Hajj

A supplicating pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram, the mosque which was built around the Kaaba (the cubical building at center). Thousands of pilgrims walk around the Kaaba in a counter-clockwise direction.

The Hajj (Arabic: حج, transliterated Ḥaǧǧ; "greater pilgrimage") is the Islamic rite of pilgrimage to Mecca, the religion's Middle Easter nexus point. It is the fifth pillar of the religion, an obligation that must be carried out by every able-bodied Muslim at least once in their lifetime, with exceptions made for those who are prevented by financial or medical concerns. It is the most overt demonstration of the solidarity of the Muslim people, and of their submission to God. The festival itself occurs from the 8th to the 12th day of Dhul Hijjah, the 12th month of the Islamic calendar. This date cannot be aligned directly with Western calendars, but in the early 21st century, it occurs roughly in the November-January timeframe. While pilgrims are permitted to visit Mecca and perform the appropriate rituals at other times of the year (a practice known as the "lesser pilgrimage" or Umrah), this does not release them from their holy obligation to perform the Hajj at some other point in their lifetime.

The hajj is an ancient ritual, which many of the faithful believe dates back to the time of Abraham in 2000 B.C.E. Since time immemorial, those participating join processions of tens of thousands of people who simultaneously converge on Mecca for the week of the Hajj and perform the following series of rituals: each person walks counter-clockwise seven times about the Kaaba; kisses the Black Stone of Mecca; runs back and forth between the hills of Al-Safa and Al-Marwah; drinks from the Zamzam Well; goes to the plains of Mount Arafat to stand in vigil; proceeds to Muzdalifah to gather pebbles, which they throw at a rock in Mina (symbolically Stoning the Devil); shaves their heads; performs an animal sacrifice; and, finally, celebrates their successful pilgrimage at the three-day festival of Eid ul-Adha. This particular set of ritualized practices symbolically commemorates certain formative elements in the history of Islam, from the travels of Abraham to the last sermon delivered by Muhammad.

While the hajj includes many diverse ritual elements (from group prayers and quiet contemplation, to "stoning the devil" and circumambulating the Kaaba), this ritual framework (when viewed in its entirety) acts to elicit a sense of sacred time among its participants. Thus, the entire pilgrimage experience can be seen as a definitive example of a rite of passage, designed to transform the attitudes and world-views of those who perform it:

Few Muslims are unchanged by their experience of the Hajj: on their return to their homes and their normal lives, the religious element of life remains in the foreground, more real than the visible realities of normal life. Forever after, a photograph of the Kabaa reminds the former pilgrim of the intensity of the experience of Hajj, rather as a photograph of a small child warms the heart of its grandparent.

History and Context

Terminology and Etymology

Gerald Hawting, in the Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, notes that it is simply inadequate to translate hajj as "pilgrimage," given the functional and experiential nuances particular to the two. Specifically, "pilgrimage" invokes the concept of traveling to a sacred place (with emphasis on the travel), while "hajj" refers most specifically to the complex of ritual activities that the participants are expected to perform after their arrival in Mecca. Indeed, it is noted that the root h-j(-j), from which the term "hajj" is derived, seems to denote "procession, round, dance, or festival" — all of which imply the circumambulation ritual (tawaf) that bookends the pilgrim's experience.

Historical Sketch

The Hajj was already an ancient ritual in the time of Muhammad (seventh century CE). Indeed, the surviving descriptions of the prophet's life describe him regularly performing both the Hajj and Umrah, even before he began receiving revelations—a testament that is supported by surviving archaeological evidence, which suggests that many of the pilgrimage's hallmark practices were already prevalent in the region's popular religion, including the vigil at Mount Arafat and the "Stoning of the Devil." Regardless, it was only with the prophet's monotheistic reforms that the ritual system began to assume its modern form and significance:

According to Islamic tradition, the Abrahamic origins of hajj sites and rituals had been taught to the prophet Muhammad to the nascent Islamic community during the pilgrimage he performed just before the end of his life (632 C.E.). The sermon he delivered on the Mount of Mercy, at Arafat, and his removal of all pagan idols from the Ka'bah in Mecca are recollected annually during the hajj ceremonies. The imputed Abrahamic origins of the hajj ceremonies contribute a deeper, complimentary layer of symbolism that serves to underpin Muhammad's treatment of the hajj as a monotheistic ritual. Ibrahim's duty to sacrifice Ismail (Ishmael; not Isaac as in the Biblical tradition), Satan's three attempts to dissuade Ibrahim from following God's command, and the divine substitution of a ram for the blood sacrifice are celebrated at Mina during the festival of the Greater Sacrifice and the ritual stoning of the three pillars (see below). Mecca itself is believed to have been the wilderness sanctuary where Hajar (Hagar) and her infant son were escorted by Ibrahim. The Ka'bah stands on the site of a primordial temple where Adam is said to have prayed after his expulsion from paradise.

In the centuries after the prophet's death, the political and logistical elements of the hajj underwent various developments and modifications, including the imposition (or cancellation) of a "pilgrim's tax," the popularization of various pilgrimage routes, the vicissitudes of political power among the secular authorities that oversaw the event, and the growth of an ever-broadening body of Muslim participants (which developed in tandem with the outward expansion of the religion). For instance, Muslims would historically gather at various meeting points in other great cities, and then proceed en masse towards Mecca, in groups that could comprise tens of thousands of pilgrims, with two of the most famous early hubs being located in Cairo and Damascus. Conversely, the Crusade years, which saw many of these territories under European control, led to the popularization of aquatic pilgrimage routes (i.e., traversing the Red Sea or the Nile). Regardless of these contextual adaptations, it seems that the ritual itself has survived in a relatively unchanged form since itself original, monotheistic re-dedication at the hands of Muhammad.

Modern Context

As of 2007, an estimated two million pilgrims participate in this annual pilgrimage. Crowd-control techniques have become critical, and because of the large numbers of people, many of the rituals have become more stylized. It is not necessary to kiss the Black Stone, but merely to point at it on each circuit around the Kaaba. Throwing pebbles was done at large pillars, which for safety reasons were in 2004 changed to long walls with catchbasins below to catch the stones. The slaughter of an animal can be done either personally, or by appointing someone else to do it, and so forth. But even with the crowd control techniques, there are still many accidental incidents during the hajj, as pilgrims are trampled in the crush, or ramps collapse under the weight of the many visitors, causing hundreds of deaths. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's Ministry of Hajj has a website, with the message, "Be peaceful, orderly and kind. No crushing."

An additional issue with the modern hajj is a geo-political one: namely the fact that Mecca, the required destination for these millions of pilgrims, is located within the domain of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia—an embattled Middle Eastern nation whose relations with neighboring countries are often strained. Some of the difficulties that arise from this are explored by Andrew Rippin:

The pilgrimage, a ritual required for all Muslims who are able, takes place not solely on a personal level but also as a ritual which is undertaken in a modern nation-state, Saudi Arabia. It is, therefore, both under the control of that state and also that state’s responsibility. In 1987, over 400 pilgrims, mainly Iranians, were killed during violent demonstrations. As a result, the Saudi government cut ties with Iran and limited the number of Iranian pilgrims to 45,000. Iran retaliated by refusing to allow participation in the hajj at all. This situation lasted until 1991, when Iranians once again joined in; estimates for that year’s total pilgrimage participation were put at 2 million.31 Regulations concerning how often foreign residents of Saudi Arabia may perform the pilgrimage are another method instituted by the government to control attendance. The idea that participation in a fundamental ritual of the religion should be controlled by a given political regime has created substantial difficulties for some Muslims; calls for the internationalization of Mecca are sometimes voiced as a result. The political aspects of the issue—the alliances between Saudi Arabia and the United States being a focal point of many allegations—result in the pilgrimage frequently becoming a symbolic element in the struggle between modern nations.

At present, the hajj, in addition to its inestimable religious significance, is also a tremendous engine of economic redistribution, as it annually brings Muslims from the four corners of the globe back to Saudi Arabia. This influx of "pilgrim dollars" (as opposed to "tourist dollars") from other economies has a large impact throughout the Middle East and Northern Africa. For one example, see Tangban's insightful study of the economic impact of the hajj on the Nigerian economy, where he notes:

Pilgrimage to Mecca had far-reaching economic consequences for the Nigerian economy. The creation of the National Pilgrims Welfare Board with zonal offices has already been noted. Each zonal office of the Board had a staff strength of not less than twenty workers, ranging from cleaner to zonal supervisor. Apart from the personnel, each zonal office was provided with an office building and other operational facilities, such as motor vehicles, equipment and so on. If one takes into account staff emoluments and maintenance of motor vehicles and equipment, a modest estimate of the running cost per month of each zonal office may not have been less than fifteen thousand naira (N15,000.00). On this basis, the running cost of all the zonal offices put together would have stood at eighty thousand naira (N80,000.00) per month.

Apart from the National Pilgrims Board there were also State Pilgrims Welfare Boards, particularly in the northern states. Each State Pilgrim Board had a Board of Governors, a Secretary, a Principal Pilgrim Welfare Officer, a Senior Accountant and a number of intermediate and junior employees, resulting in a staff strength of between thirty and forty workers, Board members not included. A fleet of official vehicles were also maintained, both at home and in Saudi Arabia, by each State Pilgrim Board. To meet expenses in all these areas, each State Pilgrim Board may have required not less than fifty thousand naira (N50,000.00) per month.

Preparations

Pilgrims generally travel to Hajj in groups, as an expression of unity. Some airlines have special package holidays for Muslims going to Mecca. And now ships have also taken the job of taking the pilgrims to Mecca so they can perform Hajj.

During the Hajj, male pilgrims are required to dress only in a garment consisting of two sheets of white unhemmed cloth, with the top draped over the torso and the bottom secured by a white sash; plus a pair of sandals. Women are simply required to maintain their hijab - normal modest dress, which does not cover the hands or face.

The Ihram clothing is intended to show the equality of all pilgrims in the eyes of Allah, symbolizing the idea that there is no difference between a prince and a pauper when everyone is dressed equally. The Ihram also symbolizes purity and absolution of sins. A place designated for changing into Ihram is called a miqat.

While the pilgrim is wearing the Ihram, they cannot shave, cut their nails, wear deodorant or perfume. They may not swear or quarrel, kill any living thing (even an insect) or engage in sexual intercourse.

An invocation, known as the talbiyah, is to be chanted after the pilgrim makes his or her intention for the Hajj.

Rites

The route the pilgrims take during the Hajj

Upon arrival in Mecca, the pilgrim (now known as a Hajji), performs a series of ritual acts symbolic of the lives of Abraham (Ibrahim) and Hagar, his concubine. The acts also symbolize the solidarity with Muslims worldwide.

The greater Hajj (al-hajj al-akbar) begins on the eighth day of the lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah. If they are not already wearing it upon their arrival, pilgrims put on ihram clothing, and then leave Mecca for the nearby town of Mina, where they spend the rest of the day. The Saudi government has put up thousands of large white tents at Mina, to provide accommodations for all the pilgrims.

Tawaf

Direction of the Tawaf

On the first day of the Hajj, the 8th day of Dhul Hijjah {the 12th month}, the pilgrims perform their first Tawaf. This consists of walking anti-clockwise around the Kaaba seven times. Men are encouraged to perform the first three circuits at a hurried pace, followed by four times, more closely, at a leisurely pace. On each circuit the pilgrim is supposed to kiss the Black Stone, but this is not possible because of the large crowds, and so it is acceptable to simply point at the Stone on each circuit.

Sa'i

After Tawaf, the pilgrims perform sa`i, running or walking seven times back and forth between the hills of Safa and Marwah. This is a re-enactment of Hajar's frantic search for water, before the Zamzam Well was revealed to her by an angel sent by God. The circuit used to be in the open air, but is now entirely enclosed by the Masjid al-Haram mosque, and can be accessed via air-conditioned tunnels. Pilgrims are advised to walk the circuit, though two green pillars mark a short section of the path where they are allowed to run, along with an 'express lane' for the disabled. The safety procedures are in place because previous incidents in this ritual have resulted in stampedes which resulted in the deaths of hundreds of people.

As part of this ritual, the pilgrims also drink water from the Zamzam Well, which is made available in coolers throughout the Mosque. The pilgrims then return to their tents

Arafat

Plains of Arafat on the day of Hajj

The next morning, on the ninth of Dhu al-Hijjah, the pilgrims leave Mina for Mount Arafat. This is considered the highlight of the Hajj, as they stand in contemplative vigil, near a hill from which Muhammad gave his last sermon. Pilgrims must spend the afternoon within a defined area on the plain of Arafat until after sunset. No specific rituals or prayers are required during the stay at Arafat, although many pilgrims spend time praying, talking to God, and thinking about the course of their lives.

Muzdalifah

As soon as the sun sets, the pilgrims leave Arafat for Muzdalifah, an area between Arafat and Mina, where 49 pebbles are gathered for the next day's ritual of the stoning of the Devil (Shaitan). Many pilgrims spend the night sleeping on the ground at Muzdalifah, before returning to Mina. It is now the 10th of the month, the day of Eid ul-Adha.

Ramy al-Jamarat

At Mina, the pilgrims perform Ramy al-Jamarat, throwing stones to signify their defiance of the Devil. This symbolizes the trials experienced by Abraham, as he wrestled with whether or not to sacrifice his son per God's demand. The Devil challenged him three times, and three times Abraham refused. Each pillar marks the location of one of these refusals. Because of the crowds, in 2004 the pillars were changed to long walls. Pilgrims climb ramps to the multi-leveled Jamarat Bridge, from which they can throw pebbles at the three jamarat. Each pilgrim must hit each pillar at least seven times.

Eid ul-Adha

After the Stoning of the Devil, an animal is sacrificed. This symbolizes God having mercy on Abraham, and replacing his son with a ram, which Abraham then sacrificed.

Traditionally the pilgrim slaughtered the animal himself or oversaw the slaughtering. Today many pilgrims buy a sacrifice voucher in Mecca before the greater Hajj begins; this allows an animal to be slaughtered in their name on the 10th without the pilgrim being physically present. Centralized butcher houses will sacrifice a single sheep for each pilgrim, or a cow can represent the sacrifice of seven people. The meat is then packaged and given to charity, shipped to poor people around the world. At the same time as the sacrifices occur at Mecca, Muslims worldwide perform similar sacrifices, in a three day global festival called Eid ul-Adha.

Tawaf az-Ziyarah

File:Kaaba Mirror.JPG

Pilgrims circumambulating the Kaaba during the Hajj

On this or the following day the pilgrims re-visit the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca for a tawaf called the Tawaf az-Ziyarah (or Tawaf al-Ifadah) which is an obligatory part of the Hajj. The night of the 10th is spent back at Mina.

On the afternoon of the 11th, pilgrims must again stone all three jamarat in Mina (seven pebbles per jamarat). The same ritual must be performed on the following day.

Pilgrims must leave Mina for Mecca before sunset on the 12th. If they are unable to leave Mina before sunset, they must perform the stoning ritual again on the 13th before returning to Mecca.

Tawaf al-Wada

Finally, before leaving Mecca, pilgrims perform a farewell tawaf called the Tawaf al-Wada.

Journey to Medina

Though it is not required as part of the Hajj, many pilgrims also travel to visit the city of Medina and the Mosque of the Prophet. Muhammad's tomb is enclosed by the mosque. Pilgrims may also visit the tomb of Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah.

Incidents during the Hajj

There have been many incidents during the Hajj that have led to the loss of hundreds of lives. The worst of these incidents have usually occurred during the Stoning of the Devil ritual. During the 2006 Hajj on January 12, 362 pilgrims died. Tramplings have also occurred at the stage known as the sa'y, when pilgrims try to run but can walk between two hills known as As-Safa and Al-Marwa. In 2006 there were some 600 casualties among pilgrims performing the Hajj.

The Saudi Government is often criticized for not being proactive in providing facilities and infrastructure for the annual pilgrimage, and many measures are put in place in response to annual catastrophes.

Non-Muslims

The second caliph, Umar, is believed by many Sunni Muslims to have expelled non-Muslims from the Hejaz (Western part of Arabia). Non-Muslims were not to visit nor to live in the holy land. There is much evidence against this claim, at least so far as it relates to the early centuries of the Islamic empire, but it is well documented that by the 18th and 19th centuries, there were small colonies of merchants in various port and trading cities such as Jeddah as well as communities of Yemeni Jews. The prohibition was not so much imposed by the authorities as enforced by rioting crowds and was most strictly enforced with regard to the Hejaz, and the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina.

As one might expect, the existence of "forbidden cities" and the mystery of the Hajj aroused curiosity in European travelers. A number of them pretended to be Muslims and entered the city of Mecca and then the Kaaba to experience the Hajj for themselves. The most famous account of a foreigner's journey to Mecca is A Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Makkah and Al-Madina, written by Sir Richard Francis Burton. Burton traveled as a Qadiri Sufi from Afghanistan; his name, as he signed it in Arabic below his frontispiece portrait for "The Jew, The Gypsy and al-Islam," was al-Hajj 'Abdullah'.

Umrah

The Umrah comprises the same rituals as the Hajj, and can be taken at any time throughout the year. Although completing it is highly commendable, Muslims are still required to perform the greater Hajj at some point during their lifetime. Pilgrims accomplishing the Umrah usually only perform the Tawaf (walking around the Kaaba) and the Sa'i (running back and forth from the Zamzam well to the hills of Al-Safa and Al-Marwah). They may also drink water from the Zamzam Well when the Umrah is completed, and trim off approximately one inch of their hair, as opposed to shaving their heads. They can then change from the ihram to regular clothes, in a release from ihram known as the mut'ah of Hajj.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Armstrong, Karen. Islam: A Short History. New York: Modern Library, 2002. ISBN 0-8129-6618-x.
• Bianchi, Robert R. Guests of God: Pilgrimage and Politics in the Islamic World. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0195171075.
• Eyewitness Travel: Egypt. London: Dorlin Kindersley Limited, 2001/2007. ISBN 978-0-75662-875-8.
• Farah, Caesar. Islam: Beliefs and Observances, 5th ed. Barron's Educational Series, 1994. ISBN 978-0812018530
• Glassé, Cyril. The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001. ISBN 0759101892
• Hawting, Gerald. "Pilgrimage." Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. Jane Dammen McAuliffe, General Editor. Leiden: Brill, 2001. ISBN 9004123555.
• Martin, Richard C. "Pilgrimage: Muslim Pilgrimage." The Encyclopedia of Religion. Mircea Eliade, Editor-in-Chief. New York: Macmillan, 1987. ISBN 0029094801.
• Mohamed, Mamdouh N. Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z. Amana Publications, 1996. ISBN 0-915957-54-x.
• Peters, F. F. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994. ISBN 069102619X.
• Petersen, Andrew. "The Archaeology of the Syrian and Iraqi Hajj Routes." World Archaeology 26:1 — Archaeology of Pilgrimage. (June 1994). 47-56.
• Sedgwick, Mark J. Islam & Muslims: A Guide to Diverse Experience in a Modern World. Boston, MA: Intercultural Press, 2006. ISBN 1931930163
• Shariati, Ali. Hajj: Reflection on Its Rituals. Islamic Publications International, 2005. ISBN 1889999385.
• Trojanow,Ilija. From Mumbai to Mecca. London: Haus Publishing, 2007. ISBN 978-1-904950295.

External links

• Hajj Portal - Personal Hajj Experiences, Picture Gallery, Supplications, Hajj Step by Step guides plus more - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
• Ministry of Hajj Official Website - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
• Crowd control during the Hajj - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
• Hajj: The Pilgrimage - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
• 15th-century Hajj certificate: information, zoomable image British Library website - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
• Inside Mecca DVD National Geographic documentary about Mecca - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
• U.S. Army information sheet about the Hajj - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
• Watch the National Geographic Documentary on Hajj - Retrieved October 1, 2007.

Arabic pronunciation

• Hajj & ummrah supplications - Retrieved October 1, 2007.

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