com/related/scategory.asp?catid=18 Jihad - Understanding-Islam.com] (Affiliated with [[Al-Mawrid|Al-Mawrid Institute]])
 
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*[http://www.livingislam.org/maa/dcmm_e.html - Defending The Transgressed By Censuring The Reckless Against The Killing Of Civilians]
 
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*[http://www.sunnipath.com/resources/Questions/qa00000798.aspx - Jihad: A spiritual perspective], [http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=1&ID=799&CATE=3 Jihad in the way of Allah] - ([[Sunnipath.com]])
 
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*[http://www.islam-qa.com/index.php?ln=eng&QR=34830 The Ruling On Physical Jihad] From Islamic Source – Islam Q&A
 
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*[http://www.islamonline.net/fatwa/english/FatwaDisplay.asp?hFatwaID=51346 Jihad:Meaning and Purpose], [http://www.islamonline.net/fatwa/english/FatwaDisplay.asp?hFatwaID=96325 Not Only Fighting], [http://www.islamonline.net/fatwa/english/FatwaDisplay.asp?hFatwaID=79793 War Ethics in Islam], [http://www.islamonline.net/english/Contemporary/2003/03/Article02.shtml How to Comprehend Jihad], [http://islamonline.net/English/In_Depth/ViolenceCausesAlternatives/Articles/topic01/2005/07/01.shtml Jihad, Empire and the Ethics of War and Peace], [http://www.islamonline.net/english/introducingislam/Individual/article08.SHTML Jihad and Shari`ah in the Life of the Average Muslim], [http://www.islamonline.net/english/Contemporary/2003/10/article02_a.shtml#1 Muslims/non-Muslim Relations; Peace or War] ([[Islamonline.net]])
 
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*{{cite web |url=http://www.sunnah.org/fiqh/jihad_judicial_ruling.htm |title= Jihad - A Misunderstood Concept from Islam |accessmonthday= 08-16 |accessyear=2006 |author= Shaykh Hisham Kabbani |authorlink= |coauthors= Shaykh Seraj Hendricks, Shaykh Ahmad Hendricks|date= |format= HTML |publisher= The Muslim Magazine |archiveurl= |archivedate=}}
 
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*[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=952797 An Islamic View of the Battlefield] by [[L. Ali Khan]]
 
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*[http://www.liberalislam.net/nonviolence Islam and non-violence]
 
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*[http://hss.fullerton.edu/comparative/jihad_objectives.htm The Objectives and Aims of Jihaad, Shaykh Sa`eed ibn `Ali ibn Wahf al-Qahtaani]
 
−
*[http://www.youngmuslims.ca/online_library/books/milestones/hold/chapter_4.asp "Jihad in the Cause of God"] — an essay on the theory of Jihad by [[Sayyid Qutb]], from his book ''[[Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq]]'' (''Milestones'') [alternate translation [http://www.islamistwatch.org/texts/qutb/Milestones/jihad.html here]
 
−
 
 
−
===Non Islamic sites discussing Jihad===
 
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All links retrieved November 27, 2007
 
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*[http://physics911.net/islamnotsuicidal.htm Research on Islamic Jihad and 911]
 
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*[http://www.danielpipes.org/article/990 What is Jihad?] by [[Daniel Pipes]] published in the [[New York Post]] on December 31, 2002
 
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*[http://www.investigativeproject.net The Investigative Project] by [[Steven Emerson]]: "American Jihad"
 
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*[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=000B5155-2077-13A8-9E4D83414B7F0101 Scientific American Magazine (December 2005) Virtual Jihad]
 
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*[http://www.hweb.org.uk/content/view/18/2/ hWeb - The Rules of War and Jihad According to Islam]
 
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* [http://www.federationmovement.com/ Anti-Jihad Federation]
 
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* [http://www.jihadwatch.org/ Jihad Watch] - by [[Robert Spencer]]
 
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* [http://www.memri.org/ Middle East Media Research Institute]
 
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* [http://www.militantislammonitor.org/ Militant Islam Monitor]
 
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* [http://www.frontpagemag.com/ Front Page Magazine]
 
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[[Category:Philosophy and relgion]]
 
 
[[Category:Islam]]
 
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Latest revision as of 12:39, 1 August 2022

Part of the series on

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Jihad (Arabic: جهاد) is an Islamic term referring to the religious duty of Muslims to strive, or “struggle” in ways related to Islam, both for the sake of internal, spiritual growth, and for the defense and expansion of Islam in the world. In Arabic, the word jihād is a noun meaning the act of "striving, applying oneself, struggling, persevering."[1] A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid (Arabic: مجاهد), the plural of which is mujahideen (مجاهدين). The word jihad appears frequently in the Qur’an, often in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God (al-jihad fi sabil Allah)", to refer to the act of striving to serve the purposes of God on this earth.[1][2]

Muslims and scholars do not all agree on its definition.[3] Many observers—both Muslim and non-Muslim[4]—as well as the Dictionary of Islam,[2] talk of jihad as having two meanings: an inner spiritual struggle (the "greater jihad"), and an outer physical struggle against the enemies of Islam (the "lesser jihad")[2] which may take a violent or non-violent form.[1] Jihad is often translated as "Holy War,"[5] although this term is controversial.[6]

Jihad is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam, though it occupies no such official status.[7] In Twelver Shi'a Islam, however, jihad is one of the ten Practices of the Religion.[8]

Origins

In Modern Standard Arabic, the term jihad is used to mean struggle for causes, both religious and secular. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic defines the term as "fight, battle; jihad, holy war (against the infidels, as a religious duty)."[9] Nonetheless, it is usually used in the religious sense and its beginnings are traced back to the Qur'an and words and actions of the Prophet Muhammad.[10] In the Qur'an and in later Muslim usage, jihad is commonly followed by the expression fi sabil illah, "in the path of God."[11] Muhammad Abdel Haleem states that it indicates "the way of truth and justice, including all the teachings it gives on the justifications and the conditions for the conduct of war and peace."[12] It is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word "crusade" (as in "a crusade against drugs").[13]

It was generally supposed that the order for a general war could only be given by the Caliph (an office that was claimed by the Ottoman sultans), but Muslims who did not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate (which has been vacant since 1923)—such as non-Sunnis and non-Ottoman Muslim states—always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of jihad. There has been no overt, universal warfare by Muslims on non-believers since the early caliphate.

Khaled Abou El Fadl stresses that the Islamic theological tradition did not have a notion of "Holy war" (in Arabic al-harb al-muqaddasa) saying this is not an expression used by the Qur’anic text, nor Muslim theologians. In Islamic theology, war is never holy; it is either justified or not. The Qur’an does not use the word jihad to refer to warfare or fighting; such acts are referred to as qital.[1]

Qur’anic use and Arabic forms

According to Ahmed al-Dawoody, seventeen derivatives of jihād occur altogether forty-one times in eleven Meccan texts and thirty Medinan ones, with the following five meanings: striving because of religious belief (21), war (12), non-Muslim parents exerting pressure, that is, jihād, to make their children abandon Islam (2), solemn oaths (5), and physical strength (1).[14]

Hadith

The context of the Qur’an is elucidated by Hadith (the teachings, deeds and sayings of Prophet Muhammad). Of the 199 references to jihad in perhaps the most standard collection of hadith—Bukhari—all assume that jihad means warfare.[15]

According to orientalist Bernard Lewis, "the overwhelming majority of classical theologians, jurists," and specialists in the hadith "understood the obligation of jihad in a military sense."[16] Javed Ahmad Ghamidi claims that there is consensus among Islamic scholars that the concept of jihad always includes armed struggle against wrong doers.[17]

Among reported sayings of Prophet Muhammad involving jihad are

The best Jihad is the word of Justice in front of the oppressive sultan.[18]

and

Ibn Habbaan narrates: The Messenger of Allah was asked about the best jihad. He said: “The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain and your blood is spilled.” So the one who is killed has practiced the best jihad. [19]

According to another hadith, supporting one’s parents is also an example of jihad.[14] It has also been reported that Prophet Muhammad considered performing hajj to be the best jihad for Muslim women.[14]

Evolution of jihad

Some observers have noted evolution in the rules of jihad—from the original “classical” doctrine to that of twenty-first century Salafi jihadism.[20][21] According to legal historian Sadarat Kadri, in the last couple of centuries incremental changes of Islamic legal doctrine, (developed by Islamists who otherwise condemn any Bid‘ah (innovation) in religion), have “normalized” what was once “unthinkable."[20] "The very idea that Muslims might blow themselves up for God was unheard of before 1983, and it was not until the early 1990s that anyone anywhere had tried to justify killing innocent Muslims who were not on a battlefield.” [20]

The first or “classical” doctrine of jihad developed towards the end of the eighth century, dwelled on jihad of the sword (jihad bil-saif) rather than “jihad of the heart”,[16] but had many legal restrictions developed from Qur’an and hadith, such as detailed rules involving “the initiation, the conduct, the termination” of jihad, treatment of prisoners, distribution of booty, etc. Unless there was a sudden attack on the Muslim community, jihad was not a personal obligation (fard ayn) but a collective one (fard al-kifaya),[22] which had to be discharged `in the way of God` (fi sabil Allah), and could only be directed by the caliph, "whose discretion over its conduct was all but absolute."[20] (This was designed in part to avoid incidents like the Kharijia’s jihad against and killing of the Caliph Ali, who they judged a non-Muslim.)

Based on the twentieth century interpretations of Sayyid Qutb, Abdullah Azzam, Ruhollah Khomeini, Al-Qaeda and others, many if not all of those self-proclaimed jihad fighters believe defensive global jihad is a personal obligation, that no caliph or Muslim head of state need declare. Killing yourself in the process of killing the enemy is an act of martyrdom and brings a special place in heaven, not hell; and the killing of Muslim bystanders, (never mind non-Muslims), should not impede acts of jihad. One analyst described the new interpretation of jihad, the “willful targeting of civilians by a non-state actor through unconventional means.”[21]

History of usage and practice

The practice of periodic raids by Bedouin against enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils predates the revelations of the Qur'an. It has been suggested that Islamic leaders "instilled into the hearts of the warriors the belief" in jihad "holy war" and ghaza (raids), but the "fundamental structure" of this Bedouin warfare "remained, ... raiding to collect booty. Thus the standard form of desert warfare, periodic raids by the nomadic tribes against one another and the settled areas, was transformed into a centrally directed military movement and given an ideological rationale."[23]

According to Jonathan Berkey, jihad in the Qur’an was may originally intended against Prophet Muhammad's local enemies, the pagans of Mecca or the Jews of Medina, but the Qur’anic statements supporting jihad could be redirected once new enemies appeared.[10]

According to another scholar (Majid Khadduri), it was the shift in focus to the conquest and spoils collecting of non-Bedouin unbelievers and away from traditional inter-Bedouin tribal raids, that may have made it possible for Islam not only to expand but to avoid self-destruction.[22]

Classical

"From an early date Muslim law [stated]” that jihad (in the military sense) is "one of the principal obligations" of both "the head of the Muslim state", who declares jihad, and the Muslim community.[24] According to legal historian Sadakat Kadri, Islamic jurists first developed classical doctrine of jihad towards the end of the eighth century, using the doctrine of naskh (that God gradually improved His revelations over the course of the Prophet Muhammad's mission) they subordinated verses in the Qur’an emphasizing harmony to the more "confrontational" verses from Prophet Muhammad's later years, and then linked verses on striving (jihad) to those of fighting (qital).[20]

Muslim jurists of the eighth century developed a paradigm of international relations that divides the world into three conceptual divisions, dar al-Islam/dar al-‛adl/dar al-salam (house of Islam/house of justice/house of peace), dar al-harb/dar al-jawr (house of war/house of injustice, oppression), and dar al-sulh/dar al-‛ahd/dār al-muwada‛ah (house of peace/house of covenant/house of reconciliation).[14] [25] The second/eighth century jurist Sufyan al-Thawri (d. 161/778) headed what Khadduri calls a pacifist school, which maintained that jihad was only a defensive war,[22][14] He also states that the jurists who held this position, among whom he refers to Hanafi jurists, al-Awza‛i (d. 157/774), Malik ibn Anas (d. 179/795), and other early jurists, "stressed that tolerance should be shown unbelievers, especially scripturaries and advised the Imam to prosecute war only when the inhabitants of the dar al-harb came into conflict with Islam."[14][22]

The duty of Jihad was a collective one (fard al-kifaya). It was to be directed only by the caliph who might delayed it when convenient, negotiating truces for up to ten years at a time.[20] Within classical Islamic jurisprudence – the development of which is to be dated into the first few centuries after the prophet's death – jihad consisted of wars against unbelievers, apostates, and was the only form of warfare permissible.[22] Another source—Bernard Lewis—states that fighting rebels and bandits was legitimate though not a form of jihad,[26] and that while the classical perception and presentation of the jihad was warfare in the field against a foreign enemy, internal jihad "against an infidel renegade, or otherwise illegitimate regime was not unknown."[27]

The primary aim of jihad as warfare is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state.[28] In theory, jihad was to continue until "all mankind either embraced Islam or submitted to the authority of the Muslim state." There could be truces before this was achieved, but no permanent peace.[24]

One who died 'on the path of God' was a martyr, (Shahid), whose sins were remitted and who was secured "immediate entry to paradise."[29] However, some argue martyrdom is never automatic because it is within God's exclusive province to judge who is worthy of that designation. According to Khaled Abou El Fadl, only God can assess the intentions of individuals and the justness of their cause, and ultimately, whether they deserve the status of being a martyr.

The Qur’anic text does not recognize the idea of unlimited warfare, and it does not consider the simple fact that one of the belligerents is Muslim to be sufficient to establish the justness of a war. Moreover, according to the Qur'an, war might be necessary, and might even become binding and obligatory, but it is never a moral and ethical good. The Qur'an does not use the word jihad to refer to warfare or fighting; such acts are referred to as qital. While the Qur’an's call to jihad is unconditional and unrestricted, such is not the case for qital. Jihad is a good in and of itself, while qital is not.[1]

Classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence often contained a section called Book of Jihad, with rules governing the conduct of war covered at great length. Such rules include treatment of nonbelligerents, women, children (also cultivated or residential areas),[30] and division of spoils.[31] Such rules offered protection for civilians. Spoils include Ghanimah (spoils obtained by actual fighting), and fai (obtained without fighting i.e. when the enemy surrenders or flees).[32]

The first documentation of the law of jihad was written by 'Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i and Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani. Although Islamic scholars have differed on the implementation of jihad, there is consensus that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression.[17]

As important as jihad was, it was/is not considered one of the "pillars of Islam". According to Majid Khadduri this is most likely because unlike the pillars of prayer, fasting, and so forth, jihad was a "collective obligation" of the whole Muslim community," (meaning that "if the duty is fulfilled by a part of the community it ceases to be obligatory on others"), and was to be carried out by the Islamic state. This was the belief of "all jurists, with almost no exception", but did not apply to defense of the Muslim community from a sudden attack, in which case jihad was and "individual obligation" of all believers, including women and children.[22]

Early Muslim conquests

Age of the Caliphs ██ Expansion under Prophet Muhammad, 622–632/A.H. 1-11 ██ Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661/A.H. 11-40 ██ Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750/A.H. 40-129

In the early era that inspired classical Islam (Rashidun Caliphate) and lasted less than a century, “jihad” spread the realm of Islam to include millions of subjects, and an area extending "from the borders of India and China to the Pyrenees and the Atlantic".[24]

The role of religion in these early conquests is debated. Medieval Arabic authors believed the conquests were commanded by God, and presented them as orderly and disciplined, under the command of the caliph.[31] Many modern historians question whether hunger and desertification, rather than jihad, was a motivating force in the conquests. The famous historian William Montgomery Watt argued that “Most of the participants in the [early Islamic] expeditions probably thought of nothing more than booty ... There was no thought of spreading the religion of Islam.”[14] Similarly, Edward J. Jurji argues that the motivations of the Arab conquests were certainly not “for the propagation of Islam ... Military advantage, economic desires, [and] the attempt to strengthen the hand of the state and enhance its sovereignty ... are some of the determining factors.”[14] Some recent explanations cite both material and religious causes in the conquests.[31]

Post-Classical usage

While most Islamic theologians in the classical period (750–1258 C.E.) understood jihad to be a military endeavor, after Muslim driven conquest stagnated and the caliphate broke up into smaller states the "irresistible and permanent jihad came to an end."[16] As jihad became unfeasible it was "postponed from historic to messianic time."[33]

With the stagnation of Muslim driven expansionism, the concept of jihad became internalized as a moral or spiritual struggle. Later Muslims (in this case modernists such as Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida) emphasized the defensive aspect of jihad, which was similar to the Western concept of a "Just War."[34] According to historian Hamilton Gibb, "in the historic [Muslim] Community the concept of jihad had gradually weakened and at length been largely reinterpreted in terms of Sufi ethics."[35]

Contemporary fundamentalist usage

The Fulani jihad states of West Africa, c. 1830

With the Islamic revival, a new "fundamentalist" movement arose, with some different interpretations of Islam, often with an increased emphasis on jihad. The Wahhabi movement which spread across the Arabian peninsula starting in the eighteenth century, emphasized jihad as armed struggle.[36] Wars against Western colonial forces were often declared jihad: the Sanusi religious order proclaimed it against Italians in Libya in 1912, and the "Mahdi" in the Sudan declared jihad against the British and the Egyptians in 1881.

Other early anti-colonial conflicts involving jihad include:

  • Padri War (1821–1838)
  • Java War (1825–1830)
  • Barelvi Mujahidin war (1826-1831)
  • Caucasus War (1828–1859)
  • Algerian resistance movement (1832 - 1847)
  • Somali Dervishes (1896–1920)
  • Moro Rebellion (1899–1913)
  • Aceh War (1873–1913)
  • Basmachi Movement (1916–1934)

None of these jihadist movements were victorious.[24] The most powerful, the Sokoto Caliphate, lasted about a century until the British defeated it in 1903.

Early Islamism

In the twentieth century, many Islamist groups appeared, all having been strongly influenced by the social frustrations following the economic crises of the 1970s and 1980s.[37] One of the first Islamist groups, the Muslim Brotherhood, emphasized physical struggle and martyrdom in its credo: "God is our objective; the Qur’an is our constitution; the Prophet is our leader; struggle (jihad) is our way; and death for the sake of God is the highest of our aspirations."[38][39] In a tract "On Jihad", founder Hasan al-Banna warned readers against "the widespread belief among many Muslims" that struggles of the heart were more demanding than struggles with a sword, and called on Egyptians to prepare for jihad against the British.[40]

According to Rudolph Peters and Natana J. DeLong-Bas, the new "fundamentalist" movement brought a reinterpretation of Islam and their own writings on jihad. These writings tended to be less interested and involved with legal arguments, what the different of schools of Islamic law had to say, or in solutions for all potential situations. "They emphasize more the moral justifications and the underlying ethical values of the rules, than the detailed elaboration of those rules." They also tended to ignore the distinction between Greater and Lesser jihad because it distracted Muslims "from the development of the combative spirit they believe is required to rid the Islamic world of Western influences".[41][34]

In the 1980s the Muslim Brotherhood cleric Abdullah Azzam, sometimes called "the father of the modern global jihad", opened the possibility of successfully waging jihad against unbelievers in the here and now.[42] Azzam issued a fatwa calling for jihad against the Soviet occupiers of Afghanistan, declaring it an individual obligation for all able bodied Muslims because it was a defensive jihad to repel invaders.

Azzam claimed that "anyone who looks into the state of Muslims today will find that their great misfortune is their abandonment of Jihad", and warned that "without Jihad, shirk ( the sin of practicing idolatry or polytheism, i.e. the deification or worship of anyone or anything other than the singular God, Allah. ) will spread and become dominant".[43][36] Jihad was so important that to "repel" the unbelievers was was "the most important obligation after Iman [faith]."[36]

Azzam also argued for a broader interpretation of who it was permissible to kill in jihad, an interpretation that some think may have influenced important students of his, including Osama bin Laden.[36]

Many Muslims know about the hadith in which the Prophet ordered his companions not to kill any women or children, etc., but very few know that there are exceptions to this case ... In summary, Muslims do not have to stop an attack on mushrikeen, if non-fighting women and children are present.[36]

Having tasted victory in Afghanistan, many of the thousands of fighters returned to their home country such as Egypt, Algeria, Kashmir or to places like Bosnia to continue jihad. Not all the former fighters agreed with Azzam's chioice of targets (Azzam was assassinated in November 1989) but former Afghan fighters led or participated in serious insurgencies in Egypt, Algeria, Kashmir, Somalia in the 1990s and later creating a "transnational jihadist stream."[44]

Contemporary fundamentalists were often influenced by jurist Ibn Taymiyya's, and journalist Sayyid Qutb's, ideas on jihad. Ibn Taymiyya's hallmark themes included:

  • the permissibility of overthrowing a ruler who is classified as an unbeliever due to a failure to adhere to Islamic law,
  • the absolute division of the world into dar al-kufr and dar al-Islam,
  • the labeling of anyone not adhering to one's particular interpretation of Islam as an unbeliever, and
  • the call for blanket warfare against non-Muslims, particularly Jews and Christians.[41]

Ibn Taymiyya recognized "the possibility of a jihad against `heretical` and `deviant` Muslims within dar al-Islam. He identified as heretical and deviant Muslims anyone who propagated innovations (bida') contrary to the Qur’an and Sunna ... legitimated jihad against anyone who refused to abide by Islamic law or revolted against the true Muslim authorities." He used a very "broad definition" of what constituted aggression or rebellion against Muslims, which would make jihad "not only permissible but necessary."[41] Ibn Taymiyya also paid careful and lengthy attention to the questions of martyrdom and the benefits of jihad: "It is in jihad that one can live and die in ultimate happiness, both in this world and in the Hereafter. Abandoning it means losing entirely or partially both kinds of happiness."[34]

Sayyid Qutb, Islamist author

The highly influential Muslim Brotherhood leader, Sayyid Qutb, preached in his book Milestones that jihad, "is not a temporary phase but a permanent war ... Jihad for freedom cannot cease until the Satanic forces are put to an end and the religion is purified for God in toto."[45][41] Like Ibn Taymiyya, Qutb focused on martyrdom and jihad, but he added the theme of the treachery and enmity towards Islam of Christians and especially Jews. If non-Muslims were waging a "war against Islam", jihad against them was not offensive but defensive. He also insisted that Christians and Jews were mushrikeen (not monotheists) because (he alleged) gave their priests or rabbis "authority to make laws, obeying laws which were made by them [and] not permitted by God" and "obedience to laws and judgments is a sort of worship"[45][46]

Also influential was Egyptian Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj, who wrote the pamphlet Al-Farida al-gha'iba (Jihad, the Neglected Duty). While Qutb felt that jihad was a proclamation of "liberation for humanity", Farag stressed that jihad would enable Muslims to rule the world and to reestablish the caliphate.[47] He emphasized the importance of fighting the "near enemy"—Muslim rulers he believed to be apostates, such as the president of Egypt, Anwar Sadat, whom his group assassinated—rather than the traditional enemy, Israel. Faraj believed that if Muslims followed their duty and waged jihad, ultimately supernatural divine intervention would provide the victory, a belief he based on Qur'an 9:14.

Shi'a

In Shi'a Islam, Jihad is one of the ten Practices of the Religion, (though not one of the five pillars).[8] Traditionally, Twelver Shi'a doctrine has differed from that of Sunni on the concept of jihad, with jihad being "seen as a lesser priority" in Shi'a theology and "armed activism" by Shi'a being "limited to a person's immediate geography."[48]

According to a number of sources, Shi'a doctrine taught that jihad (or at least full scale jihad[49]) can only be carried out under the leadership of the Imam.[15] However, "struggles to defend Islam" are permissible before his return.[49]

Jihad has been used by Shi'a Islamists in the twentieth Century: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the Iranian Revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, wrote a treatise on the "Greater Jihad" (internal/personal struggle against sin).[50] Khomeini declared jihad on Iraq in the Iran–Iraq War, and the Shi'a bombers of Western embassies and peacekeeping troops in Lebanon called themselves, "Islamic Jihad."

Until recently jihad did not have the high profile or global significance among Shi'a Islamist that it had among the Sunni.[48] This changed with the Syrian Civil War, where, "for the first time in the history of Shi'a Islam, adherents are seeping into another country to fight in a holy war to defend their doctrine."[48]

Current usage

The term 'jihad' has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. According to John Esposito, it can simply mean striving to live a moral and virtuous life, spreading and defending Islam as well as fighting injustice and oppression, among other things.[3] The relative importance of these two forms of jihad is a matter of controversy.

According to scholar of Islam and Islamic history Rudoph Peters, in the contemporary Muslim world,

  • Traditionalist Muslims look to classical works on fiqh" in their writings on jihad, and "copy phrases" from those;
  • Islamic Modernists "emphasize the defensive aspect of jihad, regarding it as tantamount to bellum justum in modern international law; and
  • Islamist/revivalists/fundamentalists (Abul Ala Maududi, Sayyid Qutb, Abdullah Azzam, etc.) view it as a struggle for the expansion of Islam and the realization of Islamic ideals."[34]

Distinction of "greater" and "lesser" jihad

In his work, The History of Baghdad, Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an 11th-century Islamic scholar, referenced a statement by the companion of Prophet Muhammad Jabir ibn Abd-Allah. The reference stated that Jabir said, "We have returned from the lesser jihad (al-jihad al-asghar) to the greater jihad (al-jihad al-akbar)." When asked, "What is the greater jihad?," he replied, "It is the struggle against oneself."[51][15] This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two forms of jihad: "greater" and "lesser."[51]

The hadith does not appear in any of the authoritative collections, and according to the Muslim Jurist Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, the source of the quote is unreliable:

This saying is widespread and it is a saying by Ibrahim ibn Ablah according to Nisa'i in al-Kuna. Ghazali mentions it in the Ihya' and al-`Iraqi said that Bayhaqi related it on the authority of Jabir and said: There is weakness in its chain of transmission.

—Hajar al Asqalani, Tasdid al-qaws; see also Kashf al-Khafaa’ (no. 1362)[52]

Abdullah Azzam attacked it as "a false, fabricated hadith which has no basis. It is only a saying of Ibrahim Ibn Abi `Abalah, one of the Successors, and it contradicts textual evidence and reality."[43]

Nonetheless, the concept has had "enormous influence" in Islamic mysticism (Sufism).[15]

Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya believed that "internal Jihad" is important[53] but suggests those hadith which consider "Jihad of the heart/soul" to be more important than "Jihad by the sword," are weak.[54]

Other spiritual, social, economic struggles

Muslim scholar Mahmoud Ayoub states that "The goal of true jihad is to attain a harmony between islam (submission), iman (faith), and ihsan (righteous living)."[55]

In modern times, Pakistani scholar and professor Fazlur Rahman Malik has used the term to describe the struggle to establish "just moral-social order",[56] while President Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia has used it to describe the struggle for economic development in that country.[34]

A third meaning of jihad is the struggle to build a good society. In a commentary of the hadith Sahih Muslim, entitled al-Minhaj, the medieval Islamic scholar Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi stated that "one of the collective duties of the community as a whole (fard kifaya) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct".[57]

Majid Khadduri and Ibn Rushd list four kinds of jihad fi sabilillah (struggle in the cause of God)[22]:

  • Jihad of the heart (jihad bil qalb/nafs) is concerned with combatting the devil and in the attempt to escape his persuasion to evil. This type of Jihad was regarded as the greater jihad (al-jihad al-akbar).
  • Jihad by the tongue (jihad bil lisan) (also Jihad by the word, jihad al-qalam) is concerned with speaking the truth and spreading the word of Islam with one's tongue.
  • Jihad by the hand (jihad bil yad) refers to choosing to do what is right and to combat injustice and what is wrong with action.
  • Jihad by the sword (jihad bis saif) refers to qital fi sabilillah (armed fighting in the way of God, or holy war), the most common usage by Salafi Muslims and offshoots of the Muslim Brotherhood.[22]

Natana J. Delong-Bas lists a number of types of "jihad" that have been proposed by Muslims

  • educational jihad (jihad al-tarbiyyah);
  • missionary jihad or calling the people to Islam (jihad al-da'wah)[41]

Warfare:Jihad by the sword (Jihad bil Saif)

Whether the Qur'an sanctions defensive warfare only or commands an all-out war against non-Muslims depends on the interpretation of the relevant passages.[58] However, according to the majority of jurists, the Qur’ānic casus belli (justification of war) are restricted to aggression against Muslims and fitna—persecution of Muslims because of their religious belief.[14] They hold that unbelief in itself is not the justification for war. These jurists therefore maintain that only combatants are to be fought; noncombatants such as women, children, clergy, the aged, the insane, farmers, serfs, the blind, and so on are not to be killed in war. Thus, the Hanafī Ibn Najīm states: "the reason for jihād in our [the Hanafīs] view is kawnuhum harbā ‛alaynā [literally, their being at war against us]."[14]

The Hanafī jurists al-Shaybānī and al-Sarakhsī state that "although kufr [unbelief in God] is one of the greatest sins, it is between the individual and his God the Almighty and the punishment for this sin is to be postponed to the dār al-jazā’, (the abode of reckoning, the Hereafter)."[14][59]

Views of other groups

Ahmadiyya

In Ahmadiyya Islam, 'Jihad' is a purely religious concept. It is primarily one's personal inner struggle for self-purification. Armed struggle or military exertion is the last option only to be used in defense, to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of religious persecution, whilst not being able to follow one's fundamental religious beliefs.

It is not permissible that jihad be used to spread Islam violently or for political motives, or that it be waged against a government that maintains religious freedom. Political conflicts (even from a defensive stand) over independence, land and resources or reasons other than religious belief cannot be termed jihad. Thus there is a clear distinction, in Ahmadi theology, between Jihad (striving) and qitāl or jihad bil-saif (fighting or warfare). While Jihad may involve fighting, not all fighting can be called Jihad. Rather, according to Ahmadiyya belief, qitāl or military jihad is applicable, as a defensive measure in very strictly defined circumstances and those circumstances do not exist at present.

"Ahmad declared that jihad by the sword had no place in Islam. Instead, he wanted his followers to wage a bloodless, intellectual jihad of the pen to defend Islam."[60]

Qur’anist

Quranists do not believe that the word jihad means holy war. They believe it means to struggle, or to strive. They believe it can incorporate both military and non-military aspects. When it refers to the military aspect, it is understood primarily as defensive warfare.[61][62]

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Khaled M. Abou El Fadl, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists (HarperOne, 2007, ISBN 978-0061189036).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Diane Morgan, Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice (Praeger, 2009, ISBN 978-0313360251).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 John L. Esposito, Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam, (Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0195168860).
  4. ↑ Rudolph Peters, Islam and Colonialism (Mouton Publishers, 1980, ISBN 978-9027933478).
  5. ↑ Lloyd Steffen, Holy War, Just War: Exploring the Moral Meaning of Religious Violence (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007, ISBN 978-0742558489).
  6. ↑ Patricia Crone, Medieval Islamic Political Thought (Edinburgh University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0748621941).
  7. ↑ John L. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path (Oxford University Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0199381456).
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Part 2: Islamic Practices al-Islam.org. Retrieved August 1, 2017.
  9. ↑ Hans Wehr, Arabic-English Dictionary: The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (Spoken Language Services, 1993, ISBN 978-0879500030)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Jonathan P. Berkey, The Formation of Islam (Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0521588133).
  11. ↑ For a listing of all appearances in the Qur'an of jihad and related words, see Hanna E. Kassis, A Concordance of the Qur'an (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983, ISBN 978-0520043275), 587–588.
  12. ↑ Muhammad Abdel Haleem, Understanding the Qur’ān: Themes and Style (London: Tauris, 2010, ISBN 978-1845117894), 62.
  13. ↑ Jihad Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 Ahmed Al-Dawoody, The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, ISBN 978-0230111608).
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Douglas E. Streusand, What Does Jihad Mean? Middle East Quarterly, September 1997, 9–17. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (University of Chicago Press, 1991, ISBN 978-0226476933).
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Javed Ahmad Ghamidi, The Islamic Law of Jihad Renaissance, June 1, 2002. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  18. ↑ Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Shari'ah Law: An Introduction (Oneworld Publications, 2008, ISBN 978-1851685653).
  19. ↑ Ibn Nuhaas, The Book of Jihad, translated by Nuur Yamani, 107. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 Sadakat Kadri, Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia to the Streets of the Modern Muslim World (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013, ISBN 978-0374533731).
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Sebastian Gorka, Understanding History’s Seven Stages of Jihad Combating Terrorism Center, October 3, 2009. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955, ISBN 978-0801803369).
  23. ↑ James Turner Johnson, Holy War Idea in Western and Islamic Traditions (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0271016320).
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West (University Of Chicago Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0195090611).
  25. ↑ Hilmi Zawati, Is Jihad a Just War?: War, Peace, and Human Rights Under Islamic and Public International Law (Edwin Mellen Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0773473041).
  26. ↑ Bernard Lewis, The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (Random House, 2004, ISBN 978-0812967852)
  27. ↑ Bernard Lewis, The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years (Scribner, 1997, ISBN 978-0684832807).
  28. ↑ Rudolph Peters, Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam (Brill Academic Publishers, 1977, ISBN 978-9004048546).
  29. ↑ Islam (1,500) SCS-INC.US. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  30. ↑ Muhammad Hamidullah, The Muslim Conduct of State (Kazi Publications Inc., 1992, ISBN 978-1567443400).
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Michael Bonner, Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice (Princeton University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0691138381).
  32. ↑ Muhammad Sharif Chaudhry, Spoils of War Dynamics of Islamic Jihad. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  33. ↑ Bernard Lewis, The Revolt of Islam The New Yorker, November 19, 2001. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Rudolph Peters, Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam (Markus Wiener Publishers, 2005, ISBN 978-1558763593).
  35. ↑ Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb, Mohammedanism: An Historical Survey (Mentor Books, 1955).
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 Dore Gold, Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism (Regnery Publishing, 2004, ISBN 978-0895260611).
  37. ↑ Pippi Van Slooten, “Dispelling Myths about Islam and Jihad”, Peace Review, 17(2) (2005): 289-290.
  38. ↑ Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror: Radical Islam's War Against America (Random House, 2003, ISBN 978-0812969849).
  39. ↑ The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement: Article Eight Hamas Covenant 1988, Yale Law School, Avalon Project. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  40. ↑ Hasan Al-Banna, Five Tracts of Hasan Al-Banna, (1906-49): A Selection from the "Majmu'at Rasa'il al-Imam al-Shahid Hasan al-Banna" (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978, ISBN 978-0520095847).
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 Natana DeLong-Bas, Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad (Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0195333015).
  42. ↑ Bruce Riedel The 9/11 Attacks’ Spiritual Father Brookings, September 11, 2011. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Abdullah Azzam, Reasons for Jihad Join the Caravan. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  44. ↑ David Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia (IB Tauris, 2009).
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Sayed Qutb, Milestones (Islamic Book Service, 2006, ISBN 978-8172312442).
  46. ↑ Fiona Symon, Analysis: The roots of jihad BBC, September 7, 2014. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  47. ↑ David Cook, Understanding Jihad (University of California Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0520287327).
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Hassan Hassan, The rise of Shi'a jihadism in Syria will fuel sectarian fires The National, June 5, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Etan Kohlberg, "The Development of the Imami Shi'i Doctrine of Jihad." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen Laendischen Gesellschaft, 126 (1976): 64-86.
  50. ↑ Ruhollah Khomeini, Jihad al-Akbar, The Greatest Jihad: Combat with the Self Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Jihad BBC, August 3, 2009. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  52. ↑ Shaykh Hisham Kabbani, Jihad Al Akbar Islamic Beliefs and Doctrine According to Ahl al-Sunna: A Repudiation of "Salafi" Innovations. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  53. ↑ G.F. Haddad, Documentation of "Greater Jihad" hadith Living Islam, February 28, 2005. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  54. ↑ Jihad in the Hadith, Peace with Realism, April 16, 2006. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  55. ↑ Mahmoud M. Ayoub, Islam: Faith and History (Oneworld Publications, 2005, ISBN 978-1851683505).
  56. ↑ Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an (University Of Chicago Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0226702865).
  57. ↑ Shaykh Hisham Kabbani, Shaykh Seraj Hendricks, and Shaykh Ahmad Hendricks, Jihad – A Misunderstood Concept from Islam The Muslim Magazine. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  58. ↑ Fred M. Donner, The Sources of Islamic Conceptions of War, in James Turner Johnson, Just War and Jihad (Greenwood Press, 1991).
  59. ↑ Khaled Abou El Fadl, "The Rules of Killing at War: An Inquiry into Classical Sources," The Muslim World 89(2), (April 1999): 152.
  60. ↑ Siobhain McDonagh, Ahmadiyya Community, Westminster Hall Debate, October 20, 2010. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  61. ↑ Aisha Y. Musa, Towards a Qur’anically-Based Articulation of the Concept of “Just War” International Institute of Islamic Thought. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  62. ↑ Caner Taslaman, The Rhetoric of "Terror" and the Rhetoric of "Jihad" (Cosmo Publishing, 2020, ISBN 978-1949872361).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Abou El Fadl, Khaled M. The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. HarperOne, 2007. ISBN 978-0061189036
  • Al-Banna, Hasan. Five Tracts of Hasan Al-Banna, (1906-49): A Selection from the "Majmu'at Rasa'il al-Imam al-Shahid Hasan al-Banna". Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0520095847
  • Al-Dawoody, Ahmed. The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. ISBN 978-0230111608
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External links

All links retrieved August 1, 2022.

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