Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy is a concept in sociology and political science referring to the way that the administrative execution and enforcement of legal rules is socially organized. This office organization is characterized by standardized procedure, formal division of responsibility, hierarchy, and impersonal social relationships.

Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, armed forces, corporations, hospitals, courts, and schools.

Origin of the Concept

Bureaucracy is derived from the word bureau, used from the early eighteenth century in Western Europe to refer not only to a writing desk, but to an office, i.e. a workplace, where officials worked. The original French meaning of the word bureau was the baize used to cover desks. The Greek suffix -kratia or kratos - means "power" or "rule". Bureaucracy thus basically means office power or office rule, the rule of the officialdom. The term bureaucracy came into use shortly before the French Revolution of 1789, and from there rapidly spread to other countries.

In a letter of July 1, 1764, the French Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm declared: "We are obsessed by the idea of regulation, and our Masters of Requests refuse to understand that there is an infinity of things in a great state with which a government should not concern itself." Jean Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay sometimes used to say, "We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this illness is called bureaumania." Sometimes he used to invent a fourth or fifth form of government under the heading of "bureaucracy". In another letter of July 15, 1765 Baron Grimm wrote also, "The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks, secretaries, inspectors and intendants are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist." (Albrow 1970:16)

Such excerpts illustrate a traditional controversy about bureaucracy, namely the perversion of means and ends so that means become ends in themselves, and the actors lose sight of the greater good. The suggestion here is that, left uncontrolled, the bureaucracy will become increasingly self-serving and corrupt, rather than serving society.

However, bureaucracy existed long before words and theories were devised to describe it in detail. The Chinese Song dynasty (960 – 1279), for example. constructed a centralized bureaucracy staffed with civilian scholar-officials. This system of rule led to a much greater concentration of power in the hands of the emperor and his palace bureaucracy than was achieved in previous dynasties.

Max Weber on Bureaucracy

Max Weber has probably been one of the most influential users of the word in its social science sense. He is well-known for his study of bureaucratization of society; many aspects of modern public administration go back to him; a classic, hierarchically organized civil service of the continental type is—if basically mistakenly—called "Weberian civil service".

However, contrary to popular belief, "bureaucracy" was an English word before Weber: the Oxford English Dictionary cites usage in several different years between 1818 and 1860, prior to Weber's birth in 1864.

Weber described the "ideal type" bureaucracy in positive terms, considering it to be a more rational and efficient form of organization than the alternatives that preceded it, which he characterized as "charismatic domination" and "traditional domination." According to his terminology, bureaucracy is part of legal domination. However, he also emphasized that bureaucracy becomes inefficient when a decision must be adapted to an individual case.

According to Weber, the attributes of modern bureaucracy include its impersonality, concentration of the means of administration, a leveling effect on social and economic differences, and implementation of a system of authority that is practically indestructible.

Weber's analysis of bureaucracy concerns:

• the historical and administrative reasons for the process of bureaucratization (especially in Western civilization)
• the impact of the rule of law upon the functioning of bureaucratic organisations
• the typical personal orientation and occupational position of a bureaucratic officials as a status group
• the most important attributes and consequences of bureaucracy in the modern world

A bureaucratic organization is governed by the following seven principles:

1. official business is conducted on a continuous basis
2. official business is conducted with strict accordance to the following rules:
   1. the duty of each official to do certain types of work is delimited in terms of impersonal criteria
   2. the official is given the authority necessary to carry out his assigned functions
   3. the means of coercion at his disposal are strictly limited and conditions of their use strictly defined
3. every official's responsibilities and authority are part of a vertical hierarchy of authority, with respective rights of supervision and appeal
4. officials do not own the resources necessary for the performance of their assigned functions but are accountable for their use of these resources
5. official and private business and income are strictly separated
6. offices cannot be appropriated by their incumbents (inherited, sold, etc.)
7. official business is conducted on the basis of written documents

A bureaucratic official:

• is personally free and appointed to his position on the basis of conduct
• exercises the authority delegated to him in accordance with impersonal rules, and his loyalty is enlisted on behalf of the faithful execution of his official duties
• appointment and job placement are dependent upon his technical qualifications
• administrative work is a full-time occupation
• work is rewarded by a regular salary and prospects of advancement in a lifetime career

An official must exercise his judgment and his skills, but his duty is to place these at the service of a higher authority. Ultimately he is responsible only for the impartial execution of assigned tasks and must sacrifice his personal judgment if it runs counter to his official duties.

Weber's work has been continued by many, like Robert Michels with his "Iron Law of Oligarchy."

Karl Marx on Bureaucracy

In Karl Marx's theory of historical materialism, the historical origin of bureaucracy is to be found in four sources: religion, the formation of the state, commerce, and technology.

According to Marx's analysis, the earliest bureaucracies consisted of castes of religious clergy, officials, and scribes operating various rituals, and armed functionaries specifically delegated to keep order. In the historical transition from primitive egalitarian communities to a civil society divided into social classes and estates, occurring from about 10,000 years ago, authority is increasingly centralized in, and enforced by, a state apparatus existing separately from society. This state formulates, imposes and enforces laws, and levies taxes, giving rise to an officialdom enacting these functions. But the growth of trade and commerce adds a new, distinctive dimension to bureaucracy, insofar as it requires the keeping of accounts and the processing/recording of transactions, as well as the enforcement of legal rules governing trade. A fourth source of bureaucracy inheres in the technologies of mass production, which require many standardised routines and procedures to be performed. This type of bureaucracy is nowadays often called a technocracy, which owes its power to control over specialised technical knowledge.

In Marx's theory, bureaucracy rarely creates new wealth by itself, but rather controls, co-ordinates, and governs the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. The bureaucracy as a social stratum derives its income from the appropriation of part of the social surplus product of human labor. Wealth is appropriated by the bureaucracy by law through fees, taxes, levies, tributes, licensing etc. Bureaucracy is therefore always a "cost" to society, but this cost may be accepted insofar as it makes social order possible, and maintains it.

Conflict Theory and Bureaucracy

The Marxist offshoot, Conflict Theory, states that each member or group in an organization attempts to maximize their benefits at the cost of the others in the organization. Conflict theory contrasts Talcott Parsons' functionalism, which states that each part of an organization has a well-defined role with no need to alter that position. Conflict theorists would argue that bureaucracy can never be perfectly effective due to competition, structural inequalities, and the conflict that would result from these.

Robert Merton on Bureaucracy

Robert K. Merton wrote about the dysfunctions of bureaucracies. He believed society could develop alternatives to current institutions by analyzing their dysfunctions. His essay "Bureaucratic Structure and Personality" (Merton 1957) describes the "red tape" and other inefficiencies of bureaucracy. "According to Merton, if, as Weber thought, the predominance of rational rules and their close control of all actions favours the reliability and predictability of the bureaucrat's behaviour, it also accounts for his lack of flexibility and his tendency to turn means into ends." Emphasis on conformity provides incentive for individuals to internalize the rules of their bureaucracies. Instead of serving as means to an end, these rules become ends in and of themselves. Merton called this phenomenon goal displacement, which occurs when formalistic goals become more important than the main substantive goal of an organization. Merton believed that bureaucratic characteristics can have both beneficial and harmful effects on organization ranging from efficiency to rigidity.

Assessment of Bureaucracy

Drawbacks

Weber's bureaucracy is an ideal model. Each of his seven principles can degenerate:

• Vertical hierarchy of authority can became chaotic, some offices can be omitted in the decision making process, and there may be conflicts of competence;
• Competences can be unclear and used contrary to the spirit of the law; sometimes a decision itself may be considered more important than its effect;
• Nepotism, corruption, political infighting, and other degenerations can counter the rule of impersonality and can create a recruitment and promotion system not based on merit, but rather functioning as an oligarchy;
• Officials can try to avoid responsibility and seek anonymity by avoiding documentation of their procedures (or creating extreme amounts of chaotic, confusing documents)

Even a non-degenerated bureaucracy can be affected by common problems:

• Overspecialization, making individual officials not aware of larger consequences of their actions;
• Rigidity and inertia of procedures, making decision-making slow or even impossible when facing an unusual case, and similarly delaying change, evolution, and adaptation of old procedures to new circumstances;
• The phenomenon of "group thinking": zealotry, loyalty, and lack of critical thinking regarding the organization which is viewed as "perfect" and "always correct" by definition, making it unable to change and realize its own mistakes and limitations;
• Disregard for dissenting opinions, even when such views suit the available data better than the opinion of the majority;
• The Catch-22 phenomenon (named after the novel by Joseph Heller): as bureaucracy creates more and more rules and procedures, their complexity raises and coordination diminishes, facilitating the creation of contradictory rules.

In the most extreme examples, bureaucracy can lead to the treatment of individual human beings as impersonal objects. This process has been criticised by many philosophers and writers (Aldous Huxley, George Orwell, and Hannah Arendt) and satirized in the comic strip Dilbert.

Advantages

Bureaucracy is the most ubiquitous form of dividing labor among members of an organization, town, state, or nation. Standardization of procedures creates the ability to easily pass knowledge to future workers as well as facilitating better communication among colleagues. Division of labor creates economies of scale within organizations, enhancing productivity. Formal hierarchy can also increase efficiency, as there is a clear chain of command eliminating the potential for some conflicts. Impersonal relationships also lead to easier dismissal of workers, which contributes to greater efficiency.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• On Karl Marx: Hal Draper, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Volume 1: State and Bureaucracy. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979.
• On Weber: Tony J. Watson Sociology, Work and Industry Routledge 1980 ISBN 0415321654
• Baron de Grimm and Diderot, Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique, 1753-69, 1813 edition, Vol. 4, p. 146 & 508 - cited by Martin Albrow, Bureaucracy. London: Pall Mall Press, 1970, p. 16.
• Encyclopedia Britannica. "Bureaucracy."
• Merton, Robert K. 1957. "Bureaucratic Structure and Personality" in Social Theory and Social Structure. (1968 edition) Glencoe, IL: Free Press. ISBN 0029211301

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