Santeria

Santeria, (Santería in Spanish, meaning "Way of the Saints") is a set of related religious systems that fuse Roman Catholic beliefs with traditional Yoruba beliefs, in time becoming a unique religion in its own right. Properly known as Lukumí in the Yoruba language, meaning "friends," Santeria was the religion practiced by descendants of many Yorùbá slaves in Cuba, over time growing in popularity with many people in Latin American countries and eventually spreading to many regions of the Americas. Estimates of the number of practitioners of Santeria is difficult, due to its decentralized structure and the autonomy of individual house-churches, as well as the religion's relaxed approach to other religions. However, most estimates suggest there are about four million adherents worldwide, about three quarters of which reside in Cuba[1].

History

The name Lukumi originated from present-day Nigeria. The Yoruba, also known as Nago as well as Lukumi people, of Nigeria were initially called the Lukumi which was supposed to be from the word "Olokun mi" (my dear one). The name Yoruba is popularly believed to have been derived from a Hausa ethnonym for the populous people to their south, but this legend has not been substantiated by historians. The term first appeared in a treatise written by the Songhai scholar Ahmed Baba, and is likely to derive from the Oyo or Yagba, two Yoruba-speaking groups along the northern borders of their terrority. However, it is likely that the ethnonym was popularized by Hausa usage and ethnography written in Arabic and Ajami.

Yorubas were more likely called Lukumí in Cuba and their religion was historically practised by descendants of West African slaves, slaves were not purposely divided by slave families but as a means of maintaining tribal and ethnic anamosities on the Island during enslavement (see Midlo Hall's 1992,2005). It is in this manner that Latino Enslavement and the mean of maintaining control evolved. Later, in the early 18th century, the Spanish Catholic church allowed for the creation of societies called cabildos which were primarly for African ethnicities which also provided means for entertainment and reconstruction of many aspects of ethnic heritage but were intended to institutionalize the interethnic anamousities. For some unkown historical reason, still under invesitgation, the Yourba dieties, became paramount in Santeria and this ocurred eventhough the Yorubas themselves were a minority among the enlslaved. The slaves practised Yorùbá religious ceremonies in these cabildos, along with religious and secular traditions from other parts of Africa, combining and amalgamating their masters' pantheon of Catholic saints with their own pantheon of Orisha. This combination would come to be known as Santería (the worship of Saints).

The survival of Santeria in Cuba was primarily due to this convergence of Yorùbá's Ifa religiosity and Catholicism. When slave owners observed Africans celebrating a Saint's Day, they were generally unaware that the slaves were actually worshiping the Orisha. Today, the terms saint and Orisha are sometimes used interchangeably. The common bond between the Lukumí Orisha and the Catholic saints has become a part of Cuba's religious culture. It was originally referred to as Santería (also known as, Way of the Saints), a derisive term applied by the Spanish to mock followers' seeming overdevotion to the saints and their perceived neglect of God. The slaves' Christian masters did not allow them to practise their various west African religions. The slaves found a way around this by masking the Ifa's Orishas as Christian saints while maintaining their original identities. Often this combining is called by Eurocentric anthropologist and other social scientist as syncretism. A term that is being used less and less as Afro-centric scholors have pointed out that all religions are syncretic, i.e. the Judeo-Christian root of European religiosity. Nevertheless, the masters thought their slaves had become "good Christians" and were praising the saints, when in actuality they were continuing their traditional practices. [2]

Forms of the Lukumí Ifa relgion is often combined with other religions but especially Catholicism and is practised throughout the Caribbean, and has a following in Mexico, Argentina, Colombia, Venezuela and the United States and other areas with large Latin American populations. A very similar religion called Candomblé is also practiced in Brazil, which is home to a rich array of other Afro-Latino American religions. This is now being referred to as "parallel religiosity" since some believers worship the African variant that has no "devil fetish" and no baptism or marriage and at the same time they belong to either Catholic Churches or Mainline Protestant Churches, where there is a devil fetish. Yoruba religiosity works toward a balance here on earth (androcentric) while the Eurpean religions work toward the here after. Some in Cuban Santeria, Haitian Vodun or Puerto Rican Spiritualism (Afro-Latin Religions) do not view a difference between the Saints and the Orishas, the ancestor dieties of the Yoruba people Ifa religion.

There are now in Cuba individuals who practice a purer form of Ifa religion which is what the religion is called in Nigeria. This Ifa form rejects any mixing with Catholicisim.

Beliefs

The Lukumi believe in a creator who is called Olodumare. There is no specific belief in a Devil since the Yoruba belief system is not a dualistic philosophy - good versus evil, God versus a Devil. Instead the universe is seen as containing forces of expansion and forces of contraction. Theses forces interact in complex ways to create the universe. All things are seen to have positive aspects, or Iré, and negative aspects, or Ibi. Nothing is seen as completely “good” or completely “evil” but all things are seen as having different proportions of both. Similarly no action is seen as universally as “wrong” or “right” but rather can only be judged with the context and circumstances in which it takes place. This concept is sometime derided as “situational ethics.” In this context the individual is seen as made up of both positive/constructive impulses as well as negative/destructive impulses. Similarly, an individuals talents and facilities are seen as having a potential of both positive and negative expression. Therefore, there is a great deal of attention and focus on each individual striving to develop good character and doing good works. Good character, or Iwapele, is defined as doing the right thing because it is the right thing to do, not out of fear of retribution or as a way of seeking rewards, but simply because it is right. All humans are seen as having the potential of being good and blessed people (no original sin), although they have a potential to make evil choices, and the universe is seen as benevolent.

Deities

Olodumare and Creation

The eternal creator of the universe, humanity, and the Orishas is Olodumare. He is known by a number of epithets such as Olofi ("God on earth") and Olorún ("Owner of the Heavens"). It is as three of these manifestations (Olofi, Nzame and Baba Nkwa) that Olodumare created the world. Olodumare is made up of ashé, but is also the controller of ashé. Before creation, there was only chaotic ashé and Olodumare. From this chaos created the world and everything in it. As there is no defintive dogma or official religious text there are a collection of creation mythologies.

One version of the Santeria cosmogony tells of the ordering of ashé into the known world. The first creation resulted in the creation of the primordial man Omo Oba, who was conceited in his immortality and thus banished to the underworld. In the process of his banishment by Olodumare the world was laid waste. It was rebuilt by Olodumare, and it is during this second creation that the Orishas are born, beginning with Obatalá. The newly created goddess of the sea Olocun covered the earth with her waters in order to claim it for her own. Obatalá, the first created Orisha, descended to the earth on a golden chain to create dry land for life (specifically, human life) to thrive upon.

Eventually Olodumare became disenchanted with the world he had created, and was disappointed with the actions of humanity. Though still acknowledged as creator and the controller of ashé, Olodumare is now separate from the world. Those who practice Santeria continue to revere Olodumare and include him in their prayers and sacrifices, but only out of respect and not in hopes of petitioning him, as he is uninterested in the affairs of humanity. In his absence he has left the earth to the Orishas.

Orishas

The head of the Santeria pantheon is Obatalá. It is said that when humans were created they were created without heads. Obatalá was given the task of fashioning heads for humanity, and thus became the Orisha of the human head and consequently the father of humanity as well as the Orishas. He acts as a mediator between the Orishas and Olodumare, the latter's whereabouts following his departure from the earth known only to Obatalá and the Orisha Elegguá. Obatalá's color is white and was linked with Our Lady of Ransom in the Catholic tradition.

Elegguá is the trickster Orisha, and is the god of crossroads and doorways. In mythology he is known for eavesdropping on his fellow Orishas and spoiling their plans. Sacrifices in Santeria always begin with an homage to Elegguá, as he was granted prestige in his service to Olodumare. His colors are red and black and in Santeria he is compared to the Holy Child of Atocha, due to Elegguá being recognized as the youngest Orisha.

Changó, the Orisha of thunder, is known for submitting to his desires for celebration and his disposition for anger. He is known for his power and is respected for his ability to overcome barriers. He is also recognized for his sexuality, and is a symbol of male fertility. In mythology he is often at odds with his brother Oggún. His colors are red and white and he is identified with the Catholic saint Barbara, whose murderer was struck by lightening.

Oggún, Changó's brother, is the Orisha of iron. As such he is the patron of all whose tools are made of metal - soldiers and doctors, for example. He is in charge of vehicles, such as automobiles, but is also blamed when traffic accidents occur. Mythology often tells of his humiliation by a variety of others (often his brother Changó or Oggún's own wife) and his retreat to a life of solitude deep in the jungle. His colors are green and black and is identified with St. Peter, who in Catholic iconography holds metal keys.

The Orisha Orúnla is the god of divination.

Patakis

Rituals

Some Lukumí rituals are open to initiated priests only, so are seen as highly secretive by the outside world. Santeria was traditionally transmitted orally, although in the last decade a number of books have been published on the tradition. Practices include animal offering, dance, and sung invocations to the Orishas. Of these the most controversial is animal sacrifice. Followers of Lukumí point out that the killings are conducted in a safe and humane manner. The priests charged with doing the sacrifice are trained in humane ways to kill the animals. Furthermore, the animal is cooked and eaten afterwards by the community. In fact chickens, a staple food of many African-descended and Creole cultures, are the most common sacrifice; the chicken's blood is offered to the Orisha, while the meat is consumed by all. Also of note is that the practice of animal sacrifice has been common to many religions, such as Judaism and Hinduism. Fruit is also offered to the Orisha. One's ancestors, egun, are held in high esteem in Lukumí. All ceremonies and rituals in the Lukumi religion begin with paying homage to one’s ancestors.

Initiation

Initiation into Santeria is an involved process, and progressing into deeper mysteries involves special ceremonies and requires that the initiate perform particular rituals and go through periods of abstinence. Consultation with a santero or santera is, however, open to any that are willing to make the appropriate donations - even those who practice other religions.

There are four major initiation rituals in Santeria: three are complimentary and are accorded varying levels of importance amongst different groups within Santeria. The final ritual is agreed upon unanimously as the most important and mysterious, and can only be completed after the three lesser rituals have been brought to fruition. Any practitioner may begin the rituals, and all are not expected to complete the final initiation - no stigma is attached to only completing the initial rituals. One being initiated is known as an iyawó, which means "bride" and applies to any initiate. Initiation requires a fee, but this is given to the Orisha and used for the expenses incurred in initiations.

The beginning step into Santeria is for the initiate to gain their elekes, beaded necklaces that are matched to the particular colors of the iyawó's parent Orisha, who determined through ritual. The elekes are ritually bathed in a mixture of herbs and other potent magical substances, and given to the initiate. Elekes must be worn for protection, and must be removed during any ritually impure situation (menstration, for example). Another important ritual is the creation of an image of Elegguá. Iyawós collect stones and bring them to the initiator, who chooses one (based on the result of an ensuing divination) to use as the image. The image is created around this stone, using a malleable substance (eg. clay) and shells. This Elegguá image is kept in the home and is made offerings, such as food, tobacco, or the blood of a sacrifice. Like the elekes it serves to protect the initiate. The third of the initial rituals is the recieving of the implements of the warrior Orishas. The iyawó gains items characteristic of the three remaining warrior gods: Oggún (iron implements), Ochosi (bow and arrow) and Ósun (cup with a rooster), complimenting the final warrior god Elegguá.

The final and most secret ritual is called the Asiento, which refers to the possession of the initiate by an Orisha. It is the culmination of the previous rituals, and cannot be made unless the others have been completed. It is a purification ritual, requiring a metaphorical "death" and "birth" for the iyawó. In the company of sixteen or more santeros and santeras

Oracles

Dance

Drum music and dancing are a form of prayer and will sometimes induce a trance state in initiated priest, who become "possessed" and will channel the Orisha, giving the community and individuals information, perform healing etc. These dances are called bembes. The dances corrospond to the nature of the Orisha being contacted - for instance, a dance dedicated to Oshún, the Orisha of love, will be suggestive of seduction. The efficacy of the dance is determined by the skill with which the performers complete the bembe. These dances are not sure to guarantee the goodwill of the Orisha, but instead are used to summon. The Orisha, when channelled, can react favorably or disfavorably in response to the worshippers. As well, multiple Orishas can appear, causing difficulties if those summoned are not on good terms (such as Changó and Oggún, as demonstrated in the pataki concerning their feud).

Persecution

African Spirituality was actively suppressed and outlawed during slavery. On the continent native traditions were viewed as inherently backward and "primitive” by the European colonizing forces who set out too actively "civilize" the natives through a number of mechanism including torture and execution; kidnapping the young and putting them in "boarding schools;" bribing or other material incentive. Intimately implicated and complicit in this process were Christian missionaries, who charged themselves with "saving the souls" of the native peoples by converting them from their millennia old traditional spiritual practices to Christianity.

Within the European and North American Christian culture African Spiritually has been historically demonized, sensationalized and distorted. Hollywood’s portrayal of African traditions has be mired with gross distortions and exaggerations. The historic repression of African Spirituality in the context of slavery has as well as racism, cultural imperialism and supremacy have also played significant roles. The notion that a legitimate, sophisticated spiritual philosophy could have originated in Africa flies in the face of widespread distortions in Europe and North America about the backwardness of African culture. The controversies and criticisms of this tradition have to be viewed within this historic context.

External links

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

Lukumi ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

History of "Santeria"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.