Polytheism

Polytheism refers to belief in, or worship of, multiple gods or divinities. The word comes from the Greek words polus (many) and theos (god), thus denoting the recognition of "many gods." Most ancient religions were polytheistic, believing that pantheons of traditional deities, often accumulated over centuries of cultural interchange and experience, ruled over various aspects of life. This belief in many gods, however, does not preclude the belief in an all-powerful all-knowing supreme being. With that said, other categories of religious classification can be subsumed under the general heading of polytheism, such as henotheism (the acknowledgement of one supreme god among a pantheon), monaltry (the worship of one particular god while acknowledging the existence of others) and even emanational mystical monotheism (where many deities are viewed as just different names for the single God or principle; see monotheism).

Polytheism as a Category of Religion

In the categorization of religion, polytheism was originally conceived of as a sort of middle stage in the progression of religious thought. That is, early scholars of religion conceived religious thought to begin with animism, a belief common in tribal cultures where everything is perceived to be alive or with a spirit or soul. Soon after or during this phase, a phase called polydaemonism supposedly arose, a belief which asserts that the world is replete with spirits which could be channeled by shamanistic practices. These two belief systems were perceived as "primitive" by scholars, who believed the culmination of all human thought was monotheism, the belief in only one divinity which seemed to them as correlated with advanced societies. However, before evolving from belief in spirits to the belief in one god, these academics believed human religious thought passed through polytheism along the way. Here, gods had become personalized, and hence more complex than the amorphous polydaemonic or animistic spiritual entities; however, these gods still existed in a multiplicity, which was taken to reflect a lingering deficiency in religious thought. Such theories have been ubiquitously rejected, as there is minimal evidence for such an evolutionary process of spiritual thought, and monotheism, when it appears, usually does so by sudden, revolutionary means.

Although the expressions of polytheism have varied considerably, some common characterisitics can be identified. In polytheistic belief systems, gods are conceived as complex personages each of whom is experienced and acknowledged as an independent, individual personality, with specific skills, needs and desires. These divine beings are personal but do not usually have a material form of their own, though they can assume bodily forms for certain reasons or occassions. They possess a higher level of relevance to human life than some other conceptions of god, as these gods can intervene in human affairs, either by way of rituals and sacrifices, or by thier own volition. However, unlike humans, they are generally conceived to be immortal. Usually such gods are not omnipotent or omniscient; rather, they are portrayed as similar to humans in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions. Some may be conceived of as having jurisdiction or governance over a large area representing the "patron god" of a geographical , or a region, town, stream or family. Often it was the case in many civilizations that pantheons tended to grow over time as the patron gods of cities or places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Others gods may have dominion or authority over specified areas of life. Thus a god may be the god of music (Apollo) or herding, the god of a particular food (Dionysus, Ceres) or emotion (Aphrodite), have a particular role in the god-hierarchy (Zeus, Loki). These sacred beings may include spirits, or even ancestors.

Consistently, polytheistic beliefs are associated with extensive mythologies tracing the day to day lives of the Gods. Unlike biblical gods whose history is inextricably linked to the history He makes for humanity, polytheistic gods have extensive accounts of their history, including their family affairs, sexual partnerships, offspring and battles they participated in, among other things. Further, these stories tell of the complex social arrangements of the gods. For example, gods have friends, allies, spouses, lovers and enemies; further, they experience human emotions such as jealousy, whimsy or uncontrolled rage, or may practise infidelity and be punished for it. Moreover, the many gods featured in the mythology provide a medium by which humans could answer questions not only of cosmogony, but also were able to account for certain social, political and religious practices. The polytheistic notion of divinity is very differentiated and structured, reflecting the human view of the cosmos which similarly divides one thing from another. MMany gods, providing separate forces for the maintenance of various aspects of reality, (e.g. Apollo synonymous with the sun) allowed human beings to assert essential differences between these various aspects. Such mythologies and the gods included therein became an epistemological foundation for understanding the totality of the universe. It is not surprising, then, that in many cases such as the Greek or Norse pantheons, the stories of the gods form the cornerstone of all religious endeavor. These histories make polytheistic gods even more accessible to the human mind, an appeal which no doubt bridged the gap between human and divine more readily than in some monotheistic faiths.

Varieties of Polytheism found in Human Culture

Greek Polytheism

The Greek gods provide perhaps the most famous example of polytheism. The ancient Greeks believed that their gods were independent deities who were not aspects of a greater divinity and did stand on their own. However, such gods as Chronos, Uranus, and finally Zeus were all at various junctures considered rulers of the other gods. Thus, Greek polytheism is best described as henotheism. Later movements of the Greek philosophers no doubt shifted the Greek belief from polytheism or henotheism to a more monistic theism. That is, Plato and Aristotle each spoke of a perfected oneness which governed all things, thus, the gods no doubt came to be seen merely as ephemeral emanations of this truly real oneness, similar to the Hindu variation of polytheism we will observe later.

Other Ancient Mythological Traditions

Few ancient religions rooted in mythology were not polytheististic in some way or another, both before and after the Greeks. Mesopotamian and Sumerian myths told of numerous gods such as An (god of Heaven), Enlil, (god of the air and storms), Enki, (the god of water and the earth), Ninhursag (the goddess of the earth) and Inanna, the goddess of love and war, among others. Further, certain gods represented various jurisdictions of the Mesopotamian empire, such as Ashur, the main God of Assyria, and Marduk, Main god of Babylon. As far as religious practices went, every shrine in Sumeria was named after a single God, (for example, the E'anna temple in Uruk was named after Inanna). With the extension of the Sumerian civilisation into other surrouneding areas these Gods became part of a Pantheon or single family of divinities, known as the Anunaki. The degree to which Sumerian and Mesopotamian gods were conceived as anthropomorphic also developed through the centuries and with the expansion of the empire. Early on, the Sumerians conceived themselves as living inside a divine realm. Rather than viewing An as "the God" of the Heavens, he was the heavens. With the growth in size and importance of the temples, the importance of the temple functionaries grew in importance in their communities, and a hierarchy developed headed by the En or chief priest. Thus the chief priest of the God of Air (Lil) at the E-kur temple at the city of Nippur became "Enlil", and Gods came to assume human attributes.

Early Egyptian mythological beliefs can be split into five distinct groups which were highly tied to localities. Within each of these localities existed numerous gods, which one chief god was hailed as supreme. For the Ennead of Heliopolis, the chief god was Atum. For the Ogdoad of Hermopolis, it was Ra. Among the Chnum-Satet-Anuket triad of Elephantine, where the chief god was Chnum, among the Amun-Mut-Chons triad of Thebes, it was Amun, and among the the Ptah-Sekhmet-Nefertem triad of Memphis where the chief god was Ptah. Throughout the complex history of Egypt, the dominant beliefs of the ancient Egyptians merged and mutated as leaders of different groups assumed power. For example, when the New Kingdom was formed by the merger of the Ogdoad and the Amun-Mut-Chons, the respective chief Gods Ra and Amun became Amun-Ra. This amalgamation of two gods into a single god was typical in Egypt and, over time, deities took part in multiple syncretic relationships such as these. However, even when taking part in such a syncretic relationship, the original deities did not become completely "absorbed" into the combined deity, Similar to the Greeks, Ancient Egyptians also believed that certain Gods were aspects of a greater God, although the individuality of that weaker god was often greatly mitigated. Also, these syncretic relationships sometimes involved more than just two deities, for instance, Ptah, Seker and Osiris, were merged to become Ptah-Seker-Osiris. The goddesses followed a similar pattern. Thus, even though their Gods may have had distinct personalities and traits, they seem to have often been considered aspects of other deities.

Norse mythology aknowledges three "clans" of deities, the Æsir, the Vanir, and the Iotnar. The Æsir refers to the principle Norse gods, including notable mythological figures such as Odin (the chief god, commonly representing wisdom, battle and death), Baldr (the god of innocence and beauty), Loki (the god of foolery), and Thor (the god of thunder), among others. The Vanir, a secondary pantheon of gods including Njord (god of fertile coastal land and sailing) and Freyja (goddess of love and sexuality). The Iotnar refers to a race of superhuman giants who stand in opposition to the gods. The Æsir and Vanir are said to have engaged in a prolonged which the Æsir had finally won wars. This lead to a pact of peace, after which the two groups reigned together. Some gods belong in both camps. The Æsir and the Vanir are generally considered to be enemies with the Iotnar. Some of the giants are mentioned by name in the Eddas, and they seem to be representations of natural forces. There are numerous additional supernatural beings such as Fenrir the gigantic wolf, and Jörmungandr the sea-serpent, the progeny of Loki. Further, supernatural power is attributed to human capacities such as thought and memory, which are given form in the beings of Hugin and Munin, the two ravens who alert Odin apprised of earthly happenings.

Aztec mythology|Aztec

Roman

Today, most historical polytheistic religions are referred to as "mythology", though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished from their cultus or religious practice.

Hindu Traditions

It is considered likely that Hinduism as it is known today evolved from the merging of two ancient polytheistic systems: the proto-Indo-European pantheon of the Aryans, and a Dravidian religion which may have been related to the ancient Sumerian beliefs. Early Vedic Hinduism is replete with the activities of numerous gods, such as Varuna, keeper of the heavenly waters, Indra, the warrior god; and Agni, the god of fire, among others. Of these gods, Indra was typically seen as the overlord when compared to the others, a title he won from Varuna in a battle thoroughly documented in the Vedic texts. Thus, this early Hindu polytheism should be considered henotheistic, just as that of the Greeks. The classification of early Hinduism as solely polytheistic can be further undercut by such phrases as "Truth is One, though the sages know it as many", which suggests that the Vedic people identified a fundamental oneness beyond the personalities of their many gods. Thus, the Vedas may have been hinting at the kind of emanational mystical monotheism which became more prominent in later Hindu conceptions of divinity.

With the arrival of the Upanishads, the primary commentaries on the Vedas, came the idea of Brahman, a supreme, indescribeable entity which pervaded all of being. Although this idea may sound monistic, pantheistic, or even monotheistic, it lead to the development of a religious system that outwardly appears to be polytheism, and has popularly been perceived as such by outsiders. Many members of the Hindu faith take the view that it is only through conception of a multiplicity of divine beings that humans can trace for themselves what this transcendent, indescribeable Brahman really is. This view has persisted into modern times, very much alive in such schools of thought as the Smartha philosophy. This theory allows for the veneration of numberless deities, but all with the understanding that each of these various gods are really manifestation of the single divine power, Brahman. For example, Smarta philosophers would hold that Vishnu and Shiva are different aspects of Brahman. As mentioned earlier, this system common in Hinduism is often perceived by non-Hindus as polytheistic; however, it is better described as emanational mystical monotheism, where the one primordial principle is perceived as having many forms. All gods, then, are cut from the same cloth of Brahman, a sharp contrast, to the Greek belief that any two gods are essentially different. Hindu writers often go to great lenghts to clarify this point to practitioners, so their beliefs are not confused with more compartmentalized beliefs in multiple gods.

By contrast, Other Hindu sects, such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism conform more closely to a Western standard of monotheism. For instance, a Vaishnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God. This attitude that resonates with that of the Abrahamic religions. However, the Smartha philosophy defines a large part of Hindu philosophy, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their liberalism.

According to the philosophy of Mīmāṃsā (one of the six Hindu philosophies), all the devas (the celestial spirits aka "gods") and devīs ("goddesses") are the sovereign rulers of the forces of nature and there is no one Supreme Īshvara (lit., the SUpreme Lord) as their Lord. To do a desired action, the humans must please each or several of these devas by worshipping them with proper rituals. This kind of view could be regarded as purely polytheistic. Although the later Mīmāṃsakās retracted this view and accepted Īshvara, this view is still held today by a substantial populace of Hindus.

Mahayana Buddhism

Mahayana Buddhism is regarded by some as polytheistic. In Buddhism the gods, devas, though powerful beings in their own right, are still mortal. Therefore, their worship is held to be unnecessary.

Shinto

Followers of Shinto, the ancient religion of Japan, follow the way of the kami, which refers to mysterious supernatural forces. Motoori Norinaga defines kami as anything which appears outside the realm of the ordinary and the everyday, possessing a power which inspires awe. Objects of the folk cult, as well as the deities of the imperial houses and great clans, all fall under the heading of kami.

Significance of Polytheism

Polytheism has often been pitted against monotheism, mainly by monotheists and academics who claim that polytheism is an inferior belief system, particularly in the Western world. Critics cite the fact that the idea of multiple god takes away from the rational unity of one solitary divine being. Further, polytheism has been identified with idolatry in such Near-Eastern Abrahamic faiths as Islam and Judaism. Academics charting the course of religious development in humanity such as Max Muller put polytheism beneath monotheism and aetheism on the evolutionary hierarchy of faith. As an undeniable result of these criticism, polytheism has declined virtually everywhere, except for some Indo-Asiatic religions. Polytheism need not be seen as an inherently inferior or outmoded way of religious thinking, however. As Alain Danielou writes, "we may be nearer to a mental representation of divinity when we consider an immense number of gods than when we try to stress their unity; for the number one is in a way the number farthest removed from infinity" (p. 7). The lasting value of polytheism is no doubt still evident in the aforementioned goddess spiritualities, which have developed polytheistic theologies almost exclusively in the modern, Western context.

See also

• Agnosticism
• Atheism
• Celtic polytheism
• Deism
• Heathenry
• Henotheism
• Integrational Polytheism
• Kathenotheism
• Monotheism
• Pantheism
• Polydeism

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Blain, Jenny "An Understanding of Polytheism" <http://www.manygods.org.uk/articles/traditions/polytheism.html>. [Accessed April 29 2006.]
• Danielou, Allen. Hindu Polytheism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1964.
• "Polytheism." Encyclopedia of Religion, Mercia Eliade, ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987.

Further reading

Greer, John Michael (2005) A World Full of Gods: An Inquiry Into Polytheism. ISBN 0-9765681-0-1

External links

• godchecker.com – a very lighthearted and irreverent God database
• The Association of Polytheist Traditions - APT A UK-based community of Polytheists with a website and a discussion group open to non-members, and a closed list for paid-up members.
• BritPoly discussion group The Association of Polytheist Tradition's (APT) discussion group open to non-members. All polytheists are welcome, though the emphasis and style of the group is based on that of the UK.

• [1] The Pagan Federation - A predominantly polytheistic educational and campaigning organisation serving the Pagan community.

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