Difference between revisions of "Community college" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(copied from Wikipedia)
 
 
(22 intermediate revisions by 7 users not shown)
Line 2: Line 2:
 
[[Category:Education]]
 
[[Category:Education]]
 
{{Schools}}
 
{{Schools}}
 +
{{Copyedited}}{{Paid}}{{Approved}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}
 +
The term '''Community College''' is used almost exclusively in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] to describe an alternative [[tertiary education|tertiary educational]] institution; similar institutions in other regions are known as "junior," "technical," "vocational," or "workers" colleges. Depending upon location and philosophical mandate, these establishments vary in programs and services they offer as well as the type of students they attract. Despite these variations, all such institutions share many commonalities: smaller in size and more focused on a core set of programs than traditional four-year [[college]]s and [[university|universities]], community colleges offer lower-level tertiary education, grant certificates, diplomas, and may offer Associate degrees.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
Critics have argued that community colleges are academically inferior and their funding would be better-used supporting traditional four-year programs. However, the advent of community colleges undeniably opened possibilities to many who would otherwise not have pursued post-secondary education or completed [[high school]] equivalency later in life. In this sense, community colleges played a significant role in advancing educational opportunities to a larger section of the world's population.
  
−
In [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], a '''community college''', sometimes called a '''junior college''', is an educational institution providing [[post-secondary education]] and lower-level [[tertiary education]], granting [[certificate]]s, [[diploma]]s, and [[associate's degree]]s. The name derives from the fact that community colleges primarily accept and attract students from the local [[community]], and are often supported by the local community through property taxes. In Canada, community colleges are usually simply referred to as "colleges".
+
==History==
 +
Community colleges began in [[North America]], before becoming widespread throughout the world. Though there have been numerous different reasons for the creation of each individual institution, there appear to be general issues affecting the local and national [[community]] that contributed to the introduction of community colleges. Such events as [[urbanization]], [[industrialization]], and [[economic development]] all led to environments favoring community colleges.
 +
 
 +
In America, community colleges began as extensions of [[high school]]s, such as that established in Joliet, [[Illinois]] in 1901. These first colleges tended to be small, usually less than two hundred students, and focused on a [[liberal arts]] education, with the goal of transferring students to four-year institutions. During the [[Great Depression]], the need for developing a workforce, especially composed of “semiprofessionals,” seen as individuals who could advance past high school but not attain bachelor level degrees, gained national attention. A move for a great number of public two-year institutions, along with a trend to separate such institutions from high schools and affiliate them with [[higher education]] gained momentum, and junior colleges became encouraged to develop more credibility through the creation of professional criteria and the use of scientific methods.
 +
 
 +
However, it was not until after [[World War II]] that community colleges became an important factor in American higher education. The educational opportunities that the G.I. Bill presented, coupled with the rise in [[adult education]] in response to the demand for skilled jobs and [[President Truman]]’s 1947 commission, which suggested a network of public community colleges that would provide education to a diverse group of students at little or no cost along with serving community needs through a comprehensive mission, all helped to foster the role of the community college. The Kellogg Junior College Leadership Program produced a series of grants during the 1960s and 1970s that helped to keep community colleges funded in addition to meeting the needs of the exponential increase in enrollment from the "baby boom" generation.  
  
−
In the [[United Kingdom]], '''community college''' is sometimes used to describe [[further education college]]s which, in addition to their primary mandate to provide training for 16 to 18 year olds, also provide part-time [[adult education]].
+
During the reconstruction of [[Europe]] after World War II, as economies and [[industry|industries]] started to re-stabilize, junior and technical colleges became prominent. In the [[United Kingdom]], community colleges were used to describe a system in which 16 to 18 year olds received training and adults received part-time education. In [[Germany]], cooperation between the government, industry, and educational sectors (especially after the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]]) gave rise to [[vocational education|vocational schools]] called ''Berufsschulen''.  
  
−
See discussion of the word [[college]].
+
Some community college type systems existed in European countries prior to WWII. In [[Finland]], junior and vocational schools became an outgrowth of "folk high schools," a [[Scandinavia]]n tradition that dates back to the nineteenth century, wherein adults came to take classes for any period of time.<ref> "Finland: Adult Education," Encyclopedia of The Nations, December 1988. <http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-4618.html> (June 5, 2006).</ref> During the twentieth century, the idea of folk high schools was expanded to include separate technical and vocational schools. European Junior colleges still emphasize a balance between [[continuing education]] and “Cultural Education”<ref>Brawer, Florence B. "Community Colleges International." ''ERIC DIGEST'', March 1996. <http://www.ericdigest.org/1996-4/colleges.html> (June 1, 2006).</ref>
  
−
==History==
+
After the disintegration of the [[Ottoman Empire]], and the rise of independent Arabic states after [[World War I]], such Middle Eastern countries such as [[Jordan]] took educational concerns very seriously. The government’s focus on primary, secondary, and traditional postsecondary schooling shifted in the 1970s due to a large shortage of skilled labor. The community colleges that resulted were probably the most similar to American and Canadian schools found anywhere outside the North American continent. These schools offered Associate Degrees as well as vocational and technical training.<ref> "Jordan: Education," Encyclopedia of the Nations, December 1989. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi.bin/query/r-7398.html> (June 3, 2006).</ref> [[Lebanon]] and [[Israel]] were other Middle Eastern countries that experimented with community colleges, although violence and instability in the region hindered the impact of the community college in the 1970s and 1980s.
−
Many events have contributed to the development and continued growth of community colleges. The social and economic climate of the early twentieth century led to vocal activists for a two year educational alternative to four year higher education institutions. Several different groups advocated for community colleges in the early twentieth century, including students and parents, educators, businesses, state universities, and government officials. Events like urbanization, industrialization, and economic development caused changes in society. One of education’s responses to a country in transition was the junior college. Several different movements supported the creation of community colleges, including local community support of public and private two year institutions, the expansion of the public education system, increased professional standards for teachers, the vocational education movement, and an expanding demand for adult and community education. Numerous colleges and universities advocated for the development of junior colleges.  Leadership felt small, private liberal arts colleges and high schools could provide the first two years of college while larger universities could focus resources on research and junior and senior level students.
 
  
−
Many of the early public junior colleges were an extension of high schools, like the first established in Joliet, Illinois in 1901.  These initial junior colleges generally were very small, usually less than 200 students and focused on a liberal arts education with the goal of transferring students to four year institutions.  They were more reflective of high school needs and lacked a definite identity.  Many of the early community colleges were normal schools and prepared teachers. Primary emphasis was placed on traditional middle class values and developing responsible citizens.  During the 1920s and 1930s there was a shift in the purpose of community colleges to developing a workforce, which was influenced by wide unemployment during the Great Depression.  Developing “semiprofessionals” became dominant national language to describe junior college students and was used until after WWII. A two year, terminal education, was seen as more socially efficient for students who could advance past high school but not attain bachelor’s degrees.  This national vocational movement was seen to give junior colleges a target population, but numerous students wanted more than a semiprofessional education; many maintained a desire to transfer.  Throughout this time period, there was a move for more public two year institutions along with a trend to separate from high schools and affiliate with higher education.  With the change in affiliation came a new status which encouraged junior colleges to develop additional credibility through the creation of professional criteria and use of scientific methods.  
+
The industrialization of [[Asia]] in the mid-twentieth century spurred the growth of vocational and technical schools. During the occupational period of [[Japan]] after World War II, previously existing institutions were turned into private junior colleges. These colleges had two distinct areas of focus: the first was to help prepare male students for any licensing and certification requirements needed to gain entry level positions in the Japanese economy; secondly, they encourage women to take the opportunity of an education before [[marriage]].<ref>"Japan: Junior Colleges," Encyclopedia of the Nations, January 1994. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-7151.html> (June 4, 2006)</ref> In [[China]], provincial vocational universities were established in the 1980s to help industries at the local level meet their skilled labor requirements. Neither of these institutions viewed the community college as a stepping-stone to traditional education; hence, such junior colleges were and still are primarily terminal institutions.<ref> Brawer, Florence B. "Community Colleges International." ''ERIC DIGEST'', March 1996. <http://www.ericdigest.org/1996-4/colleges.html> (June 1, 2006).</ref>
−
 
−
After WWII, skilled jobs were needed and the G.I. Bill afforded more educational opportunity to veterans which resulted in increased enrollments. Another factor that led to growth was the rise of adult and community education. After WWII, community colleges were seen as a good place to house continuing education programs.  The 1947 Truman Commission was a very important national document for community colleges.  It suggested a network of public community colleges that would provide education to a diverse group of students at little or no cost along with serving community needs through a comprehensive mission.  This national network exploded in the 1960s with 457 community colleges and the enrollment of baby boomers. A series of grants through the Kellogg Junior College Leadership Programs helped train many community college leaders during this decade.  Growth continued during the 1970s when many enrolled to escape the Vietnam era draft.  The 1970s also marked a shift to faculty development, including more instructional training for the unique student body and mission of community colleges. During the 1980s, community colleges began to work more closely with high schools to prepare students for vocational and technical two year programs.
 
  
−
In recent history, a debate between the advocates and critics of community colleges has gained strength.  Advocates argue community colleges serve the needs of society through providing college opportunity to students who may not otherwise go to college, training and retraining mid level skilled workers, and preserving the academic of excellence of four year universities.  Critics argue community colleges continue a culture of privilege through training business workers at public expense, not allowing working class children to advance in social class, protecting selective admissions at four year institutions for the nation’s elite, and discouraging transfer through “cooling out.”  Whether community colleges give opportunity or protect privilege, their century-long history has developed a distinctive aspect of higher education. Although the growth of community colleges has stabilized in the recent history, enrollment continues to outgrow four year institutions.  A total of 1166 loosely linked community colleges face challenges of new technological innovations, distance learning, funding constraints, community pressure, and international influence.
+
The growth of the community college was slower in [[Africa]] during the twentieth century then in the rest of the world, due to [[poverty]], violence, and political instability throughout the region. However, there are many examples of community colleges that have done well on the African continent. In [[Ethiopia]], the Commission for Higher Education recognized the need for technical and vocational colleges and began to create a number during the late 1970s.<ref>"Ethiopia: Higher and Vocational Education since 1975," Encylopedia of the Nations, 1991. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-4443.html> (June 8, 2006)</ref> Institutions for training [[peasantry|peasants]] in more efficient [[agriculture|agricultural]] methods were also set up. In [[Ghana]], [[illiteracy]] among adults, especially women, gave rise to the Institute of Adult Education, an affiliate of the University of Ghana.<ref> "Ghana: Adult Education," Encyclopedia of the Nations, November 1994. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-5253.html> (June 8, 2006).</ref>
  
 
==Governance==
 
==Governance==
−
Most community colleges are operated either by special districts that draw property tax revenue from the local community, or by a division of the state university. In the first case, the special district is governed by an board of trustees that is elected by the local community and is subject to limited control by a state agency that supervises all community college districts.
+
In the [[United States]], most community colleges are operated either by special districts that draw [[property]] [[tax]] revenue from the local community, or by a division of the state [[university]]. In the former case, the special district is governed by a board of trustees, elected by the local community and subject to limited control by a state agency that supervises all community college districts. In both cases, a president is selected (by the board or the university), who then acts as the chief executive officer of the college, in charge of the faculty and staff.
  
−
Either way, the board or the state university selects a president, who then acts as the [[chief executive officer]] of the college and controls the faculty and staff.
+
In [[Africa]], community colleges tend to be expansions of larger [[university|universities]], operating under the supervision of the national government agency in charge of [[education]], which is primarily responsible for funding. In [[Asia]], community colleges are governed differently. In China, local municipalities are solely responsible for funding and administering the vocational colleges in their cities. [[Japan]]ese junior colleges are governed directly by the National Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, but receive minimal funding; others are privatized and must only meet governmental regulations. Community colleges in [[Europe]] and some [[Middle East]]ern countries also operate directly under national ministries and departments, receiving the majority of their funding and guidelines from the federal government.
  
 
==Enrollment==
 
==Enrollment==
−
In North America, community colleges operate under a policy of "open admission".  That is, anyone with a high school diploma or GED may attend, regardless of prior academic status or college entrance exam scores.
+
In [[North America]], community colleges operate under a policy of "open admission." That is, anyone with a [[high school]] diploma or General Equivalence Degree (GED) may attend, regardless of prior academic status or college entrance exam scores.
  
−
The "open admission" policy results in a wide range of students attending community college classes. Students range in age from teenagers in [[high school]] taking classes under a "concurrent enrollment" policy (which allows both high school and college credits to be earned simultaneously) to working adults taking classes at night to complete a degree or gain additional skills in their field to students with graduate degrees who enroll to become more employable or to pursue lifelong interests. "Reverse transfers" (or those transferring from a university) constitute one of the fastest growing new community college college cohorts.
+
The "open admission" policy results in a wide range of students attending community college classes. Students range in age from teenagers still in high school, taking classes under a "concurrent enrollment" policy (which allows both high school and college credits to be earned simultaneously), to working adults taking classes at night to complete a degree or gain additional skills in their field, to students with graduate degrees who enroll to become more employable or to pursue lifelong interests. "Reverse transfers" (or those transferring from a [[university]]) constitute one of the fastest growing new community college cohorts.
  
−
==Educational offerings==
+
“Open admission” policies provide certain groups, such as women and adults, opportunities to seek out educational offerings that would not otherwise have been available in such regions as [[Africa]] and the [[Middle East]]. In these areas, improving [[literacy]] among adults with little education has been a primary goal, as has giving women a more equal opportunity to explore academic and vocational options. However, in some countries such as [[Japan]], there is no “open admission” policy for Junior colleges. Eligibility is based upon entrance exams and test scores, the same as for other [[higher education]] institutions.
−
Community colleges generally offer three levels of study programs.
 
  
−
The first level of study is toward an [[associate's degree]], in which a student takes necessary courses needed to earn a degree that will allow for workforce entry into jobs requiring some level of college education but not a full four-year degree.  The associate's degree program also allows for students who wish to eventually obtain a [[bachelor's degree]] at a four-year college to complete the necessary "core" requirements to attend the college of their choice[http://www.academicforum.co.uk/university/home .]
+
==Educational Offerings==
 +
Community colleges generally offer programs providing three levels of study.
  
−
Many community colleges have arrangements with nearby four-year institutions, where a student obtaining an associate's degree in a field will automatically have his/her classes counted toward the bachelor's degree requirement.  For example, a community college associate's degree in hotel and restaurant management, computers or accounting would count toward the four-year school's core requirement for a Business Administration degree.  Some have gone one step further, having arrangements with a four-year college for the student to obtain the bachelor's degree from the four-year college while taking all the courses via [[distance learning]] or other non-traditional modes,  on the community college campus, thus limiting the number of trips to the four-year school.
+
The first level of study is toward an associate's degree, in which a student takes necessary courses needed to earn a degree that will allow for workforce entry into jobs requiring some level of college education but not a full four-year [[degree]]. The associate's degree program also allows for students who wish to eventually obtain a bachelor's degree at a four-year [[college]] to complete the necessary "core" requirements to attend the college of their choice.
  
−
The second level of study is towards certification in an area of [[vocational or occupational education|training]] (such as nursing, computer repair, or welding), which require preparation for a state or national examination, or where certification would allow for hiring preference or a higher salary upon entering the workforce.
+
Many community colleges have arrangements with nearby four-year institutions, where a student obtaining an associate's degree in a field will automatically have his/her classes counted toward the bachelor's degree requirement. For example, a community college associate's degree in hotel and [[restaurant]] management, [[computer science]], or [[accounting]] would count toward the four-year school's core requirement for a Business Administration degree. Some have gone one step further, having arrangements with a four-year college for the student to obtain the bachelor's degree from the four-year college while taking all the courses via [[distance learning]] or other non-traditional modes, on the community college campus, thus limiting the number of trips to the four-year school.
  
−
The third level of study offers services of local interest to members of the community, such as job placement, adult continuing education classes (either for personal achievement or to maintain certification in specialized fields), and developmental classes for children.  Some community colleges offer opportunities for students to return and earn a high school diploma or obtain a GED.  Community colleges often work with local employeers to develop specialized classes tailored toward their organization's needs.
+
The second level of study is towards certification in an area of [[vocational education|vocational training]], such as [[nursing]], computer repair, or welding, which require preparation for a state or national examination, or where certification would allow for hiring preference or a higher salary upon entering the workforce.
  
−
==Advantages of community colleges==
+
The third level of study offers services of local interest to members of the [[community]], such as job placement, adult [[continuing education]] classes (either for personal achievement or to maintain certification in specialized fields), and developmental classes for children. Some community colleges offer opportunities for students to return and earn a [[high school]] diploma or obtain a GED. Community colleges often work with local employers to develop specialized classes tailored toward their organization's needs.
−
*Community colleges are geared toward local students and local needs.<ref>Irving Pressley McPhail, "Top 10 reasons to attend a community college," ''Community College Week'' 17, no. 11 (3 January 2005): 4-5.</ref>  Students who could not afford campus or off-site housing at a four-year college, or for other reasons cannot relocate, can attend courses while staying in their local community.  Also, community colleges can work with local businesses to develop customized training geared toward local needs, whereas a four-year institution generally focuses on state-wide or national needs.<ref>M.H. Miller, "Four-year schools should take more cues from community colleges, some educators say," ''Community College Week'' 17, no. 9 (6 December 2004): 3-4.</ref> Some community colleges have programs allowing local high school students to "jump start" their college career by taking classes at the community college that also count toward their high school diploma. Policies and classes offered vary with different agreements existing between the community college and high schools.
 
−
*The "open enrollment" policy allows anyone to begin the goal towards future college education.  The policy is highly beneficial to students with mediocre academic records in high school (or who dropped out and later obtained a GED), students "maturing" later in life who now see the benefits of college education, or students who could not attend college after high school but now have the chance to do so.
 
−
*In North America, tuition and fees are substantially lower than those of a traditional four-year public or private institution.  Students from low-income families, or those having to work to pay for their education, benefit from the reduced costs. Many colleges offer and accept scholarships or educational grants.
 
−
*Community colleges have little or no time limits on when classes must be taken or a degree must be earned; in contrast, many four-year schools, tired of "[[professional student]]s" taking up limited space, have imposed limits on when a degree can be earned. Students who must hold down full-time employment, and who cannot take a full-time load, are thus not under pressure to complete courses in a limited timeframe.
 
−
*Four-year colleges often give priority to students transferring from community colleges, citing their demonstrated preparedness for junior and senior college-level work.  Students who may not have been able to attend a particular college after high school (whether for academic, financial, or personal reasons) may now be able to attend the college of their choice.
 
−
*Community college professors are solely dedicated to teaching, and classes are generally small.  In comparison, a four-year college course may be taught to 300 students by a teaching assistant, while the professor is concentrating on research.  Most professors at community colleges have [[master's degree]]s and some even hold [[doctorate]] degrees.
 
−
*Several community colleges have successful athletic programs, where students have gone on to play for major colleges or the professional ranks. Others offer no athletic programs.
 
−
*Research shows that there is no learning or income penalty for individuals who start at a community college and transfer to a four-year institution. Additionally, research indicates that students who begin their higher education career at a community college are more likely to transfer to a higher quality four-year institution than if they had started at a four-year college.
 
  
−
==Disadvantages of community colleges==
+
==Advantages and Disadvantages==
−
*Transferring credits can sometimes be a problem, as each four-year college has its own requirements as to what is and isn't required for enrollment.  However, many four-year colleges (usually near the community college) have made arrangements allowing associate degrees to qualify for transfer, and in some cases allowing the student to complete the bachelor's degree via [[distance learning]] from the community college campus. [[Minnesota]] has created a statewide "transfer curriculum" allowing credits to be transferred to any other public university and almost all of the private colleges. Illinois' [http://www.itransfer.org I-transfer program] program aids students in transferring credits across the state. California has a system known as Assist[http://www.assist.org] which labels course equavilances between all California Community Colleges and California Public Four year colleges.
+
The U.S. community college model and its variants in other countries has, in many ways, been a positive development in [[education]], providing opportunities for those who would not otherwise have continued their education beyond [[high school]] and serving local communities by providing [[adult education]] opportunities for lifelong learning. Critics, however, have contended that educational efforts, and funding, would be better spent in other areas, regarding community colleges as inferior in their academic standards and types of courses to traditional four-year [[college]]s and [[university|universities]]. The following are some significant advantages and disadvantages to community colleges.
−
*It is frequent for many courses to be taught by part-time [[lecturer]]s holding only a Master's degree in the field, although there is little evidence, other than anecdotal, to indicate that taking a class from a full-time college instructor leads to higher order learning outcomes.
 
−
*Few community colleges have on-campus housing. This makes participation in extra-curricular activities more difficult.
 
−
*Many community colleges do not offer any athletic programs other than basic physical education classes.
 
−
*Research shows individuals with associate's degrees earn less than those with bachelor's degrees. Because a correlation exists between years of education and earnings, this says more about years of schooling than the value of Associate's degrees or certificates, which have a strong value in the workplace.
 
−
*The community college environment places little importance on socialization and, as a result, feels quite antisocial.
 
  
−
==Community college libraries==
+
===Advantages===
−
Community college libraries, also called learning resources centers, have evolved over their existence. These libraries often include traditional library services such as book checkout, online research tools, and research help, but they also have included multimedia technology expertise, video centers, tutor centers and support services. Community college libraries play a significant role in the college curriculum by supporting information literacy across campus. The librarians spend a significant amount of their work week in the classroom teaching students to select research tools, to evaluate search results, and to use their results in papers, speeches, or in other projects. For this reason, community college librarians are considered full faculty members at most institutions.  Community college libraries are often at the cutting edge of research services, because they are able to change faster than their larger cousins at major research institutions.
+
* Community colleges are geared toward local students and local needs<ref>McPhail, Irving Pressley. "Top 10 Reasons to Attend a Community College." ''Community College Week'' 17.11 (January 3, 2005): 4-5.</ref> Students who could not afford campus or off-site housing at a four-year college, or for other reasons cannot relocate, are able to attend courses while staying in their local community. Also, community colleges can work with local businesses to develop customized training geared towards local needs, whereas four-year institutions generally focuses on state-wide or national needs.<ref>Miller, M.H. "Four-year schools should take cues from community colleges, some educators say." ''Community College Week'' 17.9 (December 6, 2004): 3-4.</ref> The relationship between a community college and its local community allows students, such as those with limited funds, families, and other local obligations, to explore educational and vocational opportunities without having to relocate.
 +
* The "open enrollment" policy in many institutions allows anyone to begin to work towards their goal of future college education. This policy is highly beneficial to students with mediocre academic records in [[high school]], or in the case of some [[Africa]]n institutions, gives the poorly educated working class an educational opportunity they would not have at a traditional four-year institution.
 +
* In most institutions, tuition and fees are substantially lower than those at a traditional four-year public or private institution. Students from low-income families, or those having to work to pay for their education, benefit from such reduced costs. Many colleges offer and accept scholarships or educational grants.
 +
* For some students, the differences between community colleges and four-year traditional institutions, such as more flexibility in scheduling classes, less time restrictions on completion of courses and requirements, more focus on classes that are specifically geared towards the degree being pursued, and reduced costs, means that educational goals such as [[vocational education|vocational]] and [[technical education|technical]] training are more easily achieved.  
  
−
==Timeline of Important Events==
+
===Disadvantages===
−
1901 – Joliet, IL added fifth and sixth year courses to the high school curriculum leading to the development of the first public junior college.
 
  
−
1920 – American Association of Junior Colleges established.
+
* For those students who wish to purse more academic disciplines, rather than [[vocational education|vocational]] or [[technical education|technical]] training, but are unable to attend four-year institutions, community colleges do not offer the research and advanced academic opportunities of four-year institutions. While transferring from a community college to a four-year institution is ideal for such students, transferring is not always a smooth process, as each four-year college has its own requirements as to what is and is not required for enrollment. Additionally, enrollment in community colleges does not necessarily deal with such difficulties as funding and relocation that can still be a problem after transferring.
 +
* Academic success in a community college does not necessarily mean success in the more challenging four-year institutions. Additionally, the social environment of a four-year institution is drastically different from community colleges and students may find that they are not well prepared for the hustle and bustle and less individualized atmosphere of four-year institutions.
 +
* Non-academic ventures, such as athletic opportunities, clubs, and organizations are less prominent in community colleges than in four-year institutions.
  
−
1930 – First publication of the Community College Journal.
+
==The Future of Community Colleges==
  
−
1947 – Publication of Higher Education for American Democracy by the President’s Commission on Higher Education, the 1947 Truman Commission.
+
Outside of [[North America]] and [[Europe]], the future of the community colleges is far from secure. Junior college programs begin and end frequently in [[Africa]]n nations due to monetary and political issues. Even in such places as [[Israel]], where community colleges have been established for some time, there has been serious debate as to whether or not these institutions actually benefit society.<ref>Brawer, Florence B. "Community Colleges International," ''ERIC DIGEST'' (March 1996). <http://www.ericdigest.org/1996-4/colleges.html> (June 1, 2006).</ref> Differing opinions on [[education]] will surely be a debate as long as there are educational systems. Those in favor of community colleges, such as Badran (1989), argue that they are “an investment that ensures both the social prestige and economic security of the country and its people.”<ref>Badran, Adnan (ed.). ''At the Crossroads: Education in the Middle East''. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House, 1989. ISBN 0943852463</ref>
  
−
1965 – Higher Education Act of 1965 established grant programs to make higher education more accessible.
+
Certainly these institutions offer a "second-chance" to those who were unable or unwilling to seek out such opportunity at an earlier time. They also open "doors" to the world of academia for those unable to go directly into four-year colleges after [[high school]]. The vocational and technical skills one can acquire at these institutions have been proven to help economies in [[Asia]]. Overall, it certainly is desirable to have an educated workforce and society.  
  
−
1992 – The American Association of Junior Colleges change their name to the American Association of Community Colleges.
+
Despite these benefits, however, there are those who adhere to the traditional forms of [[higher education]]. Much of the cost of most community colleges must be subsidized since tuition is extremely low, and opponents believe that such money should help maintain the important research and prestige of traditional four-year schools. [[University|Universities]], after all, have been around much longer, have become much more accessible and are proven capable of producing an educated workforce.
  
 +
Some people believe that proper education in high schools would make junior colleges unnecessary. Others believe that modern complex society requires more education and extra years should be added to public schools.
  
−
==External links==
+
Thus it appears that the economic, social, and political aspects of each individual region will determine the future of community colleges.
−
* [http://www.aacc.nche.edu/ American Association of Community Colleges]
 
−
* [http://www.acct.org/ Association of Community College Trustees]
 
−
* [http://www.communitycolleges.org/ Illinois Community College Trustees Association]
 
−
* [http://www.acc.eu.org/ Association for Community Colleges - a new European movement]
 
−
* [http://www.league.org/ League for Innovation]
 
−
* [http://www.libraryinstruction.com/lrc.html The Instructional Role of the Two-Year College Learning Resources Center]
 
−
* [http://www.communitycollegepolicy.org/ Center for Community College Policy]
 
−
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/economic.htm The Economic Outcomes of Community College Attendance]
 
−
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/building.htm Building an Instructional Framework for Effective Community College Developmental Education]
 
−
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-5/role.htm The Role of Scholarship in the Community College]
 
−
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/college.htm Internationalizing the Community College: Examples of Success]
 
−
* [http://www.50states.com/cc/ Community Colleges in the United States]
 
−
* [http://www.jjc.edu/admin/ie Institutional Effectiveness at a Community College]
 
−
* [http://suburbdad.blogspot.com  Confessions of a Community College Dean (Blog)]
 
−
* [http://www.nisod.org NISOD (The University of Texas)]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
  
 +
==Bibliography==
 +
*Baker, G. A. III. 1994. ''A handbook on the community college in America: Its history, mission, and management''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313280282
 +
*Dougherty, K. J. 1994. ''The contradictory college: The conflicting origins, impacts, and futures of the community college''. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 079141955X
 +
*Frye, J. H. 1992. ''The vision of the public junior college, 1900-1940''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313280010
 +
*Kasper, H. T. 2002. "The changing role of community college." ''Occupational Outlook Quarterly'' 46 (4): 14-21.
 +
*Murray, J. P. 2002. "The current state of faculty development in two-year colleges."  ''New Directions for Community Colleges'' 118, 89-97.
  
−
American Association of Community Colleges. http://www.aacc.nche.edu/  
+
==External links==
−
 
+
All links retrieved January 7, 2024.
−
Baker, G. A. III (1994). A handbook on the community college in America: Its history, mission, and management. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
+
*[http://www.aacc.nche.edu/ American Association of Community Colleges]
−
 
+
*[http://www.acc.eu.org/ Association for Community Colleges - a new European movement]
−
Dougherty, K. J. (1994). The contradictory college: The conflicting origins, impacts, and futures of the community college. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
+
*[http://www.acct.org/ Association of Community College Trustees]
−
 
+
*[http://www.50states.com/cc/ Community Colleges in the United States]
−
Frye, J. H. (1992). The vision of the public junior college, 1900-1940. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
+
*[http://suburbdad.blogspot.com Confessions of a Community College Dean (Blog)]
−
 
+
*[http://www.league.org/ League for Innovation]
−
Kasper, H. T. (2002). The changing role of community college. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 46(4), 14-21.
 
−
 
 
−
Murray, J.P (2002). The current state of faculty development in two-year colleges.  New Directions for Community Colleges, 118, 89-97.
 
  
  
 
{{Credit1|Community_college|53537028|}}
 
{{Credit1|Community_college|53537028|}}

Latest revision as of 00:18, 8 January 2024

Schools
Musica 1488.jpg
Education
History of education
Pedagogy
Teaching
Homeschooling
Preschool education
Child care center
Kindergarten
Primary education
Elementary school
Secondary education
Middle school
Comprehensive school
Grammar school
Gymnasium
High school
Preparatory school
Public school
Tertiary education
College
Community college
Liberal arts college
University

The term Community College is used almost exclusively in the United States and Canada to describe an alternative tertiary educational institution; similar institutions in other regions are known as "junior," "technical," "vocational," or "workers" colleges. Depending upon location and philosophical mandate, these establishments vary in programs and services they offer as well as the type of students they attract. Despite these variations, all such institutions share many commonalities: smaller in size and more focused on a core set of programs than traditional four-year colleges and universities, community colleges offer lower-level tertiary education, grant certificates, diplomas, and may offer Associate degrees.

Critics have argued that community colleges are academically inferior and their funding would be better-used supporting traditional four-year programs. However, the advent of community colleges undeniably opened possibilities to many who would otherwise not have pursued post-secondary education or completed high school equivalency later in life. In this sense, community colleges played a significant role in advancing educational opportunities to a larger section of the world's population.

History

Community colleges began in North America, before becoming widespread throughout the world. Though there have been numerous different reasons for the creation of each individual institution, there appear to be general issues affecting the local and national community that contributed to the introduction of community colleges. Such events as urbanization, industrialization, and economic development all led to environments favoring community colleges.

In America, community colleges began as extensions of high schools, such as that established in Joliet, Illinois in 1901. These first colleges tended to be small, usually less than two hundred students, and focused on a liberal arts education, with the goal of transferring students to four-year institutions. During the Great Depression, the need for developing a workforce, especially composed of “semiprofessionals,” seen as individuals who could advance past high school but not attain bachelor level degrees, gained national attention. A move for a great number of public two-year institutions, along with a trend to separate such institutions from high schools and affiliate them with higher education gained momentum, and junior colleges became encouraged to develop more credibility through the creation of professional criteria and the use of scientific methods.

However, it was not until after World War II that community colleges became an important factor in American higher education. The educational opportunities that the G.I. Bill presented, coupled with the rise in adult education in response to the demand for skilled jobs and President Truman’s 1947 commission, which suggested a network of public community colleges that would provide education to a diverse group of students at little or no cost along with serving community needs through a comprehensive mission, all helped to foster the role of the community college. The Kellogg Junior College Leadership Program produced a series of grants during the 1960s and 1970s that helped to keep community colleges funded in addition to meeting the needs of the exponential increase in enrollment from the "baby boom" generation.

During the reconstruction of Europe after World War II, as economies and industries started to re-stabilize, junior and technical colleges became prominent. In the United Kingdom, community colleges were used to describe a system in which 16 to 18 year olds received training and adults received part-time education. In Germany, cooperation between the government, industry, and educational sectors (especially after the fall of the Berlin Wall) gave rise to vocational schools called Berufsschulen.

Some community college type systems existed in European countries prior to WWII. In Finland, junior and vocational schools became an outgrowth of "folk high schools," a Scandinavian tradition that dates back to the nineteenth century, wherein adults came to take classes for any period of time.[1] During the twentieth century, the idea of folk high schools was expanded to include separate technical and vocational schools. European Junior colleges still emphasize a balance between continuing education and “Cultural Education”[2]

After the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, and the rise of independent Arabic states after World War I, such Middle Eastern countries such as Jordan took educational concerns very seriously. The government’s focus on primary, secondary, and traditional postsecondary schooling shifted in the 1970s due to a large shortage of skilled labor. The community colleges that resulted were probably the most similar to American and Canadian schools found anywhere outside the North American continent. These schools offered Associate Degrees as well as vocational and technical training.[3] Lebanon and Israel were other Middle Eastern countries that experimented with community colleges, although violence and instability in the region hindered the impact of the community college in the 1970s and 1980s.

The industrialization of Asia in the mid-twentieth century spurred the growth of vocational and technical schools. During the occupational period of Japan after World War II, previously existing institutions were turned into private junior colleges. These colleges had two distinct areas of focus: the first was to help prepare male students for any licensing and certification requirements needed to gain entry level positions in the Japanese economy; secondly, they encourage women to take the opportunity of an education before marriage.[4] In China, provincial vocational universities were established in the 1980s to help industries at the local level meet their skilled labor requirements. Neither of these institutions viewed the community college as a stepping-stone to traditional education; hence, such junior colleges were and still are primarily terminal institutions.[5]

The growth of the community college was slower in Africa during the twentieth century then in the rest of the world, due to poverty, violence, and political instability throughout the region. However, there are many examples of community colleges that have done well on the African continent. In Ethiopia, the Commission for Higher Education recognized the need for technical and vocational colleges and began to create a number during the late 1970s.[6] Institutions for training peasants in more efficient agricultural methods were also set up. In Ghana, illiteracy among adults, especially women, gave rise to the Institute of Adult Education, an affiliate of the University of Ghana.[7]

Governance

In the United States, most community colleges are operated either by special districts that draw property tax revenue from the local community, or by a division of the state university. In the former case, the special district is governed by a board of trustees, elected by the local community and subject to limited control by a state agency that supervises all community college districts. In both cases, a president is selected (by the board or the university), who then acts as the chief executive officer of the college, in charge of the faculty and staff.

In Africa, community colleges tend to be expansions of larger universities, operating under the supervision of the national government agency in charge of education, which is primarily responsible for funding. In Asia, community colleges are governed differently. In China, local municipalities are solely responsible for funding and administering the vocational colleges in their cities. Japanese junior colleges are governed directly by the National Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, but receive minimal funding; others are privatized and must only meet governmental regulations. Community colleges in Europe and some Middle Eastern countries also operate directly under national ministries and departments, receiving the majority of their funding and guidelines from the federal government.

Enrollment

In North America, community colleges operate under a policy of "open admission." That is, anyone with a high school diploma or General Equivalence Degree (GED) may attend, regardless of prior academic status or college entrance exam scores.

The "open admission" policy results in a wide range of students attending community college classes. Students range in age from teenagers still in high school, taking classes under a "concurrent enrollment" policy (which allows both high school and college credits to be earned simultaneously), to working adults taking classes at night to complete a degree or gain additional skills in their field, to students with graduate degrees who enroll to become more employable or to pursue lifelong interests. "Reverse transfers" (or those transferring from a university) constitute one of the fastest growing new community college cohorts.

“Open admission” policies provide certain groups, such as women and adults, opportunities to seek out educational offerings that would not otherwise have been available in such regions as Africa and the Middle East. In these areas, improving literacy among adults with little education has been a primary goal, as has giving women a more equal opportunity to explore academic and vocational options. However, in some countries such as Japan, there is no “open admission” policy for Junior colleges. Eligibility is based upon entrance exams and test scores, the same as for other higher education institutions.

Educational Offerings

Community colleges generally offer programs providing three levels of study.

The first level of study is toward an associate's degree, in which a student takes necessary courses needed to earn a degree that will allow for workforce entry into jobs requiring some level of college education but not a full four-year degree. The associate's degree program also allows for students who wish to eventually obtain a bachelor's degree at a four-year college to complete the necessary "core" requirements to attend the college of their choice.

Many community colleges have arrangements with nearby four-year institutions, where a student obtaining an associate's degree in a field will automatically have his/her classes counted toward the bachelor's degree requirement. For example, a community college associate's degree in hotel and restaurant management, computer science, or accounting would count toward the four-year school's core requirement for a Business Administration degree. Some have gone one step further, having arrangements with a four-year college for the student to obtain the bachelor's degree from the four-year college while taking all the courses via distance learning or other non-traditional modes, on the community college campus, thus limiting the number of trips to the four-year school.

The second level of study is towards certification in an area of vocational training, such as nursing, computer repair, or welding, which require preparation for a state or national examination, or where certification would allow for hiring preference or a higher salary upon entering the workforce.

The third level of study offers services of local interest to members of the community, such as job placement, adult continuing education classes (either for personal achievement or to maintain certification in specialized fields), and developmental classes for children. Some community colleges offer opportunities for students to return and earn a high school diploma or obtain a GED. Community colleges often work with local employers to develop specialized classes tailored toward their organization's needs.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The U.S. community college model and its variants in other countries has, in many ways, been a positive development in education, providing opportunities for those who would not otherwise have continued their education beyond high school and serving local communities by providing adult education opportunities for lifelong learning. Critics, however, have contended that educational efforts, and funding, would be better spent in other areas, regarding community colleges as inferior in their academic standards and types of courses to traditional four-year colleges and universities. The following are some significant advantages and disadvantages to community colleges.

Advantages

  • Community colleges are geared toward local students and local needs[8] Students who could not afford campus or off-site housing at a four-year college, or for other reasons cannot relocate, are able to attend courses while staying in their local community. Also, community colleges can work with local businesses to develop customized training geared towards local needs, whereas four-year institutions generally focuses on state-wide or national needs.[9] The relationship between a community college and its local community allows students, such as those with limited funds, families, and other local obligations, to explore educational and vocational opportunities without having to relocate.
  • The "open enrollment" policy in many institutions allows anyone to begin to work towards their goal of future college education. This policy is highly beneficial to students with mediocre academic records in high school, or in the case of some African institutions, gives the poorly educated working class an educational opportunity they would not have at a traditional four-year institution.
  • In most institutions, tuition and fees are substantially lower than those at a traditional four-year public or private institution. Students from low-income families, or those having to work to pay for their education, benefit from such reduced costs. Many colleges offer and accept scholarships or educational grants.
  • For some students, the differences between community colleges and four-year traditional institutions, such as more flexibility in scheduling classes, less time restrictions on completion of courses and requirements, more focus on classes that are specifically geared towards the degree being pursued, and reduced costs, means that educational goals such as vocational and technical training are more easily achieved.

Disadvantages

  • For those students who wish to purse more academic disciplines, rather than vocational or technical training, but are unable to attend four-year institutions, community colleges do not offer the research and advanced academic opportunities of four-year institutions. While transferring from a community college to a four-year institution is ideal for such students, transferring is not always a smooth process, as each four-year college has its own requirements as to what is and is not required for enrollment. Additionally, enrollment in community colleges does not necessarily deal with such difficulties as funding and relocation that can still be a problem after transferring.
  • Academic success in a community college does not necessarily mean success in the more challenging four-year institutions. Additionally, the social environment of a four-year institution is drastically different from community colleges and students may find that they are not well prepared for the hustle and bustle and less individualized atmosphere of four-year institutions.
  • Non-academic ventures, such as athletic opportunities, clubs, and organizations are less prominent in community colleges than in four-year institutions.

The Future of Community Colleges

Outside of North America and Europe, the future of the community colleges is far from secure. Junior college programs begin and end frequently in African nations due to monetary and political issues. Even in such places as Israel, where community colleges have been established for some time, there has been serious debate as to whether or not these institutions actually benefit society.[10] Differing opinions on education will surely be a debate as long as there are educational systems. Those in favor of community colleges, such as Badran (1989), argue that they are “an investment that ensures both the social prestige and economic security of the country and its people.”[11]

Certainly these institutions offer a "second-chance" to those who were unable or unwilling to seek out such opportunity at an earlier time. They also open "doors" to the world of academia for those unable to go directly into four-year colleges after high school. The vocational and technical skills one can acquire at these institutions have been proven to help economies in Asia. Overall, it certainly is desirable to have an educated workforce and society.

Despite these benefits, however, there are those who adhere to the traditional forms of higher education. Much of the cost of most community colleges must be subsidized since tuition is extremely low, and opponents believe that such money should help maintain the important research and prestige of traditional four-year schools. Universities, after all, have been around much longer, have become much more accessible and are proven capable of producing an educated workforce.

Some people believe that proper education in high schools would make junior colleges unnecessary. Others believe that modern complex society requires more education and extra years should be added to public schools.

Thus it appears that the economic, social, and political aspects of each individual region will determine the future of community colleges.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  1. ↑ "Finland: Adult Education," Encyclopedia of The Nations, December 1988. <http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-4618.html> (June 5, 2006).
  2. ↑ Brawer, Florence B. "Community Colleges International." ERIC DIGEST, March 1996. <http://www.ericdigest.org/1996-4/colleges.html> (June 1, 2006).
  3. ↑ "Jordan: Education," Encyclopedia of the Nations, December 1989. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi.bin/query/r-7398.html> (June 3, 2006).
  4. ↑ "Japan: Junior Colleges," Encyclopedia of the Nations, January 1994. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-7151.html> (June 4, 2006)
  5. ↑ Brawer, Florence B. "Community Colleges International." ERIC DIGEST, March 1996. <http://www.ericdigest.org/1996-4/colleges.html> (June 1, 2006).
  6. ↑ "Ethiopia: Higher and Vocational Education since 1975," Encylopedia of the Nations, 1991. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-4443.html> (June 8, 2006)
  7. ↑ "Ghana: Adult Education," Encyclopedia of the Nations, November 1994. <http:www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-5253.html> (June 8, 2006).
  8. ↑ McPhail, Irving Pressley. "Top 10 Reasons to Attend a Community College." Community College Week 17.11 (January 3, 2005): 4-5.
  9. ↑ Miller, M.H. "Four-year schools should take cues from community colleges, some educators say." Community College Week 17.9 (December 6, 2004): 3-4.
  10. ↑ Brawer, Florence B. "Community Colleges International," ERIC DIGEST (March 1996). <http://www.ericdigest.org/1996-4/colleges.html> (June 1, 2006).
  11. ↑ Badran, Adnan (ed.). At the Crossroads: Education in the Middle East. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House, 1989. ISBN 0943852463

Bibliography

  • Baker, G. A. III. 1994. A handbook on the community college in America: Its history, mission, and management. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313280282
  • Dougherty, K. J. 1994. The contradictory college: The conflicting origins, impacts, and futures of the community college. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 079141955X
  • Frye, J. H. 1992. The vision of the public junior college, 1900-1940. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313280010
  • Kasper, H. T. 2002. "The changing role of community college." Occupational Outlook Quarterly 46 (4): 14-21.
  • Murray, J. P. 2002. "The current state of faculty development in two-year colleges." New Directions for Community Colleges 118, 89-97.

External links

All links retrieved January 7, 2024.


Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Community_college&oldid=1132522

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki