Difference between revisions of "Crop circle" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Category:Paranormal]]
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{{for|the irrigation method that produces circular fields of crops|center pivot irrigation}}
 
 
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|Topicheading= Crop circle
 
|Topicheading= Crop circle
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|Image_Caption= A crop circle consisting of multiple circles
 
|Image_Caption= A crop circle consisting of multiple circles
 
|Name= Crop circle
 
|Name= Crop circle
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|Origin= The term was invented by researcher Colin Andrews in the early 80s and entered the Oxford Dictionary in 1997.
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|Origin= The term was invented by researcher Colin Andrews in the early 1980s and entered the ''Oxford Dictionary'' in 1997.
 
|Short=
 
|Short=
 
|Additional_Names=
 
|Additional_Names=
 
|Definition= A Geometric or abstract pattern formed by the flattening of crops
 
|Definition= A Geometric or abstract pattern formed by the flattening of crops
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|Characteristics= 1) Crops broken at the base and matted in a distinct pattern<br/>2) Crops bent at node points and matted in a distinct pattern.<ref name=kean1>Kean, Leslie (2002-09-16) "Origin of Crop Circles Baffles Scientists," Leslie Kean, The Providence Journal (Rhode Island)</ref><ref name=levebgood1>Levengood, W C (1994) "Anatomical anomalies in crop formation plants," Physiologia Plantarum, Scandinavian Plant Physiology Society 92:356-363</ref><ref name=anderhub1>Anderhub Werner, Roth HansPeter (2002) "Crop Circles: Exploring the Designs & Mysteries," Lark Books, ISBN 1579902979</ref><ref name=howarth1>Howarth, Leslie G (2000) "If in Doubt, Blame the Aliens!: A new scientific analysis of UFO sightings, alleged alien abductions, animal mutilations and crop circles," iUniverse, ISBN 0595156932</ref><ref name=kelly1>Kelly, Lynne (2004) "The Skeptic's Guide to the Paranormal," Allen & Unwin, ISBN 1741140595</ref>
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|Characteristics= 1) Crops broken at the base and matted in a distinct pattern<br/>2) Crops bent at node points and matted in a distinct pattern.<ref>Anderhub Werner and Hans Peter Roth, ''Crop Circles: Exploring the Designs & Mysteries'' (Lark Books, 2002, ISBN 1579902979).</ref><ref name=howarth1>Leslie G. Howarth, ''If in Doubt, Blame the Aliens!: A new scientific analysis of UFO sightings, alleged alien abductions, animal mutilations and crop circles'' (iUniverse, 2000, ISBN 0595156932).</ref><ref name=kelly1>Lynne Kelly, ''The Skeptic's Guide to the Paranormal'' (Allen & Unwin, 2004, ISBN 1741140595).</ref>
 
|Extra_Title= Related Term
 
|Extra_Title= Related Term
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|Extra_Column= [[wikt:cerealogy|Cerealogy: The Study of Crop circles]]
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|Extra_Column= [[Cerealogy]]: The Study of Crop circles
 
|See_Also= [[Unusual ground marking]]
 
|See_Also= [[Unusual ground marking]]
 
}}
 
}}
  
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'''Crop circles''' is a term used for a phenomena where [[Crop (agriculture)|crops]], such as [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[rapeseed]] (also called "canola"), [[rye]], [[maize|corn]], [[linseed]] and [[soy]] are flattened or bent low on their stalks, producing circlular and other patterns when viewed from the air. Crop circles were first reported during the later decades of the 20th century, in a few crop fields, but since have become a worldwide phenomena.
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'''Crop circle''' is a term used for a phenomenon where [[Crop (agriculture)|crops]], such as [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[rapeseed]] (also called "canola"), [[rye]], [[maize|corn]], [[linseed]] and [[soy]] are flattened or bent low on their stalks, producing circular and other patterns when viewed from the air. Crop circles were first reported during the later decades of the twentieth century in a few crop fields, but since have become a worldwide phenomenon.
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{{toc}}
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Various hypotheses have been offered to explain their formation, ranging from the [[scientific naturalism|naturalistic]], and hoaxes, to the [[paranormal]]. Most commonly, crop circles are connected to [[UFO]]s and beliefs in [[Extraterrestrial life]], as many claim they are communications from aliens.
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Various hypotheses have been offered to explain their formation, ranging from the [[scientific naturalism|naturalistic]], and hoaxes, to the [[paranormal]]. Most commonly, crop circles are connected to [[UFO]]s and beliefs in [[extraterrestrial life]], with claims that they are communications from aliens. While many have been proved hoaxes, crop circles have continued to appear and both the general public and scientific researchers have continued to be fascinated by the phenomenon. Like other such mysteries, there are those who believe they originate in a realm beyond the known physical world and there are those who reject such possibilities. This clash between those who are [[skepticism|skeptical]] and those who are open to the unknown reflects human desire to pursue [[truth]] and at the same time the problem of ignorance and confusion regarding how to discover and recognize truth.
  
 
== History ==
 
== History ==
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Crop circles did not become a widespread phenomenon garnering worldwide interest until the late twentieth century. However, there are some who claim that crop circles have been appearing for centuries, particularly in [[Europe]]. The earliest account of what has been suggested to be a crop circle may be found in a seventeenth-century English [[woodcut]] called the ''[[Mowing-Devil]]''. The image depicts the [[Devil]] with a [[scythe]] mowing (cutting) a circular design in a field of [[oats]]. The [[pamphlet]] containing the image states that the farmer, disgusted at the wage his mower was demanding for his work, insisted that he would rather have "the devil himself" perform the task. According to the pamphlet, that night his field appeared to be in flame. The next morning, the field was found to be perfectly mowed—unnaturally perfect, in fact.<ref>
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Christopher Josiffe, [https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1545284/1/Josiffe_PDF%20The_Hairy_Man_of_St_Trinians_or_the_Mowi.pdf The Hairy Man of St Trinian’s, or, the Mowing Devil] ''Fortean Times'' 340 (2016). Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref>
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[[Image:Diablefaucheur.jpg|thumb|300px|1678 pamphlet on the Mowing-Devil.]]
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Another early example of crop circles is the 1880 report by amateur scientist John Rand Capron:
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<blockquote>The storms about this part of Surrey have been lately local and violent, and the effects produced in some instances curious. Visiting a neighbour's farm on Wednesday evening (21st), we found a field of standing wheat considerably knocked about, not as an entirety, but in patches forming, as viewed from a distance, circular spots....I could not trace locally any circumstances accounting for the peculiar forms of the patches in the field, nor indicating whether it was wind or rain, or both combined, which had caused them, beyond the general evidence everywhere of heavy rainfall. They were suggestive to me of some cyclonic wind action.<ref name=JofMeteorology>John Rand Capron, "A case of genuine crop circles dating from July 1880," ''Journal of Meteorology'' 25 (2000): 20-21. {{ISSN|0307-5966}} (original ''Nature'' 22 (July 1880): 290-291).</ref></blockquote>
  
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Naturalistic explanations include man-made hoaxes or geological anomalies, while paranormal explanations include formation by [[UFO]]s. Many circles are known to be man-made,<ref name=spignesi>Spignesi, Stephen J. and Andrews, Colin (2003) "Crop Circles: Signs of Contact," Career Press, ''P154'', ISBN 156414674X</ref><ref name="DH73">''The Demon Haunted World'', [[Carl Sagan]] (Random House, January 1996) pp. 73-77</ref><ref>Van der Meulen. Roel (1994) "Faking UFOs"</ref> such as those created by Doug Bower, Dave Chorley, and [[John Lundberg]],<ref>Irving, Robert Lundberg, John (2006) "The Field Guide: The Art, History and Philosophy of Crop Circle Making," ISBN 0954805429</ref> and a 2000 study into circle hoaxing concluded that 80 percent of UK circles were totally man-made.<ref name=spignesi/>
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In 1966, one of the most famous accounts of [[UFO]] appearances was reported in the small town of [[Tully, Queensland]], [[Australia]]. A [[sugar cane]] farmer said he witnessed a saucer-shaped craft rise 30 or {{convert|40|ft|m}} up from a [[swamp]] and then fly away. When he went to investigate the location where he thought the saucer had landed, he found the reeds intricately weaved in a clockwise fashion on top of the water. The woven reeds could hold the weight of 10 men.<ref name=casebook>[https://www.ufocasebook.com/tullysaucernest.html The Tully Saucer Nest] ''UFO Casebook''. Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref> The incident gained a lot of attention first in Australia, and then later in the world, albeit short lived. It is possibly the reason that many of the subsequent instances of crop circles were linked to UFO activity.<ref name=casebook/>
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The term was first used by researcher Colin Andrews to describe simple circles he was researching. Although since 1990 the circles have evolved into complex geometries, the term "circle" has stuck.
 
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The earliest recorded image resembling a crop circle is depicted in a 17th century English [[woodcut]] called the ''[[Mowing-Devil]]''. The image depicts the [[Death (personification)|Devil]] with a [[scythe]] mowing (cutting)<ref name=swirlednews>[http://www.swirlednews.com/article.asp?artID=844 The "Mowing Devil" Investigated - 22/12/2005]</ref> a circular design in a field of oats. The [[pamphlet]] containing the image states that the farmer, disgusted at the wage his mower was demanding for his work, insisted that he would rather have "the devil himself" perform the task.
 
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[[Image:Diablefaucheur.jpg|thumb|1678 pamphlet on the Mowing-Devil.]]
 
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A more recent historical report of crop circles was republished (from ''Nature'', volume 22, pp 290-291, 29 July 1880) in the January 2000 issue of the ''Journal of Meteorology''.<ref name=JofMeteorology>"A case of genuine crop circles dating from July 1880—as published in Nature in the year 1880." ''Journal of Meteorology'' (ISSN 0307-5966: Volume 25, pp 20-21, Jan. 2000)</ref> It describes the 1880 investigations by amateur scientist John Rand Capron:
 
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: "The storms about this part of Surrey have been lately local and violent, and the effects produced in some instances curious. Visiting a neighbour's farm on Wednesday evening (21st), we found a field of standing wheat considerably knocked about, not as an entirety, but in patches forming, as viewed from a distance, circular spots....I could not trace locally any circumstances accounting for the peculiar forms of the patches in the field, nor indicating whether it was wind or rain, or both combined, which had caused them, beyond the general evidence everywhere of heavy rainfall. They were suggestive to me of some cyclonic wind action,..."<ref name=stonehenge>[http://www.stonehenge-avebury.net/scienceofcropcircles.htm "Scientific Viewpoints regarding Crop Circles" at Stonehenge-Avebury.net]</ref>
 
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<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:TullyCircle.jpg|thumb|left|Tully Saucer Nest in 1966]] —>
 
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In 1966, one of the most famous accounts of UFO traces happened in the small town of [[Tully, Queensland]], [[Australia]]. A sugar cane farmer said he witnessed a saucer-shaped craft rise 30 or {{convert|40|ft|m}} up from a swamp and then fly away, and when he went to investigate the location where he thought the saucer had landed, he found the reeds intricately weaved in a clockwise fashion on top of the water. The woven reeds could hold the weight of 10 men.
 
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There are also many other anecdotal accounts of crop circles in [[Ufology]] literature that predate the modern crop circle phenomena, though some cases involve crops which were cut or burnt, rather than flattened.<ref>[http://www.collectionscanada.ca/ufo/002029-1200-e.html Canada's Unidentified Flying Objects: The Search for the Unknown] at Library and Archives Canada</ref><ref>[http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Shuttle/5604/traces.html Physical Trace by Paul Fuller]</ref>
 
  
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Crop circles shot into prominence in the late 1970s as many circles began appearing throughout the English countryside. The phenomenon of crop circles became widely known in the late 1980s, after the [[mass media|media]] started to report crop circles in [[Hampshire]] and [[Wiltshire]]. To date, approximately 12,000 crop circles have been discovered in sites across the world, from locations such as the former [[Soviet Union]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and [[Japan]], as well as the [[United States|U.S.]] and [[Canada]]. Skeptics note a correlation between crop circles, recent media coverage, and the absence of fencing and/or anti-trespassing legislation.<ref>{{cite news | title = Disease brings poor crop of circles | publisher = BBC News | date = 2001-08-17 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1496296.stm | accessdate = 2007-02-08}}</ref>
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Crop circles started to appear throughout the English countryside in the 1970s, and became even more frequent in the 1980s. At first the designs were uncomplicated circles, or variants of circles, but as the frequency of the phenomena increased throughout the 1980s, so did their complexity. In Great Britain a reported 400 new crop circles were discovered in 1990, considered a peak year for the incidents. Designs discovered at [[Barbary Castle]] were some of the largest and most geometrically complex reported.<ref> David Ritchie, ''UFO: The Definitive Guide to Unidentified Flying Objects and Related Phenomena'' (MJF Books, 1994, ISBN 1567312004),</ref> The frequency and complexity of the crop circles, as well as the mystery surrounding their creation, helped to gain the attention of the [[mass media|media]]. Not long afterwards, crop circles began to show up in other countries, such as the former [[Soviet Union]] and [[Japan]], as well as the [[United States|U.S.]] and [[Canada]].  
  
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Although farmers have expressed concern at the damage caused to their crops, local response to the appearance of crop circles can often be enthusiastic, with locals taking advantage of the tourist potential of circles. Past responses have included bus or helicopter tours of circle sites, walking tours, t-shirts and book sales. Potential markets include curious tourists, scientists and crop circle researchers, and individuals seeking a spiritual experience by praying to and communing with spirits.<ref name=NGEO>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0801_020801_cropcircles_2.html National Geographic: Crop Circles: Artwork or Alien Signs]"</ref>
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Like many aspects of the [[occult]] and [[paranormal]], crop circles soon became incorporated and exploited by pop culture. An example of this is the occasional profit made from circle incidents. Although some farmers expressed concern at the damage caused to their crops, local response to the appearance of crop circles can often be enthusiastic, with locals taking advantage of the tourist potential of circles. Past responses have included bus or [[helicopter]] tours of circle sites, walking tours, t-shirts and book sales. Potential markets include curious tourists, scientists, and crop circle researchers, and individuals seeking a spiritual experience by communing with spirits.
  
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In 1996, a circle appeared near Stonehenge, and the farmer set up a booth and charged a fee. He collected £30,000 in four weeks. The value of the crop had it been harvested was probably about £150.<ref name=NGEO/>
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Widespread media coverage of crop circles, coupled with the revealing of some very complex and famous circles being the products of hoaxes, dulled the widespread intrigue of crop circles. Nevertheless, many committed researchers continue to be devoted to their study.
  
 
==Designs==
 
==Designs==
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[[File:Crop Circle near Chartley Manor Farm - geograph.org.uk - 1442011.jpg|thumb|400px|Crop Circle near Chartley Manor Farm in Staffordshire, England, August 2006.]]
  
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Early examples of crop circles were usually simple circular patterns of various sizes. After some years, more complex geometric patterns emerged. In general, the early formations (1970–2000) seemed to be based on the principles of [[sacred geometry]]. Later formations, those occurring after 2000, appear to be based on other principles, natural sciences and mathematics designs, including [[fractal]]s. Many crop circles now have fine intricate detail, regular symmetry and careful composition. Elements of three-dimensionality became more frequent, culminating in spectacular images of cube-shaped structures.
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Early examples of crop circles were usually simple circular patterns of various sizes. Later, more complex geometric patterns emerged. In general, the early formations (1970–2000) seemed to be based on the principles of [[sacred geometry]]. Later formations, those occurring after 2000, appear to be based on other principles, natural sciences and mathematics designs, including [[fractal]]s. Many crop circles have fine intricate detail, regular symmetry, and careful composition. Elements of three-dimensionality became more frequent, culminating in spectacular images of cube-shaped structures.
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After the public admission by some of the creators, crop circle activity skyrocketed. Each new design sought to be more complex than earlier ones. Today, crop circle designs have increased in complexity to the point where they have become an art form in and of themselves.
 
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Crop circle maker John Lundberg, in an interview with Mark Pilkington, spoke about this change in crop circle designs, "''I am rather envious of circlemakers in other countries. Expectations about the size and complexity of formations that appear in the UK are now very high, whereas the rather shabby looking Russian formation made the national news. Even Vasily Belchenko, deputy secretary of the Russian Security Council, was on site gushing about its origin: 'There is no doubt that it was not man made... an unknown object definitely landed there.' If the same formation appeared in the UK it would undoubtedly be virtually ignored by researchers and the media alike.''"<ref name="cm"/>
 
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A triple [[Julia set]], widely considered at the time to be the pinnacle of the crop circle formations, was found on Windmill Hill near [[Yatesbury]], [[Wiltshire]] on 7 July 1996. It measured 900 by {{convert|500|ft|m|-1}}, with 151 circles.
 
  
 
==Explanations==
 
==Explanations==
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===Hoaxes/Man-made===
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Since nearly the beginning of the crop circle phenomenon, there have been many who claimed that the designs were hoaxes. One of the most famous examples happened in 1991, when two men from [[Southampton]], [[England]] announced that they had conceived the idea of crop circles as a prank at a [[Public house|pub]] near [[Winchester|Winchester, Hampshire]] during an evening in 1976. Inspired by the 1966 Tully Saucer Nests, Doug Bower and Dave Chorley made their crop circles using bars, rope, hats, and wire as their only tools: using an iron bar attached to a rope, they easily created circles eight feet in diameter.<ref name=ufos>[http://ufologie.patrickgross.org/htm/cropbower01.htm Crop circles makers in their own words: Doug Bower] ''UFOs at close sight''. Retrieved July 27, 2021</ref> The two men were able to make a {{convert|40|ft|m|0|sing=on}} circle in 15 minutes. The pair became frustrated when their work did not receive significant [[publicity]], and so in 1981 they created a circle in Matterley Bowl, a natural [[amphitheatre]] just outside Winchester, Hampshire—an area surrounded by roads from which a clear view of the field is available to drivers passing by. Their designs were at first simple circles. When newspapers claimed that the circles could easily be explained by natural phenomena, Bower and Chorley made more [[Complexity|complex]] patterns. A simple wire with a loop, hanging down from a cap—the loop positioned over one eye—could be used to focus on a landmark to aid in the creation of straight lines. Later designs of crop circles became increasingly complicated.<ref name=ufos/> Eventually Bower's wife became suspicious, noticing high levels of mileage in their car. Fearing that his wife suspected him of [[adultery]], Bower confessed to her and subsequently he and Chorley informed a [[Great Britain|British]] national newspaper. Chorley died in 1996, but Doug Bower continued making crop circles until at least 2004.
  
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===Hoaxes/Man Made===
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Crop Circle hoaxes and techniques became widespread knowledge by the end of the twentieth century. In 2002, ''Scientific American'' published an article by [[Matt Ridley]], who had started making crop circles in northern England in 1991.<ref>Matt Ridley, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/crop-circle-confession/ Crop Circle Confession] ''Scientific American'', July, 2002. Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref> He wrote about how easy it is to develop techniques using simple tools that can easily fool later observers. Methods to create a crop circle are now well-documented on the [[Internet]]. One internet group of crop circle makers demonstrated that making what self-appointed [[cereology|cereologist]] experts state are "unfakeable" crop circles is possible. On more than one occasion cereologists claimed that a crop circle was genuine when the people making the circle had previously been filmed making it.<ref name=Macnish>John Macnish, ''Cropcircle Apocalypse'' (Circlevision, 1993, ISBN 095225803X).</ref>
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[[Image:Crop_circles_Swirl.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A crop circle in the form of a double (six-sided) Triskelion composed of Circles.]]
 
  
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In 1991, two men from [[Southampton]], [[England]] announced that they had conceived the idea as a prank at a [[Public house|pub]] near [[Winchester|Winchester, Hampshire]] during an evening in 1976. Inspired by the 1966 Tully Saucer Nests,<ref>[http://ufologie.net/htm/cropbower01.htm]Doug Bower Interview</ref> Doug Bower and Dave Chorley made their crop circles using planks, rope, hats and wire as their only tools: using a four-foot-long plank attached to a rope, they easily created circles eight feet in diameter. The two men were able to make a {{convert|40|ft|m|0|sing=on}} circle in 15 minutes.
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[[Image:CropCircleW.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A Crop circle in Switzerland]]
  
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The pair became frustrated when their work did not receive significant [[publicity]], so in 1981 they created a circle in Matterley Bowl, a natural [[amphitheatre]] just outside [[Winchester|Winchester, Hampshire]] - an area surrounded by roads from which a clear view of the field is available to drivers passing by. Their designs were at first simple circles. When newspapers claimed that the circles could easily be explained by natural phenomena, Bower and Chorley made more [[Complexity|complex]] patterns. A simple wire with a loop, hanging down from a cap - the loop positioned over one eye - could be used to focus on a landmark to aid in the creation of straight lines. Later designs of crop circles became increasingly complicated.
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Not everybody accepts that crop circles are man-made, however, believing instead that many designs are too perfect and that they lack signs of human interaction. Among these critics was British born astronomer [[Gerald Hawkins]] who, prior to his death, argued that some circles displayed a level of complexity and accuracy that would be difficult to recreate on paper, let alone in a field after dark.<ref>[https://www.cropcirclesecrets.org/hawkins.html Crop circles and their relationship to Euclidean geometry and and diatonic ratios] ''Crop Circle Secrets''. Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref> In response, circle creating groups and proponents of the man-made hypothesis have claimed that it is possible to create a complex design by marking radii and angles with rope, and to enter and to move about a field using landscape features and tractor trails in order to avoid leaving other marks.<ref name= csicop/>
  
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Bower's wife had become suspicious of him, noticing high levels of [[mileage]] in their car. Eventually, fearing that his wife suspected him of [[adultery]], Bower confessed to her and subsequently he and Chorley informed a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] national newspaper. Chorley died in 1996, and Doug Bower has made crop circles as recently as 2004. Bower has said that, had it not been for his wife's suspicions, he would have taken the secret to his deathbed, never revealing that it was a [[hoax]].<ref>Bower and Chorley's original confession was first reported in ''[[Today (UK newspaper)|Today]]'', September 9, 1991</ref>
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One issue is that despite the appearance of numerous crop circles, those making them are almost never caught in the act. In most cases that the creation of crop circles is a [[night|nocturnal]] activity, making it difficult to observe their construction. During one attempt to observe the creation of a crop circle, numerous individuals witnessed nothing out of the ordinary, yet were astounded the next morning to see a crop circle in a field {{convert|500|yd}} away from the one they had been watching all night.<ref name= csicop/>
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[http://circlemakers.org Circlemakers.org], a group of crop circle makers founded by [[John Lundberg]], have demonstrated that making what self-appointed [[wikt:cereologist|cereologist]] experts state are "unfakeable" crop circles is possible. On more than one occasion such cereologists have claimed that a crop circle was genuine when the people making the circle had previously been filmed making the circle.<ref name=Macnish>Macnish, John (1993) "Cropcircle Apocalypse," Circlevision, ISBN 09522580 3X</ref>
 
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[[Image:CropCircleW.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Crop circle in Switzerland]]
 
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''Scientific American'' published an article by [[Matt Ridley]],<ref name="Ridley">{{cite journal
 
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| last = Ridley
 
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| first = Matt
 
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| authorlink = Matt Ridley
 
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| title = Crop Circle Confession
 
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| journal = Scientific American
 
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|month=August | year=2002
 
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| url = http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=00038B16-ED5F-1D29-97CA809EC588EEDF
 
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| accessdate = 2007-08-16 }}</ref> who started making crop circles in northern England in 1991. He wrote about how easy it is to develop techniques using simple tools that can easily fool later observers. He reported on "expert" sources such as the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' who had been easily fooled, and mused about why people want to believe [[supernatural]] explanations for phenomena that are not yet explained. Methods to create a crop circle are now well-documented on the Internet.<ref name="cm"/>
 
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On the night of July 11-12, 1992, a crop-circle making competition, for a prize of several thousand [[Pound sterling|UK pounds]] (partly funded by the [[Arthur Koestler]] Foundation), was held in [[Berkshire]]. The winning entry was produced by three helicopter engineers, using rope, [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] pipe, a trestle and a ladder. Another competitor used a small garden roller, a plank and some rope.
 
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Gábor Takács and Róbert Dallos, both then 17, were the first people to be legally charged with creating a crop circle. Takács and Dallos, of the St. Stephen Agricultural Technicum, a high school in Hungary specializing in agriculture, created a 36-meter diameter crop circle in a wheat field near [[Székesfehérvár]], {{convert|43|mi|km|0}} southwest of [[Budapest]], on June 8 1992. On September 3rd, they appeared on a Hungarian TV show and exposed the circle as a hoax showing photos of the field before and after the circle was made. As a result, Aranykalász Co., the owners of the land, sued the youngsters for 630,000 [[Hungarian forint|HUF]] (approximately $3000 USD) in [[damages]]. The presiding judge ruled that the students were only responsible for the damage caused in the 36 meters diameter circle, amounting to about 6,000 HUF (approximately $30 USD) and that 99% of the damage to the crops was caused by the thousands of visitors that flocked to Szekesfehervar following the media's promotion of the circle. The fine was eventually paid by the TV show, as were the students' legal fees.
 
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Not everybody accepts that circles are man-made, believing instead that many designs are too perfect and that they lack signs of human interaction. Among these critics was British born astronomer [[Gerald Hawkins]] who, prior to his death, argued that some circles displayed a level of complexity and accuracy that would be difficult to recreate on paper, let alone in a field after dark.<ref name="cm"/> In response, circle creating groups and proponents of the man-made hypothesis state that it is possible to create a complex design by marking radii and angles with rope, and to enter and to move about a field using landscape features and tractor trails in order to avoid leaving other marks.<ref>http://www.cccrn.ca/</ref>
 
  
 
===Paranormal===
 
===Paranormal===
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Since appearing in the media in the 1970s, crop circles have become the subject of various [[paranormal]] and fringe beliefs, the most popular being that they represent messages from extraterrestrials.<ref>Robert Carroll, ''Skeptics Dictionary: Crop Circles'' (Wiley, 2005, ISBN 0471272426).</ref> UFOs and other lights in the sky have been reported in connection with many crop circle sites, leading to them becoming associated with UFOs and aliens. Some people claim to have seen images of UFOs forming crop circles or flying over them, though photographs have been dismissed by skeptics as being indistinct or clearly hoaxes.<ref name= csicop/>
  
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Since appearing in the media in the 1970s, crop circles have become the subject of various paranormal and fringe beliefs, ranging from the hypothesis that they are created by freak meteorological phenomena to the belief that they represent messages from extraterrestrials.<ref name=carroll1>Carroll, Robert (2005) "Skeptics Dictionary: Crop Circles," Wiley, ISBN 0471272426</ref><ref name=howe1>Howe, Linda (2002) "Mysterious Lights and Crop Circles," Linda Moulton Howe Productions, ISBN 0962057061</ref><ref name=clark1>Clark Jerome (1995) "Strange and Unexplained Happenings," Gale ISBN 0810397803</ref><ref name=Haselhoff1>Haselhoff, Eltjo (2001) "The Deepening Complexity of Crop Circles:Scientific Research & Urban Legends," Frog Ltd, ISBN 1583940464</ref>
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Other features of crop circles that have suggested to some that some circles were not formed by simple man-made devices include [[Static electricity|electro-static charge]] measurements that show a clear difference between the inside and outside of the circle. Some crop circles showed this difference while others did not, a distinction that appeared to correlate well with known hoaxes versus possible true examples:
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<blockquote>The gadget indicated electrical current flow in plants and living matter, including humans. However, in 'genuine' Corn Circles (as opposed to human made ones) there was a complete lack of energy almost as if whatever was making the corn circles had 'earthed' them.<ref>Paul Vigay, [http://www.cropcircleresearch.com/articles/e001-gizmo.html Enigma Issue 1: Electro-Static Charge Indications] ''Crop Circle Research'', 1993. Retrieved July 27, 2021</ref></blockquote>  
  
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According to material published by the BLT institute, anomalies found at some circle sites in England and the US are consistent with them having been created when localized columns of ionized air (dubbed plasma vortices/vortexes) form over standing crops.<ref name=Haselhoff1/> Minuscule spheres of magnetic iron have also been found, distributed either around the perimeter of the circle, or linearly, which suggests a very complex delivery system. http://www.bltresearch.com/magnetic.html Bent or extended nodes in the stems of cereal grasses too have been found, suggesting that the crop has been subjected to a very rapid electromagnetic burst, causing the moisture inside the stems to expand, stretching or bending the nodes to almost three times their length. Holes have been found in the nodes, suggesting a rapid microwave burst, causing the moisture to turn into steam, which then forces its way out and leaving expulsion cavities. http://www.bltresearch.com/plantab.html
+
In addition to the static electricity effect, a variety of unexplained, sometimes musical, sounds have been heard in the vicinity of crop circles.<ref> Paul Vigay, [http://www.cropcircleresearch.com/articles/sound.htmll Crop Circle Research Projects into Sound and Harmonics] ''Crop Circle Research''. Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref> An example was reported by [[Colin Andrews]] of a number of short bursts of oscillating tones recorded on audio tape during "Operation White Crow." This was an investigation that took place at a location known as the "Devil's Punchbowl" at Cheesefoot Head, near Winchester in Hampshire, in the summer of 1989. During a break in their surveillance operations, a group gathered in one of the crop circles when they heard an unexpected sound which their equipment recorded: 
 +
<blockquote>Suddenly, we all heard a sound from the east. As we listened, it grew louder and we could sense it getting closer. It was definitely directional, in that we could all tell precisely where it was coming from, and we could follow it as it moved. The sound then rotated around us, floating around the circle three or four times, like an auditory cloud that passed above us in a circle. And again, it was directional: As it moved in its orbit around us, we could follow it with our ears, and if it had been visible, we all felt we would have been able to track it from point to point around the circle. First it was in our left ear, then behind us, then in our right ear. ... In the exact direction the sound seemed to travel to when it left us was a fresh crop ring. The plants were still popping up, and still moving, as though a powerful hand had pressed them down, and they were just now springing back up. ... I believed then, as I believe now, that we had inadvertently encroached upon the creation of a crop circle. We had all unwittingly placed ourselves in the middle of a paranormal event.<ref name=andrews/></blockquote>
  
−
Other hypotheses attribute them to atmospheric phenomena such as freak [[tornado]]es or [[ball lightning]].<ref name="csicop">[http://www.csicop.org/si/2002-09/crop-circles.html Crop Circles and Their 'Orbs' of Light (Skeptical Inquirer September 2002)<!-- Bot generated title —>]</ref>
+
Most often, circumstantial evidence is used as justification for the UFO theory: The designs are created at night, usually without eyewitnesses; the designs at times are large, geometrical shapes and designs that may (or may not) have mathematical significance; and most importantly, crop circles are best seen from above the ground, such as in an airplane, implying that an airborne device was used to create it.
  
−
The location of many crop circles near ancient sites such as [[Stonehenge]], [[tumulus|barrow]]s, and [[Chalk figures in the United Kingdom|chalk horses]] has led to many [[New Age]] belief-systems incorporating crop circles; Including the beliefs that they are formed in relation to [[ley line]]s and that they give off energy that can be detected through [[dowsing]].<ref name=faussett1>Godfrey-Faussett, Charles (2004) "England," Footprint Travel Guides, ISBN 1903471915</ref><ref name=howarth1>Howarth, Leslie (2000) "If in Doubt, Blame the Aliens!: A new scientific analysis of UFO sightings, alleged alien abductions, animal mutilations and crop circles," iUniverse, ISBN 0595156932</ref><ref name=Haselhoff1/> New Age followers sometimes gather at crop circle sites in order to meditate, or because they believe that they can use the circle in order to contact spirits.<ref name=NGEO/>
+
Others see crop circles as a more spiritual matter. The location of many crop circles near ancient sites such as [[Stonehenge]], [[tumulus|barrow]]s, and [[Chalk figures in the United Kingdom|chalk horses]] has led to many [[New Age]] belief-systems incorporating crop circles. This includes the belief that they are formed in relation to [[ley line]]s and that they give off energy that can be detected through [[dowsing]].<ref name=howarth1/> New Age followers sometimes gather at crop circle sites in order to meditate, or because they believe that they can use the circle in order to contact spirits.
  
−
UFOs and other lights in the sky have been reported in connection with many crop circle sites, leading to them becoming associated with UFOs and aliens. Some people claim to have seen images of UFOs forming crop circles or overflying them, though photographs have been dismissed by skeptics as being indistinct or clear hoaxes.<ref name="csicop"/><ref name=howarth1/><ref name=howe1/><ref name=Haselhoff1/><ref>Webb, Stephen (2002), "If the Universe Is Teeming with Aliens ... Where Is Everybody?," Springer, ISBN 0387955011</ref>
+
=== Naturally Occurring ===
 +
A third possibility that has been set forth is that crop circles are caused by naturally occurring, albeit unusual, [[Meteorology|meteorological]] phenomena. According to material published by the BLT institute, anomalies found at some circle sites in England and the United States are consistent with them having been created when localized columns of ionized air (dubbed plasma vortices/vortexes) form over standing crops.<ref>Eltjo Haselhoff, ''The Deepening Complexity of Crop Circles: Scientific Research and Urban Legends'' (Frog Ltd, 2001, ISBN 1583940464). </ref> Minuscule spheres of magnetic iron have also been found, distributed either around the perimeter of the circle, or linearly, which suggests a very complex delivery system. Bent or extended nodes in the stems of cereal grasses too have been found, suggesting that the crop has been subjected to a very rapid [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] burst, causing the moisture inside the stems to expand, stretching or bending the nodes to almost three times their length. Holes have been found in the nodes, suggesting a rapid [[microwave]] burst, causing the moisture to turn into steam, which then forces its way out and leaving expulsion cavities.<ref>[http://www.bltresearch.com/magnetic.php Magnetic Materials in Soils] ''BLT Research Team Inc.'' Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref>
  
−
===Scientific Analysis/Natural Explanations===
+
Other hypotheses attribute them to atmospheric phenomena such as freak [[tornado]]es or [[ball lightning]].<ref name= csicop> Joe Nickell, [https://skepticalinquirer.org/2002/09/circular-reasoning-the-mystery-of-crop-circles-and-their-orbs-of-light/ Circular Reasoning: The 'Mystery' of Crop Circles and Their 'Orbs' of Light] ''Skeptical Inquirer'' 26(5)
 +
(September/October 2002). Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref> Of course, these theories do not readily explain the intricate, precise, and geometrical design of many crop circles.
  
 +
== Analysis ==
 +
The main criticism of theories of non-human creation of crop circles is that evidence of these origins, besides eyewitness testimonies, is scant. Crop circles are usually easily explicable as the result of human pranksters. There have also been cases in which researchers declared crop circles to be "the real thing," only to be confronted soon after with the people who created the circle and documented the fraud. Many people have demonstrated how complex crop circles can be created.<ref name="DH73"/><ref name="cm">[http://www.circlemakers.org Circlemakers]. Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref>
  
−
The main criticism of non-human creation of crop circles is that evidence of these origins, besides eyewitness testimonies, is scant. Crop circles are usually easily explicable as the result of human pranksters. There have also been cases in which researchers declared crop circles to be "the real thing," only to be confronted soon after with the people who created the circle and documented the fraud (see above).<ref>Joe Nickell, "Crop-Circle Mania: An Investigative Update," Skeptical Inquirer</ref> Many others have demonstrated how complex crop circles are created.<ref name="DH73"/><ref>''Faking UFOs'', Roel Van der Meulen (Self Published, 1994)</ref><ref name="cm">[http://www.circlemakers.org ¤ c i r c l e m a k e r s ¤<!-- Bot generated title —>]</ref>
+
In his 1997 book ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark'', [[Carl Sagan]] discussed [[alien]]-based theories of crop circle formation. Sagan concluded that no empirical evidence existed to link [[UFO]]s with crop circles. Specifically, he reported that there were no credible cases of UFOs being observed creating a circle, yet there were many cases when it was known that human agents, such as Doug Bower and Dave Chorley, were responsible.<ref name=DH73>Carl Sagan, ''The Demon Haunted World'' (Ballantine Books, 1997, ISBN 0345409469).</ref>
  
−
In his 1997 book ''[[The Demon Haunted World|The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark]]'' Carl Sagan discussed alien-based theories of crop circle formation. Sagan concluded that no empirical evidence existed to link UFOs with crop circles. Specifically, that there were no credible cases of UFOs being observed creating a circle, yet there were many cases when it was known that human agents, such as Doug Bower and Dave Chorley, were responsible.<ref>"The Demon Haunted World," [[Carl Sagan]] (Random House, January 1996)</ref> Circle creators Doug Bower and Dave Chorley concur.
+
In 1999, researcher [[Colin Andrews]] received funding from [[Laurence Rockefeller]] to conduct a two-year investigation into crop circle hoaxing. Andrews put together a team which studied crop circles and infiltrated several groups known to be creating man-made circles. Using these man-made circles as a base, Andrews went on to study data from circles found in England in 1999 and 2000. Andrews concluded that 80 percent of all circles studied showed "unassailable" signs of having been man-made, including post holes used to demarcate circle layouts or evidence of human tracks underlying the circle sites, but could not account for the remaining 20 percent, for which he was unable to find signs of human interaction.<ref name=andrews>Colin Andrews and Stephen J. Spignesi, ''Crop Circles: Signs of Contact'' (New Page Books, 2003, ISBN 156414674X).</ref> Andrews' figures were disputed by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry ([[CSICOP]]), arguing that Andrews' criteria for distinguishing between man-made circles and non man-made circles were insufficient, since no official standard exists for determining the nature of a crop circle.<ref>Joe Nickell, [https://skepticalinquirer.org/newsletter/levengoods-crop-circle-plant-research/ Levengood's Crop-Circle Plant Research] ''Skeptical Briefs'' 6.2 (June 1, 1996). Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref>
−
 
 
−
In 1999 researcher Colin Andrews received funding from [[Laurence Rockefeller]] to conduct a two year investigation into crop circle hoaxing. Andrews put together a team which studied crop circles that had been commissioned by various media outlets and infiltrated several groups known to be creating man-made circles. Using these man-made circles as a base, Andrews went on to study data from circles found in England in 1999 and 2000. Andrews concluded that 80% of all circles studied showed "unassailable" signs of having been man-made: Including post holes used to demarcate circle layouts or evidence of human tracks underlying the circle sites, but could not account for the remaining 20%, for which he was unable to find signs of human interaction.<ref name=spignesi/> Andrews's figures have been disputed by [[CSICOP]], who argue that Andrews's criteria for distinguishing between man-made circles and non man-made circles were insufficient as no official standard exists for determining the nature of a crop circle.<ref>[http://www.csicop.org/sb/9606/crop_circle.html Crop-Circle Plant Research by Levengood; Investigative Files (Skeptical Briefs June 1996)<!-- Bot generated title —>]</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
In 2002, Freddy Silva published ''Secrets in the Fields'' (2002).<ref>Freddy Silva. ''Secrets in the Fields'': The Science and Mysticism of Crop Circles''. (2002) ISBN 1-57174-322-7</ref> He paraphrases Gerald Hawkins' summary "If crop circles are made by hoaxers, then they should stop doing it, because they are breaking the law and damaging the food supply. If they are made by UFO aliens, they shouldn't give us back the dates of our trips to Mars and the names of the men from the Titanic era - famous, clever, but now forgotten. If some are transcendental, the power behind it should realize that our culture is not now willing to accept transcendental happenings. But if they are indeed transcendental, then society will have to make a big adjustment in the years ahead."(p299)
 
−
 
 
−
Critics have cited what they refer to as the 'shyness factor'. This alludes to the fact that no crop circle makers have been caught in the act. This assertion is not true however, and there are cases of circle makers being apprehended, including one high-profile case in 1998 when a circle was made for the media and the makers interrupted when seen in the act. In most cases, it appears that the creation of crop circles is a [[night|nocturnal]] activity. Usually nothing is reported, and during one attempt to observe the creation of a crop circle, numerous individuals witnessed nothing out of the ordinary, yet were astounded to see a crop circle in the field {{convert|500|yd|m|-2}} away from the one they had been watching the next morning.<ref name="csicop"/>
 
−
 
 
−
=== Scientific analysis ===
 
−
 
 
−
In 2002, [[Discovery Channel]] commissioned five aeronautics and astronautics students from [[MIT]] to create crop circles of their own. Discovery's production team consulted with crop circle researcher [[Nancy Talbott]], who provided them with three attributes that she believed set "real" crop circles apart from known man-made circles, such as those created by Doug Bower and Dave Chorley.<ref name=discovery1>"Crop Circles: Mysteries in the Fields," Discovery Chanel (first broadcast 2002-10-10)</ref> These criteria were:
 
−
 
 
−
# Elongated apical plant stem nodes
 
−
# Expulsion cavities in the plant stems
 
−
# The presence of 10-50 micrometer diameter magnetized iron spheres in the soils, distributed linearly
 
−
 
−
Over the course of a single night the team was able to create a stereotypical "man-made" circle that they then attempted to enhance using the three criteria. The team used lengths of rope to plot their design and trampled the wheat down in a spiral pattern using lengths of wooden board attached to loops of rope. To meet criterion 2, they constructed a portable microwave emitter, using it to superheat the moisture inside the corn stalks until it burst out as steam. To meet criterion 3, they built a device - dubbed the "Flammschmeisser" - that sprayed iron particles through a heated ring. However, the device proved to be too time consuming to use, and they were forced to finish the task by using a pyrotechnic charge to distribute the iron around the circle. The circle was later analyzed by graduate students from MIT, who declared it to be "on a par with any of the documented cases." Their conclusion was later questioned by Talbott, who noted that the team had only been able to recreate two of the three criteria. Talbott also expressed concerns that the iron particles were not distributed laterally. Furthermore, she felt that the team's use of night vision headsets and other technologically advanced items would be out of reach for the average hoaxer.<ref name=discovery1/>
 
−
 
 
−
The creation of the circle was recorded and used in the Discovery channel documentary "Crop Circles: Mysteries in the Fields".<ref name=discovery1/>
 
−
 
 
−
== In popular culture ==
 
−
 
 
−
* In an episode of "[[Seinfeld]]" Jerry tries to pick up a woman in an elevator by claiming that he is responsible for crop circles.
 
−
* In the TV mini-series ''[[Taken]]'' by [[Steven Spielberg]] crop circles are featured briefly, but although the series is about alien abduction, the crop circles are discovered to be a hoax.
 
−
* In the TV show [[Monster Garage]] episode 45 featured a crew including abductee [[Travis Walton]] and crop circle maker [[John Lundberg]] turning an old tractor into a crop circle making machine.
 
−
* In the film ''[[Chicken Little (film)|Chicken Little]]'' (2005), crop circles are created by aliens as they chase the main characters in a corn field.
 
−
* In the film ''[[Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle]]'' (2004), Harold and Kumar hang glide over a field with a crop circle pattern in the shape of male genitalia.
 
−
* In the film ''[[A Place To Stay]]'' (2002), crop circles of Wiltshire are the background for a supernatural love story.
 
−
* In the film ''[[Signs (film)|Signs]]'' (2002), crop circles are attributed to the sinister motives of [[extraterrestrials]].
 
−
* In the film ''[[Scary Movie 3]]'' (2003), a spoof of Signs, Cindy has to investigate crop circles and prevent an alien invasion.
 
−
* In ''[[Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them]]'', a book written by [[J. K. Rowling]] for the charity [[Comic Relief (charity)|Comic Relief]], a creature called a mooncalf occasionally performs strange dances flattening crops in fields "to the confusion of many [[muggle]]s."
 
−
* The film ''[[Mifune's Last Song]]'' (1999) apparently featured the first appearance of a crop circle in a fiction film.
 
−
* In the [[SpongeBob SquarePants]] episode "[[Sandy's Rocket]]," SpongeBob makes a crop circle with his feet.
 
−
* In ''[[Justice League Unlimited]]'', [[Huntress (Helena Bertinelli)|Huntress]] is seen reading one of [[Question (comics)|Question]]'s [[conspiracy theories]] about [[Girl Scouts of the USA|Girl Scouts]] being responsible for the crop circle phenomenon.
 
−
* "Crop Circle" is a track on [[Monster Magnet]]'s ''[[Powertrip]]''.
 
−
* On the cover of [[Led Zeppelin Remasters]] there is a photo of a crop circle
 
−
* In the [[Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game]] booster set, [[Power of the Duelist]], there is a card called "Crop Circle" with the circle in the Egyptian Eye logo for [[Yu-Gi-Oh!]].
 
−
* In the [[Invader Zim]] episode "Career Day," Dib and his mentor, a gullible paranormal investigator, approach a crop circle in a field. While the investigator concludes it is the work of aliens, Dib points out a cow rolling around the field, flattening the crops. To this the investigator replies, "The cow is obviously being controlled by aliens."
 
−
* In the third level of [[The Simpsons Hit and Run]] video game, Bart's head is a crop circle.
 
−
* In the [[South Park]] episode '[[Cartman gets an Anal Probe]]', a crop circle of [[Eric Cartman]] is seen on TV in Cartman's house. Cartman remarks that the image looks, "...just like [[Tom Selleck]]."
 
−
* On the cover of [[Insane Clown Posse]]'s "The Calm" is a crop circle as the group's logo. Track 4 on the album is called "Crop Circles."
 
−
* The [[Futurama]] episode "[[That's Lobstertainment!]]" opening subtitle reads "Deciphered From Crop Circles"
 
−
* In the film [[Phase IV]] (1974), the ants make 'pictogram' crop circle patterns in the desert.
 
−
* In the final cut scene from the game [[Area 51 (2005 video game)|Area 51]] features giant crop circles carved on the ground.
 
−
* In the video game ''[[MLB 07: The Show]]'', one of the [[minor league baseball|minor league]] parks is called "Crop Circle Field."
 
−
* In the television show [[The X-Files]] episode "all things," Mulder goes to England to investigate crop circles
 
−
* In the video game "[[Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots]]," a crop circle is hidden in Act 2
 
−
* Crop Circle was the name of a surf-a-billy [[cow punk]] band from [[Kutztown]],[[Pennsylvania]].
 
−
* In the film [[Hating Alison Ashley]], crop circles are used to satire her "unexplainable" family.
 
−
* In the 2008 Video Game Spore, Crop Circles are a tool used on Space Stage to interact with Civilizations and Tribes
 
−
* An episode of the cartoon [[Backyardigans]] entitled "NewsFlash" involves crop circles in an Iowa cornfield.
 
  
 +
In 2002, [[Freddy Silva]] published ''Secrets in the Fields'', in which he paraphrased Gerald Hawkins' summary:
 +
<blockquote>If crop circles are made by hoaxers, then they should stop doing it, because they are breaking the law and damaging the food supply. If they are made by UFO aliens, they shouldn't give us back the dates of our trips to Mars and the names of the men from the Titanic era - famous, clever, but now forgotten. If some are transcendental, the power behind it should realize that our culture is not now willing to accept transcendental happenings. But if they are indeed transcendental, then society will have to make a big adjustment in the years ahead.<ref>Freddy Silva, ''Secrets in the Fields: The Science and Mysticism of Crop Circles'' (Hampton Roads Publishing Company, 2002, ISBN 1571743227), 299.</ref></blockquote>
  
 +
Regardless of how many crop circles have been proved hoaxes, their continuing appearance and certain of the phenomena that accompany them prevent a final conclusion on their origin. In fact, whatever their nature, the appearance of these circles and the excitement they generated among both the general public and scientists is a phenomenon in itself:
 +
<blockquote>Some would argue that crop circles are the greatest mystery of our age. Others dismiss them as the work of pranksters and hoaxers. Some claim that they are a source of enlightenment whilst others are disappointed at the politics they have created. However you view the crop circles, there is no denying that they have had a profound effect on mankind in these latter years of the 20th Century. The crop circles can be viewed as a complete microcosm of human passion and vulnerability. Almost a condensed version of the human race itself, with egos, anger, peace and varying views all expressed by followers.<ref>Paul Vigay, [http://www.cropcircleresearch.com/articles/e017-whats.html Crop Circles - What's it all coming to?] ''Enigma'' 17, Crop Circle Research, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2021.</ref></blockquote>
  
 
== Notes ==
 
== Notes ==
Line 163: Line 91:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
 
+
* Andrews, Colin, and Pat Delgado. ''Circular Evidence: A Detailed Investigation of the Flattened Swirled Crops Phenomenon''.  London: Bloomsbury, 1989. ISBN 0747506353
−
* ''The Field Guide: The Art, History and Philosophy of Crop Circle Making'' by Rob Irving and John Lundberg, edited by Mark Pilkington (Strange Attractor 2006) ISBN 0-9548054-2-9
+
* Andrews, Colin, and Stephen Spignesi. ''Crop Circles: Signs of Contact''. New Page Books, 2003. ISBN 156414674X
−
* ''Round in Circles: Physicists, Poltergeists, Pranksters, and the Secret History of the Cropwatchers'', by Jim Schnabel (Penguin 1993). ISBN 0-14-017952-6.
+
* Carroll, Robert. ''Skeptics Dictionary: Crop Circles''. Wiley, 2005. ISBN 0471272426
−
* ''Circular Evidence: Bloomsbury, London'' by Colin Andrews and Pat Delgado, 1989, ISBN 0-7475-0635-3.
+
* Haselhoff, Eltjo H. ''The Deepening Complexity of Crop Circles: Scientific Research and Urban Legends''. Souvenir Press Ltd, 2001. ISBN 0285636251
−
* ''The Hypnotic Power of Crop Circles'', by Bert Janssen, 2004. ISBN 1-931882-34-7
+
* Howarth, Leslie G. ''If in Doubt, Blame the Aliens!: A new scientific analysis of UFO sightings, alleged alien abductions, animal mutilations and crop circles''. iUniverse, 2000. ISBN 0595156932
−
* "Crop Circles - Signs of Contact" by Colin Andrews and Stephen Spignesi. ISBN 1-56414-674-X
+
* Irving, Robert, and John Lundberg. ''The Field Guide: The Art, History and Philosophy of Crop Circle Making''. Strange Attractor Press, 2006. ISBN 0954805429
−
* ''The Deepening Complexity of Crop Circles: Scientific Research and Urban Legends'', by Eltjo H. Haselhoff, ISBN 0-285-63625-1.
+
* Janssen, Bert. ''The Hypnotic Power of Crop Circles''. Adventures Unlimited Press, 2004. ISBN 1931882347
−
* ''Crop Circles'' by Lucy Pringle, 2004, Pitkin (an imprint of Jarrold Publishing) ''(largely in favour of the supernatural explanation of Crop Circles)'', ISBN 1-84165-138-9.
+
* Kelly, Lynne. ''The Skeptic's Guide to the Paranormal''. Allen & Unwin, 2004. ISBN 1741140595
−
* ''Secrets in the Fields: The Science and Mysticism of Crop Circles'' by Freddy Silva, 2002, ISBN 1-57174-322-7
+
* Macnish, John. ''Cropcircle Apocalypse''. Circlevision, 1993. ISBN 095225803X
−
* ''Vital Signs: A Complete Guide to the Crop Circle Mystery and Why It is Not a Hoax'' by Andy Thomas and Mike Leigh, 2002, ISBN 1-58394-069-3
+
* Noyes, Ralph. (ed.). ''The Crop Circle Enigma: Grounding the Phenomenon in Science, Culture and Metaphysics''. Bath, UK: Gateway Books, 1990. ISBN 0946551669
−
* Sagan, Carl 1996. ''The Demon-Haunted world: Science as a Candle in the Dark''; "Aliens" pp 73ff.
+
* Pringle, Lucy. ''Crop Circles''.  Pitkin, 2004. ISBN 1841651389
−
*  Noyes, Ralph (editor) ''The Crop Circle Enigma: Grounding the Phenomenon in Science, Culture and Metaphysics'' The Hollows, Wellow, Bath U.K.:1990 Gateway Books, ISBN 0-946551-66-9
+
* Ritchie, David. ''UFO: The Definitive Guide to Unidentified Flying Objects and Related Phenomena''. MJF Books, 1994. ISBN 1567312004
 +
* Sagan, Carl. ''The Demon-Haunted world: Science as a Candle in the Dark''. Ballantine Books, 1997. ISBN 0345409469
 +
* Schnabel, Jim. ''Round in Circles: Physicists, Poltergeists, Pranksters, and the Secret History of the Cropwatchers''. Penguin, 1993. ISBN 0140179526
 +
* Silva, Freddy. ''Secrets in the Fields: The Science and Mysticism of Crop Circles''. Hampton Roads Pub Co, 2002. ISBN 1571743227
 +
* Thomas, Andy, and Mike Leigh. ''Vital Signs: A Complete Guide to the Crop Circle Mystery and Why It is Not a Hoax''. Frog Books, 2002. ISBN 1583940693
 +
* Werner, Anderhub, and Roth HansPeter. ''Crop Circles: Exploring the Designs & Mysteries''. Lark Books, 2002. ISBN 1579902979
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
 +
All links retrieved January 11, 2024.
  
 +
* [http://www.circlemakers.org/ Circle Makers]
 +
* [https://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/unexplained-phenomena/crop-circle.htm How Crop Circles Work] ''HowStuffWorks''
  
−
'''''Skeptical and scientific analysis:'''''
+
;Skeptical and scientific analysis
−
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0801_020801_cropcircles.html National Geographic News] This is an introduction to crop circles, with a special emphasis on their value as art.
+
* [https://www.siue.edu/GEOGRAPHY/ONLINE/Northcote06.pdf Spatial distribution of England's crop circles: Using GIS to investigate a geo-spatial mystery] by Jeremy Northcote
−
* [http://www.csicop.org/si/2002-09/crop-circles.html The Center for Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal], a sceptical look at crop circles by Joe Nickel " Circular Reasoning: The 'Mystery' of Crop Circles and Their 'Orbs' of Light"
+
* [http://www.stonehenge-avebury.net/scienceofcropcircles.htm Scientific Viewpoints regarding Crop Circles,]  T. Meaden, ''CERES'', February 2000 
−
* [http://www.siue.edu/GEOGRAPHY/ONLINE/Northcote06.pdf A geographical study] that asks if the location of crop circles near major roads and population centres is just a coincidence?
 
−
* [http://www.stonehenge-avebury.net/scienceofcropcircles.htm Brief summary of scientific literature on causes of crop circles]
 
−
* [http://www.nyos.lv/doc/eng__new_zagotovki.pdf CROP CIRCLES: BASIC POSTULATES ] by Nataliya Anatolievna Solodovnik.  
 
−
 
−
'''''Circle creators, and information on making your own crop circles:'''''
 
−
* [http://www.circlemakers.org/ The Circle Makers]: The most famous group of crop circle makers, founded by Doug Bower, Dave Chorley and [[John Lundberg]].
 
−
* http://www.amtsgym-sdbg.dk/as/crop/ufofake.HTM An entertaining report on how an elaborate crop circle made by astronomy students at Amtsgymnasiet in [[Sønderborg]], [[Denmark]] fooled crop circle "researchers."
 
−
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/crop-circle.htm How Stuff Works]: Explains how crop circles are made and how to make your own, with step by step pictures and complex circle patterns.
 
  
−
'''''Pro paranormal explanation websites:'''''
+
;Pro paranormal explanation websites:
−
* [http://www.CropCirclesandMore.com/ Crop Circles and More] Uses Google Maps. Mainly focussing on crop circle geometry and shapes, the relationship between crop circles and their connection to the landscape.
+
* [http://www.CropCirclesandMore.com/ Crop Circles and More]  
−
* [http://www.visiblesigns.de Crop Circles in europe] Crop circle pictures England and Europe 1997 - 2008]
+
* [http://www.kochkyborg.de/Kornkreise/Englisch/kornint.htm Crop Circles -Links to the Universe]  
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* [http://www.kochkyborg.de/Kornkreise/Englisch/kornint.htm Contact!] The Chronology of a Phenomenon
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* [http://www.ukcropcircles.co.uk UK Crop Circles]
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* [http://www.ukcropcircles.co.uk UK Crop Circles]. UK crop circle research website specialising in the study of crop circles at ground level.
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* [http://www.cropcircleconnector.com Crop Circle Connector]  
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* [http://www.cropcircleconnector.com Crop Circle Connector] Up to date information on new crop circles as they appear throughout the season.
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* [http://www.cropcirclecenter.com/ Crop Circle Center]  
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* [http://www.cropcircle-archive.com/ Crop Circle Archive] A complete crop circle database site with a search engine and Flash animations of crop circle constructions using the "ruler and compass" rule.
 
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* [http://www.cropcircleresearch.com/ Crop Circle Research] Devoted to researching the phenomenon of crop circles, concentrating more on scientific research.
 
  
 
{{Credits|Crop_circle|255723641}}
 
{{Credits|Crop_circle|255723641}}

Latest revision as of 06:27, 11 January 2024

Crop circle
Unusual ground marking
CropCircleSwirl.jpg
A crop circle consisting of multiple circles
Details
Unusual ground marking:Crop circle
Definition:A Geometric or abstract pattern formed by the flattening of crops
Signature:1) Crops broken at the base and matted in a distinct pattern
2) Crops bent at node points and matted in a distinct pattern.[1][2][3]
Misc
Coined by:The term was invented by researcher Colin Andrews in the early 1980s and entered the Oxford Dictionary in 1997.
Related TermCerealogy: The Study of Crop circles
See Also:Unusual ground marking

Crop circle is a term used for a phenomenon where crops, such as wheat, barley, rapeseed (also called "canola"), rye, corn, linseed and soy are flattened or bent low on their stalks, producing circular and other patterns when viewed from the air. Crop circles were first reported during the later decades of the twentieth century in a few crop fields, but since have become a worldwide phenomenon.

Various hypotheses have been offered to explain their formation, ranging from the naturalistic, and hoaxes, to the paranormal. Most commonly, crop circles are connected to UFOs and beliefs in extraterrestrial life, with claims that they are communications from aliens. While many have been proved hoaxes, crop circles have continued to appear and both the general public and scientific researchers have continued to be fascinated by the phenomenon. Like other such mysteries, there are those who believe they originate in a realm beyond the known physical world and there are those who reject such possibilities. This clash between those who are skeptical and those who are open to the unknown reflects human desire to pursue truth and at the same time the problem of ignorance and confusion regarding how to discover and recognize truth.

History

Crop circles did not become a widespread phenomenon garnering worldwide interest until the late twentieth century. However, there are some who claim that crop circles have been appearing for centuries, particularly in Europe. The earliest account of what has been suggested to be a crop circle may be found in a seventeenth-century English woodcut called the Mowing-Devil. The image depicts the Devil with a scythe mowing (cutting) a circular design in a field of oats. The pamphlet containing the image states that the farmer, disgusted at the wage his mower was demanding for his work, insisted that he would rather have "the devil himself" perform the task. According to the pamphlet, that night his field appeared to be in flame. The next morning, the field was found to be perfectly mowed—unnaturally perfect, in fact.[4]

1678 pamphlet on the Mowing-Devil.

Another early example of crop circles is the 1880 report by amateur scientist John Rand Capron:

The storms about this part of Surrey have been lately local and violent, and the effects produced in some instances curious. Visiting a neighbour's farm on Wednesday evening (21st), we found a field of standing wheat considerably knocked about, not as an entirety, but in patches forming, as viewed from a distance, circular spots....I could not trace locally any circumstances accounting for the peculiar forms of the patches in the field, nor indicating whether it was wind or rain, or both combined, which had caused them, beyond the general evidence everywhere of heavy rainfall. They were suggestive to me of some cyclonic wind action.[5]

In 1966, one of the most famous accounts of UFO appearances was reported in the small town of Tully, Queensland, Australia. A sugar cane farmer said he witnessed a saucer-shaped craft rise 30 or 40 feet (12 m) up from a swamp and then fly away. When he went to investigate the location where he thought the saucer had landed, he found the reeds intricately weaved in a clockwise fashion on top of the water. The woven reeds could hold the weight of 10 men.[6] The incident gained a lot of attention first in Australia, and then later in the world, albeit short lived. It is possibly the reason that many of the subsequent instances of crop circles were linked to UFO activity.[6]

Crop circles started to appear throughout the English countryside in the 1970s, and became even more frequent in the 1980s. At first the designs were uncomplicated circles, or variants of circles, but as the frequency of the phenomena increased throughout the 1980s, so did their complexity. In Great Britain a reported 400 new crop circles were discovered in 1990, considered a peak year for the incidents. Designs discovered at Barbary Castle were some of the largest and most geometrically complex reported.[7] The frequency and complexity of the crop circles, as well as the mystery surrounding their creation, helped to gain the attention of the media. Not long afterwards, crop circles began to show up in other countries, such as the former Soviet Union and Japan, as well as the U.S. and Canada.

Like many aspects of the occult and paranormal, crop circles soon became incorporated and exploited by pop culture. An example of this is the occasional profit made from circle incidents. Although some farmers expressed concern at the damage caused to their crops, local response to the appearance of crop circles can often be enthusiastic, with locals taking advantage of the tourist potential of circles. Past responses have included bus or helicopter tours of circle sites, walking tours, t-shirts and book sales. Potential markets include curious tourists, scientists, and crop circle researchers, and individuals seeking a spiritual experience by communing with spirits.

Widespread media coverage of crop circles, coupled with the revealing of some very complex and famous circles being the products of hoaxes, dulled the widespread intrigue of crop circles. Nevertheless, many committed researchers continue to be devoted to their study.

Designs

Crop Circle near Chartley Manor Farm in Staffordshire, England, August 2006.

Early examples of crop circles were usually simple circular patterns of various sizes. Later, more complex geometric patterns emerged. In general, the early formations (1970–2000) seemed to be based on the principles of sacred geometry. Later formations, those occurring after 2000, appear to be based on other principles, natural sciences and mathematics designs, including fractals. Many crop circles have fine intricate detail, regular symmetry, and careful composition. Elements of three-dimensionality became more frequent, culminating in spectacular images of cube-shaped structures.

Explanations

Hoaxes/Man-made

Since nearly the beginning of the crop circle phenomenon, there have been many who claimed that the designs were hoaxes. One of the most famous examples happened in 1991, when two men from Southampton, England announced that they had conceived the idea of crop circles as a prank at a pub near Winchester, Hampshire during an evening in 1976. Inspired by the 1966 Tully Saucer Nests, Doug Bower and Dave Chorley made their crop circles using bars, rope, hats, and wire as their only tools: using an iron bar attached to a rope, they easily created circles eight feet in diameter.[8] The two men were able to make a 40-foot (12 m) circle in 15 minutes. The pair became frustrated when their work did not receive significant publicity, and so in 1981 they created a circle in Matterley Bowl, a natural amphitheatre just outside Winchester, Hampshire—an area surrounded by roads from which a clear view of the field is available to drivers passing by. Their designs were at first simple circles. When newspapers claimed that the circles could easily be explained by natural phenomena, Bower and Chorley made more complex patterns. A simple wire with a loop, hanging down from a cap—the loop positioned over one eye—could be used to focus on a landmark to aid in the creation of straight lines. Later designs of crop circles became increasingly complicated.[8] Eventually Bower's wife became suspicious, noticing high levels of mileage in their car. Fearing that his wife suspected him of adultery, Bower confessed to her and subsequently he and Chorley informed a British national newspaper. Chorley died in 1996, but Doug Bower continued making crop circles until at least 2004.

Crop Circle hoaxes and techniques became widespread knowledge by the end of the twentieth century. In 2002, Scientific American published an article by Matt Ridley, who had started making crop circles in northern England in 1991.[9] He wrote about how easy it is to develop techniques using simple tools that can easily fool later observers. Methods to create a crop circle are now well-documented on the Internet. One internet group of crop circle makers demonstrated that making what self-appointed cereologist experts state are "unfakeable" crop circles is possible. On more than one occasion cereologists claimed that a crop circle was genuine when the people making the circle had previously been filmed making it.[10]

A Crop circle in Switzerland

Not everybody accepts that crop circles are man-made, however, believing instead that many designs are too perfect and that they lack signs of human interaction. Among these critics was British born astronomer Gerald Hawkins who, prior to his death, argued that some circles displayed a level of complexity and accuracy that would be difficult to recreate on paper, let alone in a field after dark.[11] In response, circle creating groups and proponents of the man-made hypothesis have claimed that it is possible to create a complex design by marking radii and angles with rope, and to enter and to move about a field using landscape features and tractor trails in order to avoid leaving other marks.[12]

One issue is that despite the appearance of numerous crop circles, those making them are almost never caught in the act. In most cases that the creation of crop circles is a nocturnal activity, making it difficult to observe their construction. During one attempt to observe the creation of a crop circle, numerous individuals witnessed nothing out of the ordinary, yet were astounded the next morning to see a crop circle in a field 500 yards (460 m) away from the one they had been watching all night.[12]

Paranormal

Since appearing in the media in the 1970s, crop circles have become the subject of various paranormal and fringe beliefs, the most popular being that they represent messages from extraterrestrials.[13] UFOs and other lights in the sky have been reported in connection with many crop circle sites, leading to them becoming associated with UFOs and aliens. Some people claim to have seen images of UFOs forming crop circles or flying over them, though photographs have been dismissed by skeptics as being indistinct or clearly hoaxes.[12]

Other features of crop circles that have suggested to some that some circles were not formed by simple man-made devices include electro-static charge measurements that show a clear difference between the inside and outside of the circle. Some crop circles showed this difference while others did not, a distinction that appeared to correlate well with known hoaxes versus possible true examples:

The gadget indicated electrical current flow in plants and living matter, including humans. However, in 'genuine' Corn Circles (as opposed to human made ones) there was a complete lack of energy almost as if whatever was making the corn circles had 'earthed' them.[14]

In addition to the static electricity effect, a variety of unexplained, sometimes musical, sounds have been heard in the vicinity of crop circles.[15] An example was reported by Colin Andrews of a number of short bursts of oscillating tones recorded on audio tape during "Operation White Crow." This was an investigation that took place at a location known as the "Devil's Punchbowl" at Cheesefoot Head, near Winchester in Hampshire, in the summer of 1989. During a break in their surveillance operations, a group gathered in one of the crop circles when they heard an unexpected sound which their equipment recorded:

Suddenly, we all heard a sound from the east. As we listened, it grew louder and we could sense it getting closer. It was definitely directional, in that we could all tell precisely where it was coming from, and we could follow it as it moved. The sound then rotated around us, floating around the circle three or four times, like an auditory cloud that passed above us in a circle. And again, it was directional: As it moved in its orbit around us, we could follow it with our ears, and if it had been visible, we all felt we would have been able to track it from point to point around the circle. First it was in our left ear, then behind us, then in our right ear. ... In the exact direction the sound seemed to travel to when it left us was a fresh crop ring. The plants were still popping up, and still moving, as though a powerful hand had pressed them down, and they were just now springing back up. ... I believed then, as I believe now, that we had inadvertently encroached upon the creation of a crop circle. We had all unwittingly placed ourselves in the middle of a paranormal event.[16]

Most often, circumstantial evidence is used as justification for the UFO theory: The designs are created at night, usually without eyewitnesses; the designs at times are large, geometrical shapes and designs that may (or may not) have mathematical significance; and most importantly, crop circles are best seen from above the ground, such as in an airplane, implying that an airborne device was used to create it.

Others see crop circles as a more spiritual matter. The location of many crop circles near ancient sites such as Stonehenge, barrows, and chalk horses has led to many New Age belief-systems incorporating crop circles. This includes the belief that they are formed in relation to ley lines and that they give off energy that can be detected through dowsing.[2] New Age followers sometimes gather at crop circle sites in order to meditate, or because they believe that they can use the circle in order to contact spirits.

Naturally Occurring

A third possibility that has been set forth is that crop circles are caused by naturally occurring, albeit unusual, meteorological phenomena. According to material published by the BLT institute, anomalies found at some circle sites in England and the United States are consistent with them having been created when localized columns of ionized air (dubbed plasma vortices/vortexes) form over standing crops.[17] Minuscule spheres of magnetic iron have also been found, distributed either around the perimeter of the circle, or linearly, which suggests a very complex delivery system. Bent or extended nodes in the stems of cereal grasses too have been found, suggesting that the crop has been subjected to a very rapid electromagnetic burst, causing the moisture inside the stems to expand, stretching or bending the nodes to almost three times their length. Holes have been found in the nodes, suggesting a rapid microwave burst, causing the moisture to turn into steam, which then forces its way out and leaving expulsion cavities.[18]

Other hypotheses attribute them to atmospheric phenomena such as freak tornadoes or ball lightning.[12] Of course, these theories do not readily explain the intricate, precise, and geometrical design of many crop circles.

Analysis

The main criticism of theories of non-human creation of crop circles is that evidence of these origins, besides eyewitness testimonies, is scant. Crop circles are usually easily explicable as the result of human pranksters. There have also been cases in which researchers declared crop circles to be "the real thing," only to be confronted soon after with the people who created the circle and documented the fraud. Many people have demonstrated how complex crop circles can be created.[19][20]

In his 1997 book The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark, Carl Sagan discussed alien-based theories of crop circle formation. Sagan concluded that no empirical evidence existed to link UFOs with crop circles. Specifically, he reported that there were no credible cases of UFOs being observed creating a circle, yet there were many cases when it was known that human agents, such as Doug Bower and Dave Chorley, were responsible.[19]

In 1999, researcher Colin Andrews received funding from Laurence Rockefeller to conduct a two-year investigation into crop circle hoaxing. Andrews put together a team which studied crop circles and infiltrated several groups known to be creating man-made circles. Using these man-made circles as a base, Andrews went on to study data from circles found in England in 1999 and 2000. Andrews concluded that 80 percent of all circles studied showed "unassailable" signs of having been man-made, including post holes used to demarcate circle layouts or evidence of human tracks underlying the circle sites, but could not account for the remaining 20 percent, for which he was unable to find signs of human interaction.[16] Andrews' figures were disputed by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSICOP), arguing that Andrews' criteria for distinguishing between man-made circles and non man-made circles were insufficient, since no official standard exists for determining the nature of a crop circle.[21]

In 2002, Freddy Silva published Secrets in the Fields, in which he paraphrased Gerald Hawkins' summary:

If crop circles are made by hoaxers, then they should stop doing it, because they are breaking the law and damaging the food supply. If they are made by UFO aliens, they shouldn't give us back the dates of our trips to Mars and the names of the men from the Titanic era - famous, clever, but now forgotten. If some are transcendental, the power behind it should realize that our culture is not now willing to accept transcendental happenings. But if they are indeed transcendental, then society will have to make a big adjustment in the years ahead.[22]

Regardless of how many crop circles have been proved hoaxes, their continuing appearance and certain of the phenomena that accompany them prevent a final conclusion on their origin. In fact, whatever their nature, the appearance of these circles and the excitement they generated among both the general public and scientists is a phenomenon in itself:

Some would argue that crop circles are the greatest mystery of our age. Others dismiss them as the work of pranksters and hoaxers. Some claim that they are a source of enlightenment whilst others are disappointed at the politics they have created. However you view the crop circles, there is no denying that they have had a profound effect on mankind in these latter years of the 20th Century. The crop circles can be viewed as a complete microcosm of human passion and vulnerability. Almost a condensed version of the human race itself, with egos, anger, peace and varying views all expressed by followers.[23]

Notes

  1. ↑ Anderhub Werner and Hans Peter Roth, Crop Circles: Exploring the Designs & Mysteries (Lark Books, 2002, ISBN 1579902979).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Leslie G. Howarth, If in Doubt, Blame the Aliens!: A new scientific analysis of UFO sightings, alleged alien abductions, animal mutilations and crop circles (iUniverse, 2000, ISBN 0595156932).
  3. ↑ Lynne Kelly, The Skeptic's Guide to the Paranormal (Allen & Unwin, 2004, ISBN 1741140595).
  4. ↑ Christopher Josiffe, The Hairy Man of St Trinian’s, or, the Mowing Devil Fortean Times 340 (2016). Retrieved July 27, 2021.
  5. ↑ John Rand Capron, "A case of genuine crop circles dating from July 1880," Journal of Meteorology 25 (2000): 20-21. ISSN 0307-5966 (original Nature 22 (July 1880): 290-291).
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 The Tully Saucer Nest UFO Casebook. Retrieved July 27, 2021.
  7. ↑ David Ritchie, UFO: The Definitive Guide to Unidentified Flying Objects and Related Phenomena (MJF Books, 1994, ISBN 1567312004),
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Crop circles makers in their own words: Doug Bower UFOs at close sight. Retrieved July 27, 2021
  9. ↑ Matt Ridley, Crop Circle Confession Scientific American, July, 2002. Retrieved July 27, 2021.
  10. ↑ John Macnish, Cropcircle Apocalypse (Circlevision, 1993, ISBN 095225803X).
  11. ↑ Crop circles and their relationship to Euclidean geometry and and diatonic ratios Crop Circle Secrets. Retrieved July 27, 2021.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Joe Nickell, Circular Reasoning: The 'Mystery' of Crop Circles and Their 'Orbs' of Light Skeptical Inquirer 26(5) (September/October 2002). Retrieved July 27, 2021.
  13. ↑ Robert Carroll, Skeptics Dictionary: Crop Circles (Wiley, 2005, ISBN 0471272426).
  14. ↑ Paul Vigay, Enigma Issue 1: Electro-Static Charge Indications Crop Circle Research, 1993. Retrieved July 27, 2021
  15. ↑ Paul Vigay, Crop Circle Research Projects into Sound and Harmonics Crop Circle Research. Retrieved July 27, 2021.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Colin Andrews and Stephen J. Spignesi, Crop Circles: Signs of Contact (New Page Books, 2003, ISBN 156414674X).
  17. ↑ Eltjo Haselhoff, The Deepening Complexity of Crop Circles: Scientific Research and Urban Legends (Frog Ltd, 2001, ISBN 1583940464).
  18. ↑ Magnetic Materials in Soils BLT Research Team Inc. Retrieved July 27, 2021.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Carl Sagan, The Demon Haunted World (Ballantine Books, 1997, ISBN 0345409469).
  20. ↑ Circlemakers. Retrieved July 27, 2021.
  21. ↑ Joe Nickell, Levengood's Crop-Circle Plant Research Skeptical Briefs 6.2 (June 1, 1996). Retrieved July 27, 2021.
  22. ↑ Freddy Silva, Secrets in the Fields: The Science and Mysticism of Crop Circles (Hampton Roads Publishing Company, 2002, ISBN 1571743227), 299.
  23. ↑ Paul Vigay, Crop Circles - What's it all coming to? Enigma 17, Crop Circle Research, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2021.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Andrews, Colin, and Pat Delgado. Circular Evidence: A Detailed Investigation of the Flattened Swirled Crops Phenomenon. London: Bloomsbury, 1989. ISBN 0747506353
  • Andrews, Colin, and Stephen Spignesi. Crop Circles: Signs of Contact. New Page Books, 2003. ISBN 156414674X
  • Carroll, Robert. Skeptics Dictionary: Crop Circles. Wiley, 2005. ISBN 0471272426
  • Haselhoff, Eltjo H. The Deepening Complexity of Crop Circles: Scientific Research and Urban Legends. Souvenir Press Ltd, 2001. ISBN 0285636251
  • Howarth, Leslie G. If in Doubt, Blame the Aliens!: A new scientific analysis of UFO sightings, alleged alien abductions, animal mutilations and crop circles. iUniverse, 2000. ISBN 0595156932
  • Irving, Robert, and John Lundberg. The Field Guide: The Art, History and Philosophy of Crop Circle Making. Strange Attractor Press, 2006. ISBN 0954805429
  • Janssen, Bert. The Hypnotic Power of Crop Circles. Adventures Unlimited Press, 2004. ISBN 1931882347
  • Kelly, Lynne. The Skeptic's Guide to the Paranormal. Allen & Unwin, 2004. ISBN 1741140595
  • Macnish, John. Cropcircle Apocalypse. Circlevision, 1993. ISBN 095225803X
  • Noyes, Ralph. (ed.). The Crop Circle Enigma: Grounding the Phenomenon in Science, Culture and Metaphysics. Bath, UK: Gateway Books, 1990. ISBN 0946551669
  • Pringle, Lucy. Crop Circles. Pitkin, 2004. ISBN 1841651389
  • Ritchie, David. UFO: The Definitive Guide to Unidentified Flying Objects and Related Phenomena. MJF Books, 1994. ISBN 1567312004
  • Sagan, Carl. The Demon-Haunted world: Science as a Candle in the Dark. Ballantine Books, 1997. ISBN 0345409469
  • Schnabel, Jim. Round in Circles: Physicists, Poltergeists, Pranksters, and the Secret History of the Cropwatchers. Penguin, 1993. ISBN 0140179526
  • Silva, Freddy. Secrets in the Fields: The Science and Mysticism of Crop Circles. Hampton Roads Pub Co, 2002. ISBN 1571743227
  • Thomas, Andy, and Mike Leigh. Vital Signs: A Complete Guide to the Crop Circle Mystery and Why It is Not a Hoax. Frog Books, 2002. ISBN 1583940693
  • Werner, Anderhub, and Roth HansPeter. Crop Circles: Exploring the Designs & Mysteries. Lark Books, 2002. ISBN 1579902979

External links

All links retrieved January 11, 2024.

Skeptical and scientific analysis
Pro paranormal explanation websites

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