Difference between revisions of "Catacomb" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:A-Procession-in-the-Catacomb-of-Callistus.jpg|thumb|right|A procession in the catacomb of [[Callistus]].]]
 
[[Image:A-Procession-in-the-Catacomb-of-Callistus.jpg|thumb|right|A procession in the catacomb of [[Callistus]].]]
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'''Catacomb''' refers to a network of underground [[burial]] galleries, the design of which originated in [[Ancient Rome]]. The word now refers to any network of [[cave]]s, [[grotto]]s, or subterranean place that is used for the burial of the [[death|dead]], or it can refer to a specific underground burial place. The original catacombs are a network of underground burial galleries beneath [[San Sebastiano fuori le mura]], in [[Rome]]. Many older cities also have such burial sites.
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While the catacombs provide a fascinating view of [[culture]]s and beliefs about the dead and the [[afterlife]], [[archaeology|archaeologists]] are careful to preserve them out of consideration for the remains of those laid to rest there. Many catacombs served a wider purpose than simply a burial place for the dead; [[Christian]] communities celebrated the [[Eucharist]] and family feasts at the time of [[funeral]] ceremonies, and some catacombs included shrines devoted to [[saint]]s and [[martyr]]s. The Capuchin catacombs of Palermo include macabre [[mummy|mummified]] remains of monks as well as important people, which have become more of a tourist attraction than a religious shrine.
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Regular worship there was unlikely though, due to both the toxicity of the air in the subterranean areas, and the regard for dead bodies as unclean. Legendary tales that early Christians held secret meetings there are unlikely to be true since the Romans were well aware of the existence of the catacombs, although they may have hid there from [[barbarian]] invaders. The catacombs in [[Paris]] were surely used by French resistance during [[World War II]].
 
[[Image:Paris catacombes.jpg|thumb|right|Catacombs Paris]]
 
[[Image:Paris catacombes.jpg|thumb|right|Catacombs Paris]]
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''Catacombs'' refers to a network of underground burial galleries, the design of which originated  in [[Ancient Rome]]. The word now refers to any network of [[cave]]s, grottos, or subterranean place that is used for the burial of the [[dead]], or it can refer to a specific underground burial place. Many older cities have such burial sites, and have become a place of public interest due to [[archaeology|archaeological]] discoveries, and literary usage.
 
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==Etymology==
 
==Etymology==
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The word catacomb derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''κατα'' ''(down)'' and ''τυμβος'' ''(tomb)''. Eventually, the word was incorporated into [[Latin language|Latin]] as ''catacumbæ'', which roughly translates as "among the tombs", and then into variations within the [[Romance Languages]]: ''catacomba'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], ''catacumba'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and ''catacombe'' in [[French language|French]]. It is most likely that from the French version it was transfered into [[English language|English]], although [[linguistics|linguists]] cannot be certain.<ref>The Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford Press, 1971). ISBN 019861117X </ref>   
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The word '''catacomb''' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''κατα'' ("down") and ''τυμβος'' ("tomb"). Eventually, the word was incorporated into [[Latin language|Latin]] as ''catacumbæ,'' which roughly translates as "among the tombs," and then into variations within the [[Romance Languages]]: ''Catacomba'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], ''catacumba'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and ''catacombe'' in [[French language|French]]. It is most likely that from the French version it was transfered into [[English language|English]], although [[linguistics|linguists]] cannot be certain.<ref>''The Oxford English Dictionary'' (Oxford Press, 1971). ISBN 019861117X </ref>   
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While the word is most often used as a noun, years of literary usage and attention in public consciousness has also allowed the word to become an adjective, describing an underground area as having certain historical, and supernatural properties often associated with catacombs.
 
  
 
==Description==
 
==Description==
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[[Image:Lima_Convento_San_Fransisco_Catacombs.jpg|thumb|Catacombs [[Lima]]. Convento de San Fransisco]]
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[[Image:Lima_Convento_San_Fransisco_Catacombs.jpg|thumb|200 px|Catacombs [[Lima]]. Convento de San Fransisco]]
  
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While there are many cultural variations on the structural design of catacombs, there are some basic generalities to all such sites. They are almost always built underground, usually below an either pre-existing or still inhabited large metropolitian area. Often they are carved out of bedrock, although sometimes materials are imported externally in the construction. Catacombs often consist of long, narrow passage ways with galleries, large inbuilt shelving units that hold exposed remains. At other times, the dead are entombed in vaults or chambers, sealed off from the main corridors. Usually such designs were left for people of great importance or the wealthy, while the lower classes were simply placed on top of each other in galleries. Certain catacombs are designed almost as aqeducts, so that water flows in channels under the floor. There is often no ventilation or lighting systems in the catacombs, creating a toxic and dangerous environment and the cause for many of the popular stories of catacombs being haunted and of supernatural significance.
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While there are many [[culture|cultural]] variations on the structural design of catacombs, there are some basic generalities to all such sites. They are almost always built underground, usually below an either pre-existing or still inhabited large metropolitan area. Often they are carved out of [[bedrock]], although sometimes materials are imported externally in the construction. Catacombs often consist of long, narrow passage ways with galleries, large inbuilt shelving units that hold exposed remains. At other times, the dead are en[[tomb]]ed in vaults or chambers, sealed off from the main corridors. Usually such designs were left for people of great importance or the wealthy, while the lower classes were simply placed on top of each other in galleries. Certain catacombs are designed almost as aqueducts, so that water flows in channels under the floor. There is often no ventilation or lighting systems in the catacombs, creating a [[toxin|toxic]] and dangerous environment and the cause for many of the popular stories of catacombs being haunted and of supernatural significance.
  
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==Roman Catacombs==
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==Roman catacombs==
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The first catacombs constructed in the world are the ancient [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] underground burials in Rome, often referred to as the [[San Sebastiano fuori le mura]]. The first large-scale [[catacombs]] were constructed from the 2nd century onwards. The [[Etruscans]] used to bury their dead in underground chambers and early [[Christianity|Christians]] revived the practice because they did not want to [[Cremation|cremate]] their dead due to their belief in bodily [[resurrection]]. Hence they began to [[burying|bury]] their dead, first in simple graves and sometimes in burial vaults of pro-Christian [[patrician]]s. Originally they were carved through soft rock outside the boundaries of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. At first they were used both for burial and the memorial services and celebrations of the anniversaries of Christian [[martyr]]s (following similar Roman customs).<ref>(2005) Instituto Salesiamo San Callisto-Roma [[http://www.catacombe.roma.it/welcome.html"The Christian Catacombs of Rome"]] Retrieved September 6, 2007</ref>. They probably were not used for regular worship. Many modern depictions of the catacombs show them as hiding places for Christian populations during times of persecution.  This is unlikely, however, since the large numbers of decaying corpses would have made the air nearly (if not completely) toxic.  Additionally, the general locations of the catacombs were known to the Roman officials, making them a poor choice for a secret hiding place.
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[[Image:Catacombe 2.jpg|thumb|190px|left|Entrance plaque to Roman Catacombs]]
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The first catacombs constructed in the world are the ancient [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] underground [[burial]]s in [[Rome]], often referred to as the [[San Sebastiano fuori le mura]]. The first large-scale catacombs were constructed from the second century onwards. The [[Etruscan]]s used to bury their dead in underground chambers and early Christians revived the practice because they did not want to [[Cremation|cremate]] their dead due to their belief in bodily [[resurrection]]. Hence, they began to bury their dead, first in simple graves and sometimes in burial vaults of pro-Christian [[patrician]]s. Originally they were carved through soft rock outside the boundaries of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. At first they were used both for burial and the memorial services and celebrations of the anniversaries of Christian [[martyr]]s (following similar Roman customs).<ref>Instituto Salesiamo San Callisto-Roma, [http://www.catacombe.roma.it/welcome.html "The Christian Catacombs of Rome"] (2005). Retrieved September 6, 2007</ref> They probably were not used for regular worship.  
  
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There are forty known subterranean burial chambers in Rome. They were built along [[Roman road]]s, like the [[Via Appia]], the [[Via Ostiense]], the [[Via Labicana]], the [[Via Tiburtina]], and the [[Via Nomentana]]. Names of the catacombs &ndash; like [[Pope Callixtus I|St Calixtus]] and [[Sebastian|St Sebastian]] alongside Via Appia &ndash; refer to martyrs that might be buried there.  
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Many modern depictions of the catacombs show them as hiding places for Christian populations during times of persecution. This is unlikely, however, since the large numbers of decaying corpses would have made the air nearly (if not completely) [[toxin|toxic]]. Additionally, the general locations of the catacombs were known to the Roman officials, making them a poor choice for a secret hiding place.
  
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Christian excavators (fossors) built vast systems of galleries and passages on top of each other. They lie 7-19 meters (22-65 ft) below the surface in area of more than 2.4 km² (600 acres). Narrow steps that descend as many as four stories join the levels. Passages are about 2.5x1 meters (8x3 feet). Burial niches (loculi) were carved into walls. They are 40-60 cm (16-24 in) high and 120-150 cm (47-59 in) long. Bodies were placed in chambers in stone [[sarcophagi]] in their clothes and bound in linen. Then the chamber was sealed with a slab bearing the name, age and the day of death. [[Fresco]] decorations were typically Roman. The catacomb of [[Saint Agnes]] is a small church. Some families were able to construct cubicula which would house various loculi and the arquitectural elements of the space would be a support for decoration. Another excellent place for artistic programs were the arcosoliums.<ref> Rossi, Giovanni. "Roma Sotterranea or Some Account of the Roman Catacombs Especially of the Cemetry of San Callisto" (Kessinger Publishing 2005) ISBN 1417974184</ref>
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There are forty known subterranean burial chambers in Rome. They were built along [[Roman road]]s, like the [[Via Appia]], the [[Via Ostiense]], the [[Via Labicana]], the [[Via Tiburtina]], and the [[Via Nomentana]]. Names of the catacombs—like [[Pope Callixtus I|St Calixtus]] and [[Sebastian|St Sebastian]] alongside Via Appia—refer to [[martyr]]s that might be buried there.
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[[Image:Catacombe 1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Entrance to Roman Catacombs]]
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Christian excavators (fossors) built vast systems of galleries and passages on top of each other. They lie 7-19 meters (22-65 feet) below the surface in area of more than 2.4 km² (600 acres). Narrow steps that descend as many as four stories join the levels. Passages are about 2.5x1 meters (8x3 feet). Burial niches (loculi) were carved into walls. They are 40-60 cm (16-24 inches) high and 120-150 cm (47-59 inches) long. Bodies were placed in chambers in stone [[sarcophagi]] in their clothes and bound in linen. Then the chamber was sealed with a slab bearing the name, age and the day of death. Some families were able to construct cubicula which would house various loculi, and provide space for artistic decoration. [[Fresco]] decorations were typically Roman.<ref>Giovanni Rossi, ''Roma Sotterranea or Some Account of the Roman Catacombs Especially of the Cemetry of San Callisto'' (Kessinger Publishing, 2005). ISBN 1417974184</ref>
  
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In 380, [[Gratianus#Accomplishments|Christianity became a state religion]]. At first many still desired to be buried in chambers alongside martyrs. However, the practice of catacomb burial declined slowly, and the dead were increasingly buried in church cemeteries. In the 6th century catacombs were used only for martyrs’ memorial services. Apparently [[Ostrogoths]], [[Vandals]] and [[Lombards]] that sacked Rome also violated the catacombs, possibly looking for valuables. By the 10th century catacombs were practically abandoned, and holy [[relic]]s were transferred to above-ground [[basilica]]s. In the intervening centuries they remained forgotten until they were accidentally rediscovered in 1578, after which [[Antonio Bosio]] spent decades exploring and researching them for his volume, ''Roma Sotterranea'' (1632).
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In 380, Christianity became the state religion. At first many still desired to be buried in chambers alongside martyrs. However, the practice of catacomb burial declined slowly, and the dead were increasingly buried in church [[cemetery|cemeteries]]. In the sixth century catacombs were used only for martyrs’ memorial services. Apparently [[Ostrogoth]]s, [[Vandal]]s, and [[Lombard]]s that sacked Rome also violated the catacombs, possibly looking for valuables. By the tenth century catacombs were practically abandoned, and holy [[relic]]s were transferred to above-ground [[basilica]]s. In the intervening centuries they remained forgotten until they were accidentally rediscovered in 1578, after which [[Antonio Bosio]] spent decades exploring and researching them for his volume, ''Roma Sotterranea'' (1632).
  
 
The catacombs have become an important monument of the early Christian church. Currently maintenance of the catacombs is in the hands of the [[Papacy]] which has invested the [[Salesians of Don Bosco]] the supervision of the Catacombs of St. Callixtus on the outskirts of Rome.
 
The catacombs have become an important monument of the early Christian church. Currently maintenance of the catacombs is in the hands of the [[Papacy]] which has invested the [[Salesians of Don Bosco]] the supervision of the Catacombs of St. Callixtus on the outskirts of Rome.
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==Catacombs of Paris==
 
==Catacombs of Paris==
 
[[image:Catacombs-700px.jpg|thumb|200px|Crypt of the Sepulchral Lamp in the Catacombs of Paris]]
 
[[image:Catacombs-700px.jpg|thumb|200px|Crypt of the Sepulchral Lamp in the Catacombs of Paris]]
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Most widely known as "the Paris catacombs," the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]-era [[limestone]] [[quarry|quarries]] that were converted into a mass [[tomb]] near the end of the [[18th century|18<sup>th</sup> century]] is official known as "''les carrières de Paris''" or "the quarries of Paris."[[image:Catacombes_de_Paris.JPG|thumb|250px|Paris Catacombs]] The use of the depleted quarries for the storage of bones was established in 1786 by the order of Monsieur Thiroux de Crosne, Lt. General of Police, and by Monsieur Guillaumot, Inspector General of Quarries. At the time, the [[Les Halles]] district in the middle of the city was suffering from disease, due to contamination caused by improper burials and mass graves in churchyard [[graveyard]]s especially the large [[Saints Innocents Cemetery]]. It was decided to discreetly remove the bones and place them in the abandoned quarries.
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Most widely known as "the Paris catacombs," the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]-era [[limestone]] [[quarry|quarries]] that were converted into a mass [[tomb]] near the end of the eighteenth century is official known as ''les carrières de Paris'' or "the quarries of Paris."
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The use of the depleted quarries for the storage of bones was established in 1786, by the order of Monsieur Thiroux de Crosne, Lt. General of Police, and by Monsieur Guillaumot, Inspector General of Quarries. At the time, the [[Les Halles]] district in the middle of the city was suffering from [[disease]], due to contamination caused by improper [[buria]]ls and mass graves in churchyard [[graveyard]]s, especially the large [[Saints Innocents Cemetery]]. It was decided to discreetly remove the bones and place them in the abandoned quarries.
  
 
Remains from the cemetery of [[Saint-Nicolas-des-Champs]] were among the first to be moved. Bodies of the dead from the riots in the [[Place de Greve]], the Hotel de Brienne, and Rue Meslee were put in the catacombs on August 28 and 29, 1788.  
 
Remains from the cemetery of [[Saint-Nicolas-des-Champs]] were among the first to be moved. Bodies of the dead from the riots in the [[Place de Greve]], the Hotel de Brienne, and Rue Meslee were put in the catacombs on August 28 and 29, 1788.  
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[[image:Catacombs_rueDeLaVoieVerte.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A partially flooded section of rue de la Voie Verte]]
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The tunnels have long been used by Parisians for more than just burial. Walls are covered in [[graffiti]] dating from the eighteenth century onwards, suggesting [[trespass]]ers frequented the catacombs. In 1871, [[Paris Commune|communards]] killed a group of monarchists in one chamber. During [[World War II]], Parisian members of the [[French Resistance]] used the tunnel system. Also during this period, [[Germany|German]] soldiers established an underground bunker in the catacombs below Lycee Montaigne, a [[high school]] in the [[6eme arrondissement, Paris|6th arrondissement]].<ref>Julia Solis, [ Paris' Urban Underground,] ''National Geographic'' (2007).</ref>
  
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The tunnels have long been used by Parisians for more than just burial. Walls are covered in [[graffiti]] dating from the 18th century onwards, suggesting trespassers frequented the catacombs. In 1871 [[Paris Commune|communards]] killed a group of monarchists in one chamber. During [[World War II]], Parisian members of the [[French Resistance]] used the tunnel system.  Also during this period, [[Germany|German]] soldiers established an underground bunker in the catacombs below Lycee Montaigne, a high school in the [[6eme arrondissement, Paris|6th arrondissement]].<ref> (2007) Solis, Julia. National Geographic Explorer. [[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/travel/paris.html"Paris' Urban Underground"]] Retrieved September 6, 2007</ref>
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==Capuchin catacombs of Palermo==
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[[image:Catacombs_rueDeLaVoieVerte.jpg|thumb|200px|A partially flooded section of rue de la Voie Verte]]
 
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Today, entrance to the catacombs is restricted.  The portion of the catacombs open to the public is only a small part of an extensive network of underground tunnels, which spans more than 300[[Metre|km]] (about 186 [[mile]]s) in length. The tunnel system is complex, and though some tunnels have plaques indicating the name of the street above, it is still quite easy to get lost: some passages are extremely low or narrow and others are partially flooded. There are also aging telephone wires, pipes, etc. that can hinder progress, and cave-ins, although rare, do occasionally occur. A good guide is therefore indispensable, and even many good guides still refer to a map from time to time. Because of these potential dangers, accessing the catacombs unescorted by officials has been illegal since November 2, 1955. Even with such restrictions, the catacombs pose problems, particularly with new construction in the city. Quarries sometimes cave in, occasionally resulting in a hole in the ground above and causing damage to buildings. This had led to strict regulations regarding all new construction and maintanence of the metro line and sewer system in the city.
 
  
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==Capuchin catacombs of Palermo==
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The [[Capuchin catacombs of Palermo]] are burial catacombs in [[Palermo]], [[Sicily]], southern [[Italy]]. Today they provide a somewhat macabre tourist attraction as well as an extraordinary historical record. Palermo's [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] [[monastery]] outgrew its original [[cemetery]] in the sixteenth century and monks begun to excavate [[crypt]]s below it. In 1599, they [[mummy|mummified]] one of their number, the recently-dead brother Silvestro of Gubbio, and placed him into the catacombs.
  
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The '''Capuchin catacombs of Palermo''' are burial [[catacomb]]s in [[Palermo]], [[Sicily]], southern [[Italy]]. Today they provide a somewhat macabre tourist attraction as well as an extraordinary historical record.
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The bodies were dehydrated on the racks of ceramic pipes in the catacombs and sometimes later washed with [[vinegar]]. Some of the bodies were [[embalming|embalmed]] and others enclosed in sealed glass cabinets. Monks were preserved with their everyday clothing and sometimes with ropes they had worn as a [[penance]].
  
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Palermo's [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] [[monastery]] outgrew its original [[cemetery]] in the 16th century and monks begun to excavate [[crypt]]s below it. In the 1599 they mummified one of their number, recently-dead brother Silvestro of Gubbio, and placed him into the catacombs.
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Originally, the catacombs were intended only for the dead [[friar]]s. However, in the following centuries it became a status symbol to be entombed into the capuchin catacombs. In their wills, local luminaries would ask to be preserved in certain clothes, or even to have their clothes changed at regular intervals. Priests wore their clerical vestments, others were clothed according to contemporary fashion. Relatives would visit to pray for the deceased and also to maintain the body in presentable condition.
  
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The bodies were dehydrated on the racks of ceramic pipes in the catacombs and sometimes later washed with [[vinegar]]. Some of the bodies were [[embalming|embalmed]] and others enclosed in sealed glass cabinets. Monks were preserved with their everyday clothing and sometimes with ropes they had worn as a [[penance]].
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The catacombs were maintained through the donations of the relatives of the deceased. Each new body was placed in a temporary niche and later placed into a more permanent place. As long as the contributions continued, the body remained in its proper place but when the relatives did not send money any more, the body was put aside on a shelf until they continued to pay.<ref>Kimberly King, [[http://members.tripod.com/~Motomom/index-3.html King's Capuchins' Catacombs OF Palmero Italy]] (2007). Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
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Originally the catacombs were intended only for the dead [[friar]]s.
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The last friar interred into the catacombs was Brother Riccardo in 1871, but other famous people were still interred. The catacombs were officially closed for use in 1880, but tourists continued to visit them. However, the last burials are from the 1920s.
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However, in the following centuries it became a status symbol to be entombed into the capuchin catacombs.
 
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In their wills, local luminaries would ask to be preserved in certain clothes, or even to have their clothes changed at regular intervals.
 
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Priests wore their clerical vestments, others were clothed according to the contemporary fashion.
 
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Relatives would visit to pray for the deceased and also to maintain the body in presentable condition.
 
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<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Bambina.jpg|thumb|Rosalia Lombardo]] —>
 
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The catacombs were maintained through the donations of the relatives of the deceased.
 
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Each new body was placed in a temporary niche and later placed into a more permanent place.
 
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As long as the contributions continued, the body remained in its proper place but when the relatives did not send money any more, the body was put aside on a shelf until they continued to pay.
 
  
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The last friar interred into the catacombs was Brother Riccardo in 1871 but other famous people were still interred.
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One of the very last to be interred was [[Rosalia Lombardo]], then two years old, whose body is still remarkably intact, preserved with a procedure now lost: The embalmer, Professor [[Alfredo Salafia]] took his method with him to his grave.<ref>Nancy Kilpatrick and Hugues Leblanc, The Capuchin Cemetery and Catacombs of Palermo, ''Hidden Mysteries, The Weird, The Unexplained'' (2007).</ref>
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The catacombs were officially closed for use in 1880 but tourists continued to visit them.
 
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However, the last burials are from the 1920s.
 
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One of the very last to be interred was Rosalia Lombardo, then two years old, whose body is still remarkably intact, preserved with a procedure now lost: the embalmer, Professor [[Alfredo Salafia]] took his method with him to his grave.
 
  
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The catacombs contain about 8000 mummies that line the walls.
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The catacombs contain about 8000 mummies that line the walls. The halls are divided into categories: Men, Women, Virgins, Children, Priests, Monks, and Professionals. Some are set in poses: For example, two children are sitting together in a rocking chair.  
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The halls are divided into categories: Men, Women, Virgins, Children, Priests, Monks, and Professionals.
 
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Some bodies are better preserved than others.
 
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Some are set in poses: for example, two children are sitting together in a rocking chair.  
 
  
 
Famous people buried in the catacombs include:  
 
Famous people buried in the catacombs include:  
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* Allegedly [[Velasquez]], Spanish painter, although his grave is officially unknown
 
* Allegedly [[Velasquez]], Spanish painter, although his grave is officially unknown
  
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The catacombs are open to the public. Taking photographs inside is prohibited although the bodies were shown in detail in the fourth episode of the 2006 [[BBC TV]] series [[Francesco's Italy: Top to Toe]].
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==Other catacombs==
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Also, iron grills have been installed to prevent tourists tampering or posing with the corpses.
 
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==Other Catacombs==
 
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There are catacomb-like burial chambers throughout the world, ranging from such places as [[Anatolia]], [[Turkey]],  [[Susa]], North Africa, [[Naples, Italy]]; in [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], [[Italy]]; [[Trier]], and [[Germany]]. In [[Ukraine]] and [[Russia]], catacomb (used in the local languages' plural '''''katakomby''''') also refers to the network of abandoned caves and [[tunnel]]s earlier used to mine stone, especially [[limestone]]. Such catacombs are situated in [[Crimea]] and the [[Black Sea]] coast of these two countries. The most famous are catacombs beneath [[Odessa]] and Ajimushkay, Crimea, Ukraine. In the early days of Christianity, believers conducted secret worship services in these burial caves for safety and reverence for the dead. Later, they served as bases for [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[World War II]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]] (see also [[Great Patriotic War]]). Ajimushkay catacombs hosted about 10,000 fighters and [[refugee]]s.
 
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Out of all of these and the original Roman structures, the catacombs of [[Paris]] and [[Pucchino]] hold perhaps the most significance.
 
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==Pop Culture==
 
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====Books====
 
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*In [[Umberto Eco|Umberto Eco's]] novel ''[[Foucault's Pendulum (book)|Foucault's Pendulum]]'', the Paris catacombs were the resting place of a parchment concerning [[Knights Templar|The Templars]].
 
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*Many scenes in ''Bad Voltage'', an 80s [[cyberpunk]] novel by [[Jonathan Littell]], take place in the catacombs.  The author is suspected of being a cataphile.
 
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*In [[Barbara Hambly]]'s novel ''Those Who Hunt the Night'', which takes place in 1907, two characters investigating the murders of London vampires descend into the catacombs.  There they find Brother Anthony, a 600 year old priest turned vampire, living among the bones of the dead.  Anthony believes that if he helps the dead find and assemble their bones when the trumpet sounds on Judgement Day he will win redemption for his sins.
 
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*In [[Robison Wells]]' novel, ''The Counterfeit'', the catacombs are the location of a fictitious [[Illuminati]] meeting place.  The main characters, Eric and Rebekah, are guided through the catacombs by a group of three cataphiles.
 
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*In [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s short story of 1846, "The Cask of Amontillado," the main character Montressor walls up another man inside a cavity, deep within some catacombs, which are described as being "lined with human remains, piled to the vault overhead, in the fashion of the great catacombs of Paris."
 
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*Max Brooks, in his book [[World War Z]], about a hypothetical zombie epidemic, refers to the catacombs as being used and extended by refugees.
 
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*In [[Tess Gerritsen]]'s novel, Body Double, one of the main characters is lost in the Parisian Catacombs towards the beginning of the book.
 
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*In [[Interview with the Vampire]], vampires are residents of the catacombs in Paris.
 
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====Films and television====
 
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*The cult classic ''Les Gaspards'', known in English as ''The Holes'', was filmed in and revolves around the catacombs.  It was made in 1974 and stars a young [[Gerard Depardieu]].
 
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*The upcoming film ''Catacombs'' is set in the Paris catacombs, even though it did not receive permission to film there.  ''Catacombs'' features the singer [[P!nk]] and the actress [[Shannyn Sossamon]].
 
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*Though not truly filmed in the Parisian catacombs, a Hollywood set created to mimic the catacomb ambiance was used in the production of the music video [[Slither (song)|Slither]] by the rock band [[Velvet Revolver]].
 
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*In the [[anime]] television series [[Noir (anime)|Noir]], the fifth episode takes place in the Parisian catacombs.
 
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*In the Disney version of ''[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'', the catacombs are used by Captain Pheobus and Quasimodo to find the court of miracles.
 
−
 
 
−
====Computer and video games====
 
−
*In the [[Video game|computer game]] ''[[Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars]]'', the player has to enter the Paris catacombs via a [[manhole]] in order to find a clue that leads to the next part of the game.
 
−
*In ''[[Deus Ex]]'', set in 2052, the player has to traverse part of the catacombs to reach another area of the city. The catacombs in the game's world are home to a clandestine group of French revolutionaries named [[Silhouette (Deus Ex)|Silhouette]], who make their home in the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[World War II]] [[bunker]]. A news terminal found in a building that serves as the catacombs entrance gives a brief history of the catacombs.
 
−
*In ''[[Medal of Honor: Underground]]'', one of the missions involves traversing the catacombs in order to escape [[Nazi Germany|German]] authorities after a mission to steal weapons goes bad.
 
−
*In the ''[[Nancy Drew]]'' game, ''[[Danger By Design (computer game)|Danger by Design]]'', Nancy enters the catacombs to retrieve important clues.
 
−
*In ''[[Midnight Club II]]'', the Catacombs play host to high speed automobile races, or can be used in a shortcut in above-ground races.
 
−
*In ''[[Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Lockdown]]'', the elite special forces team ''[[Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six|Rainbow]]'' must explore the Catacombs of Paris to locate and eliminate a nest of [[terrorist]]s within.
 
−
*In the ''[[Tomb Raider III]]'' expansion, ''The Lost Artifact'', Lara Croft explores a hidden area deep within the catacombs in the Paris levels. It is here where she finally recovers the Hand of Rathmore, (the artifact that she was looking for), but it is also where she confronts one of her arch enemies, Sophia Leigh, once again.
 
−
 
 
−
===Computer and video games===
 
−
Catacombs are a popular feature of many [[Personal computer game|computer]] and [[video game|video games]] due to their association with [[Horror fiction|horror]] and the [[undead]].  Some of the more well-known game catacombs are listed below:
 
−
* Catacombs are a common setting for the [[Tomb Raider]] series, particularly [[Tomb Raider 1]] and [[Tomb Raider 2]] with the ''Catacombs of the Talion''.
 
−
* In the [[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]] series, catacombs and other burial grounds are frequent settings for the game's action.  These typically include [[sarcophagi]] which the player can loot for treasure, and which often release undead enemies.
 
−
* In [[Ultima_VIII|Ultima VIII: Pagan]] of the [[Ultima]] series, the player must explore the catacombs as part of his quest.
 
−
*The Catacombs feature in the computer game [[Deus Ex]], whereby the player must navigate through the paris catacomb network to escape the majestic 12 antagonists.
 
−
* In the classic game "The Bards Tale" for Amstrad CPC, Spectrum, Apple IIe etc, one of the more advanced dungeons to be explored are the catacombs, involving three levels of progressively harder dungeons filled with roaming undead and other creatures.
 
−
* In [[Turok: Dinosaur Hunter]], Level 5 took place in the Catacombs.
 
−
* In Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance, there are Catacombs which contain treasure, weapons, and undead monsters
 
−
* In LucasArt's Mysteries of the Sith, the final level is set in a massive catacomb, in real life length measurements: 5 square miles.  The character Mara Jade must save Kyle Katarn from the dark side.  Kyle is suspended on a pedstal in the middle of the level, until Mara discovers him...
 
  
−
===Film===
+
There are catacomb-like burial chambers throughout the world, ranging from such places as [[Anatolia]], [[Turkey]], [[Susa]], [[North Africa]], [[Naples]], [[Italy]]; in [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], Italy; [[Trier]], and [[Germany]]. In [[Ukraine]] and [[Russia]], catacomb (used in the local languages' plural '''''katakomby''''') also refers to the network of abandoned caves and [[tunnel]]s earlier used to mine stone, especially [[limestone]]. Such catacombs are situated in [[Crimea]] and the [[Black Sea]] coast of these two countries. The most famous are catacombs beneath [[Odessa]] and Ajimushkay, Crimea, Ukraine. In the early days of Christianity, believers conducted secret worship services in these burial caves for safety and reverence for the dead. Later, they served as bases for [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[World War II]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]].  
−
''Catacombs'' is a film starring Alecia Moore (aka [[Pink (singer)|Pink]]) due to release in 2007, which takes place in the [[Catacombs of Paris|Parisian catacombs]].
 
  
−
In the 1989 film [[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]; [[Indiana Jones]] ([[Harrison Ford]]) and Dr. Elsa Schneider ([[Alison Doody]]) travel through the Catacombs in Venice while on a search for clues to the location of the [[Holy Grail]].
+
==Pop culture==
  
−
In the film [[The Bunker (2001 film)]], German soldiers trapped in a concrete bunker try to find an escape route through subterranean catacombs, where unspeakable evil lurks.
+
Catacombs have long held the public imagination, and for good reason: Long abandoned, hidden underground, dark, complex, and full of dead bodies, catacombs naturally create a solemn, if not haunting, image in the mind. Authors and artists have realized this for a long time and have used catacombs for stories of macabre and terror. The most famous literary example may in fact be [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s short story of 1846, "The Cask of Amontillado," in which the main character Montressor walls up another man inside a cavity, deep within some catacombs, which are described as being like the catacombs of Paris. In movies, such films as the cult classic ''Les Gaspards'' (known in English as ''The Holes''), and the 1989 film ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' featured such catacombs as settings.
  
−
 
+
==Gallery of paintings from the catacombs of Rome==
−
===Gallery of paintings from the catacombs of Rome===
 
 
<gallery>
 
<gallery>
 
Image:Eucharistic bread and fish.jpg
 
Image:Eucharistic bread and fish.jpg
Line 150: Line 90:
 
Image:Adam & Eve 01.jpg
 
Image:Adam & Eve 01.jpg
 
Image:Paul philosopher.jpg
 
Image:Paul philosopher.jpg
−
Image:Catacombe_1.jpg|Catacombs [[Rome]] - entrance
 
−
Image:Catacombe_2.jpg|Catacombs [[Rome]] - entrance (detail)
 
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
 +
 +
==Notes==
 +
<references />
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
−
<div class="references-small"><references /></div>
+
* Adams, W. H. Davenport. 2003. ''Famous Caves and Catacombs: Described and Illustrated''. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766159507
 +
* Kip, William Ingraham. 2005. ''The Catacombs of Rome: As Illustrating the Church of the First Three Centuries''. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 141796331X
 +
* Nicolai, Vincenzo Fiocchi, Fabrizio Bisconti, and Danilo Mazzoleni. 2006. ''The Christian Catacombs of Rome: History, Decoration, Inscriptions''. Schnell & Steiner. ISBN 3795411947
 +
* Rossi, Giovanni. 2005. ''Roma Sotterranea or Some Account of the Roman Catacombs Especially of the Cemetry of San Callisto''. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1417974184
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
 
+
All links retrieved November 29, 2023.
−
*[http://www.showcaves.com/english/explain/Subterranea/Catacombs.html Catacombs]
+
*[http://www.infiltration.org/drains-catacombs.html "A tour of the dark world beneath the city of lights" by Murray Battle].
−
*[http://www.catacombe.roma.it/index.html The Christian Catacombs of Rome]
+
*[http://members.tripod.com/~Motomom/index-3.html King's Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo].
−
 
+
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/Lanciani/LANPAC/7*.html Rodolpho Lanciani, ''Pagan and Christian Rome'' 1892, Chapter VII: Christian Cemeteries].  
−
*[http://www.catacombe.roma.it/en/intro.html About the Roman Catacombs]
 
−
*[http://www.showcaves.com/english/it/misc/CatacombeRoma.html Catacombe Roma]
 
−
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/Lanciani/LANPAC/7*.html Rodolpho Lanciani, ''Pagan and Christian Rome'' 1892, Chapter VII: Christian Cemeteries]
 
−
*[http://www.darkrome.com/cryptsandcatacombs.asp Rome Catacombs]
 
−
*[http://www.josemariaescriva.info/index.php?id_cat=1605&id_scat=1572 The Catacombs of St Callixtus]
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
* {{en icon}} [http://www.catacombs.explographies.com/ Explographies.com : Catacombs of Paris] - Cartography, maps & plans of the catacombs and underground quarries
 
−
* {{en icon}} [http://www.triggur.org/cata/ Underground Paris]—A Paris Catacombs virtual tour with photos
 
−
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.catacombes.info History and information on unofficial visits]
 
−
*{{en icon}} [http://urbanresources.free.fr Urban-Resources]
 
−
*{{en icon}} [http://urbanresources.free.fr/la_mexicaine_de_perforation.html La Mexicaine De Perforation]
 
−
* {{en icon}} [http://www.urbanadventure.org/main/2002trip/france/paris1.htm Urbanadventure]—Information source on the catacombs with images, videos and maps
 
−
* {{en icon}} [http://www.zonetour.org Zone Tour]—Database of Urban Exploration
 
−
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.cyberkata.org/ Cyber Kata]—List of links to various sites about urban exploration
 
−
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.comperes.org/ Comperes Exploration]—Pics and reports of a french ubran exploration team.
 
−
* {{en icon}} [http://www.showcaves.com/english/fr/misc/Catacombs.html Catacombs of Paris]—some useful information, description, links
 
−
* {{en icon}} [http://www.infiltration.org/drains-catacombs.html "A tour of the dark world beneath the city of lights" by Murray Battle]
 
−
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.paris.fr/portail/Culture/Portal.lut?page_id=6468&document_type_id=5&document_id=19970&portlet_id=14628 Official website, opening hours, entrance fees]
 
−
* {{en icon}} [http://www.guerillaphotography.fotopic.net/Catacombs  www.Guerillaphotography.co.uk] - Urban exploration site with a tour of the catacombs and a write-up
 
−
* {{en icon}} [http://www.sitebits.com/2006/the_parisian_underworld.html The Parisian Underworld] impressions of a visiting American student
 
−
 
 
−
* [http://www.reportage.org/2000/MummiesPalermo/PagesMummiesP/paoloventura_links.html Paolo Ventura - ''Dressed for Eternity'']
 
−
* [http://p6.hostingprod.com/@www.kirchersociety.org/blog/2006/07/19/capuchins-catacombs-of-palermo/ Athanasius Kircher Society about the catacombs]
 
−
* [http://members.tripod.com/~Motomom/index-3.html King's Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo]
 
−
* [http://www.whatsonwhen.com/events/~33897.jml Tourist information about the catacomps in Whatsonwhen]
 
−
* [http://www.paradoxplace.com/Perspectives/Sicily%20&%20S%20Italy/Montages/Sicily/Palermo/Catacombe%20Cappuccini.htm Paradoxplace Catacombe Cappuccini Page]
 
−
 
 
  
  
  
 
{{Credits|Catacombs|135304199|Catacombs_of_Rome|141054776|Catacombs_of_Paris|148225938|Capuchin_catacombs_of_Palermo|147556774|}}
 
{{Credits|Catacombs|135304199|Catacombs_of_Rome|141054776|Catacombs_of_Paris|148225938|Capuchin_catacombs_of_Palermo|147556774|}}

Latest revision as of 14:27, 29 November 2023


A procession in the catacomb of Callistus.

Catacomb refers to a network of underground burial galleries, the design of which originated in Ancient Rome. The word now refers to any network of caves, grottos, or subterranean place that is used for the burial of the dead, or it can refer to a specific underground burial place. The original catacombs are a network of underground burial galleries beneath San Sebastiano fuori le mura, in Rome. Many older cities also have such burial sites.

While the catacombs provide a fascinating view of cultures and beliefs about the dead and the afterlife, archaeologists are careful to preserve them out of consideration for the remains of those laid to rest there. Many catacombs served a wider purpose than simply a burial place for the dead; Christian communities celebrated the Eucharist and family feasts at the time of funeral ceremonies, and some catacombs included shrines devoted to saints and martyrs. The Capuchin catacombs of Palermo include macabre mummified remains of monks as well as important people, which have become more of a tourist attraction than a religious shrine.

Regular worship there was unlikely though, due to both the toxicity of the air in the subterranean areas, and the regard for dead bodies as unclean. Legendary tales that early Christians held secret meetings there are unlikely to be true since the Romans were well aware of the existence of the catacombs, although they may have hid there from barbarian invaders. The catacombs in Paris were surely used by French resistance during World War II.

Catacombs Paris

Etymology

The word catacomb derives from the Greek κατα ("down") and τυμβος ("tomb"). Eventually, the word was incorporated into Latin as catacumbæ, which roughly translates as "among the tombs," and then into variations within the Romance Languages: Catacomba in Italian, catacumba in Spanish, and catacombe in French. It is most likely that from the French version it was transfered into English, although linguists cannot be certain.[1]

Description

Catacombs Lima. Convento de San Fransisco

While there are many cultural variations on the structural design of catacombs, there are some basic generalities to all such sites. They are almost always built underground, usually below an either pre-existing or still inhabited large metropolitan area. Often they are carved out of bedrock, although sometimes materials are imported externally in the construction. Catacombs often consist of long, narrow passage ways with galleries, large inbuilt shelving units that hold exposed remains. At other times, the dead are entombed in vaults or chambers, sealed off from the main corridors. Usually such designs were left for people of great importance or the wealthy, while the lower classes were simply placed on top of each other in galleries. Certain catacombs are designed almost as aqueducts, so that water flows in channels under the floor. There is often no ventilation or lighting systems in the catacombs, creating a toxic and dangerous environment and the cause for many of the popular stories of catacombs being haunted and of supernatural significance.

Roman catacombs

Entrance plaque to Roman Catacombs

The first catacombs constructed in the world are the ancient Jewish and Christian underground burials in Rome, often referred to as the San Sebastiano fuori le mura. The first large-scale catacombs were constructed from the second century onwards. The Etruscans used to bury their dead in underground chambers and early Christians revived the practice because they did not want to cremate their dead due to their belief in bodily resurrection. Hence, they began to bury their dead, first in simple graves and sometimes in burial vaults of pro-Christian patricians. Originally they were carved through soft rock outside the boundaries of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. At first they were used both for burial and the memorial services and celebrations of the anniversaries of Christian martyrs (following similar Roman customs).[2] They probably were not used for regular worship.

Many modern depictions of the catacombs show them as hiding places for Christian populations during times of persecution. This is unlikely, however, since the large numbers of decaying corpses would have made the air nearly (if not completely) toxic. Additionally, the general locations of the catacombs were known to the Roman officials, making them a poor choice for a secret hiding place.

There are forty known subterranean burial chambers in Rome. They were built along Roman roads, like the Via Appia, the Via Ostiense, the Via Labicana, the Via Tiburtina, and the Via Nomentana. Names of the catacombs—like St Calixtus and St Sebastian alongside Via Appia—refer to martyrs that might be buried there.

Entrance to Roman Catacombs

Christian excavators (fossors) built vast systems of galleries and passages on top of each other. They lie 7-19 meters (22-65 feet) below the surface in area of more than 2.4 km² (600 acres). Narrow steps that descend as many as four stories join the levels. Passages are about 2.5x1 meters (8x3 feet). Burial niches (loculi) were carved into walls. They are 40-60 cm (16-24 inches) high and 120-150 cm (47-59 inches) long. Bodies were placed in chambers in stone sarcophagi in their clothes and bound in linen. Then the chamber was sealed with a slab bearing the name, age and the day of death. Some families were able to construct cubicula which would house various loculi, and provide space for artistic decoration. Fresco decorations were typically Roman.[3]

In 380, Christianity became the state religion. At first many still desired to be buried in chambers alongside martyrs. However, the practice of catacomb burial declined slowly, and the dead were increasingly buried in church cemeteries. In the sixth century catacombs were used only for martyrs’ memorial services. Apparently Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Lombards that sacked Rome also violated the catacombs, possibly looking for valuables. By the tenth century catacombs were practically abandoned, and holy relics were transferred to above-ground basilicas. In the intervening centuries they remained forgotten until they were accidentally rediscovered in 1578, after which Antonio Bosio spent decades exploring and researching them for his volume, Roma Sotterranea (1632).

The catacombs have become an important monument of the early Christian church. Currently maintenance of the catacombs is in the hands of the Papacy which has invested the Salesians of Don Bosco the supervision of the Catacombs of St. Callixtus on the outskirts of Rome.

Catacombs of Paris

Crypt of the Sepulchral Lamp in the Catacombs of Paris

Most widely known as "the Paris catacombs," the Roman-era limestone quarries that were converted into a mass tomb near the end of the eighteenth century is official known as les carrières de Paris or "the quarries of Paris."

The use of the depleted quarries for the storage of bones was established in 1786, by the order of Monsieur Thiroux de Crosne, Lt. General of Police, and by Monsieur Guillaumot, Inspector General of Quarries. At the time, the Les Halles district in the middle of the city was suffering from disease, due to contamination caused by improper burials and mass graves in churchyard graveyards, especially the large Saints Innocents Cemetery. It was decided to discreetly remove the bones and place them in the abandoned quarries.

Remains from the cemetery of Saint-Nicolas-des-Champs were among the first to be moved. Bodies of the dead from the riots in the Place de Greve, the Hotel de Brienne, and Rue Meslee were put in the catacombs on August 28 and 29, 1788.

A partially flooded section of rue de la Voie Verte

The tunnels have long been used by Parisians for more than just burial. Walls are covered in graffiti dating from the eighteenth century onwards, suggesting trespassers frequented the catacombs. In 1871, communards killed a group of monarchists in one chamber. During World War II, Parisian members of the French Resistance used the tunnel system. Also during this period, German soldiers established an underground bunker in the catacombs below Lycee Montaigne, a high school in the 6th arrondissement.[4]

Capuchin catacombs of Palermo

The Capuchin catacombs of Palermo are burial catacombs in Palermo, Sicily, southern Italy. Today they provide a somewhat macabre tourist attraction as well as an extraordinary historical record. Palermo's Capuchin monastery outgrew its original cemetery in the sixteenth century and monks begun to excavate crypts below it. In 1599, they mummified one of their number, the recently-dead brother Silvestro of Gubbio, and placed him into the catacombs.

The bodies were dehydrated on the racks of ceramic pipes in the catacombs and sometimes later washed with vinegar. Some of the bodies were embalmed and others enclosed in sealed glass cabinets. Monks were preserved with their everyday clothing and sometimes with ropes they had worn as a penance.

Originally, the catacombs were intended only for the dead friars. However, in the following centuries it became a status symbol to be entombed into the capuchin catacombs. In their wills, local luminaries would ask to be preserved in certain clothes, or even to have their clothes changed at regular intervals. Priests wore their clerical vestments, others were clothed according to contemporary fashion. Relatives would visit to pray for the deceased and also to maintain the body in presentable condition.

The catacombs were maintained through the donations of the relatives of the deceased. Each new body was placed in a temporary niche and later placed into a more permanent place. As long as the contributions continued, the body remained in its proper place but when the relatives did not send money any more, the body was put aside on a shelf until they continued to pay.[5]

The last friar interred into the catacombs was Brother Riccardo in 1871, but other famous people were still interred. The catacombs were officially closed for use in 1880, but tourists continued to visit them. However, the last burials are from the 1920s.

One of the very last to be interred was Rosalia Lombardo, then two years old, whose body is still remarkably intact, preserved with a procedure now lost: The embalmer, Professor Alfredo Salafia took his method with him to his grave.[6]

The catacombs contain about 8000 mummies that line the walls. The halls are divided into categories: Men, Women, Virgins, Children, Priests, Monks, and Professionals. Some are set in poses: For example, two children are sitting together in a rocking chair.

Famous people buried in the catacombs include:

  • Colonel Enea DiGuiliano (in French Bourbon uniform)
  • Salvatore Manzella, surgeon
  • Lorenzo Marabitti, sculptor
  • Filipo Pennino, sculptor
  • Son of a king of Tunis who had converted to Catholicism
  • Allegedly Velasquez, Spanish painter, although his grave is officially unknown

Other catacombs

There are catacomb-like burial chambers throughout the world, ranging from such places as Anatolia, Turkey, Susa, North Africa, Naples, Italy; in Syracuse, Italy; Trier, and Germany. In Ukraine and Russia, catacomb (used in the local languages' plural katakomby) also refers to the network of abandoned caves and tunnels earlier used to mine stone, especially limestone. Such catacombs are situated in Crimea and the Black Sea coast of these two countries. The most famous are catacombs beneath Odessa and Ajimushkay, Crimea, Ukraine. In the early days of Christianity, believers conducted secret worship services in these burial caves for safety and reverence for the dead. Later, they served as bases for Soviet World War II guerrillas.

Pop culture

Catacombs have long held the public imagination, and for good reason: Long abandoned, hidden underground, dark, complex, and full of dead bodies, catacombs naturally create a solemn, if not haunting, image in the mind. Authors and artists have realized this for a long time and have used catacombs for stories of macabre and terror. The most famous literary example may in fact be Edgar Allan Poe's short story of 1846, "The Cask of Amontillado," in which the main character Montressor walls up another man inside a cavity, deep within some catacombs, which are described as being like the catacombs of Paris. In movies, such films as the cult classic Les Gaspards (known in English as The Holes), and the 1989 film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade featured such catacombs as settings.

Gallery of paintings from the catacombs of Rome

  • Eucharistic bread and fish.jpg
  • Eucharistic bread.jpg
  • Baptism - Saint Calixte.jpg
  • Jonah thrown into the Sea.jpg
  • VirgenNino.jpg
  • Fiery furnace 01.jpg
  • Agape feast 07.jpg
  • Good shepherd 01 small.jpg
  • Good shepherd 02b close.jpg
  • ChristAsSol.jpg
  • Adam & Eve 01.jpg
  • Paul philosopher.jpg

Notes

  1. ↑ The Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford Press, 1971). ISBN 019861117X
  2. ↑ Instituto Salesiamo San Callisto-Roma, "The Christian Catacombs of Rome" (2005). Retrieved September 6, 2007
  3. ↑ Giovanni Rossi, Roma Sotterranea or Some Account of the Roman Catacombs Especially of the Cemetry of San Callisto (Kessinger Publishing, 2005). ISBN 1417974184
  4. ↑ Julia Solis, [ Paris' Urban Underground,] National Geographic (2007).
  5. ↑ Kimberly King, [King's Capuchins' Catacombs OF Palmero Italy] (2007). Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  6. ↑ Nancy Kilpatrick and Hugues Leblanc, The Capuchin Cemetery and Catacombs of Palermo, Hidden Mysteries, The Weird, The Unexplained (2007).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Adams, W. H. Davenport. 2003. Famous Caves and Catacombs: Described and Illustrated. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766159507
  • Kip, William Ingraham. 2005. The Catacombs of Rome: As Illustrating the Church of the First Three Centuries. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 141796331X
  • Nicolai, Vincenzo Fiocchi, Fabrizio Bisconti, and Danilo Mazzoleni. 2006. The Christian Catacombs of Rome: History, Decoration, Inscriptions. Schnell & Steiner. ISBN 3795411947
  • Rossi, Giovanni. 2005. Roma Sotterranea or Some Account of the Roman Catacombs Especially of the Cemetry of San Callisto. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1417974184

External links

All links retrieved November 29, 2023.


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