Polytheism

Polytheism (from the Greek: polus (many) and theos (god)) refers to belief in, or worship of, multiple gods or divinities. This mode of belief, though occasionally decried as mere idolatry by strict monotheists, is an extremely common form of religious expression. Most ancient religions involved belief in pantheons of (often anthropomorphic) deities ruling over various aspects of life. Further, these polytheistic beliefs remain a vital part of Hinduism, Shinto and many other traditions into the present day.

As the term "polytheism" is applied to a wide variety of religious traditions, it is perhaps unsurprising that it often conceals a range of divergent theological stances. Indeed, many other categories of religious classification can be subsumed under the general heading of polytheism, including henotheism (the acknowledgement of one supreme god among a pantheon), monaltry (the worship of one particular god while acknowledging the existence of others) and even emanational mystical monotheism (the interpretation of many deities as being different names for (or aspects of) a single God or Divine principle).

Polytheism as a Category of Religion

In the history of religious studies as an academic discipline, polytheism was originally conceived of as a "middle stage" in the evolutionary progression of religious thought. That is, early scholars of religion (most significantly E. B. Tylor and J. G. Frazer) viewed religious thought as a continuum, which begins with animism (the belief that everything, whether animate or inanimate, possesses a soul) and culminates in monotheism (the belief in only one divinity). In the interim stages, they theorized that a belief system called polydaemonism arose, which asserts that the world is replete with spirits that can be channeled by shamanistic practices. These two belief systems (animism and polydaemonism) were perceived as "primitive" by these scholars: a likely result of their culturally-biased preference for monotheistic religions. Regardless, they theorized that polytheism represented an evolutionary phase between "primitive," animistic beliefs and monotheism, as, at this stage, gods became personalized and hence more complex than the amorphous polydaemonic or animistic spiritual entities; however, these gods still existed in a multiplicity, which was taken to reflect a lingering deficiency in the given culture's thought. In the intervening century since the formulation of these theories, they have been ubiquitously rejected, as there is minimal evidence for such an evolutionary process of religious belief.

Although the expressions of polytheism have varied considerably, some common characterisitics can be identified. In polytheistic belief systems, gods are conceived as complex personages, each of whom is experienced and acknowledged as an independent, individual personality with specific skills, needs and desires. They are often thought to lack a material form of their own, though they can (on occasion) assume physical bodies. They are seen to possess a high level of relevance to human life, as they can intervene in human affairs. They are often motivated to do so by way of rituals and sacrifices, or simply by their own volition. However, unlike humans, they are generally conceived to be immortal. Usually, such gods are not omnipotent or omniscient; rather, they are often portrayed as similar to humans in their personality traits, failings and vices, but with additional supernatual powers and abilities. Some may be conceived of as having jurisdiction or governance over a large area, and are seen as the "patron god(s)" of a geographical region, town, stream or family. In many civilizations, the pantheons grew over time as the patron gods of various cities and places were collected together as empires extended over larger territories. In others cases, the various gods may have arisen due to a perceived "division of labour," with each having dominion or authority over specified elements in the human and natural worlds. For example, the Greeks posited discrete gods of love (Aphrodite), music and technology (Apollo), and even gods of particular foods (Dionysus (wine), Ceres (wheat)). Further, these gods (whether originating as patrons spirits or as divine )may have a particular role in the god-hierarchy, as in the case of the Greek Zeus, or the Norse Loki. These sacred beings may include more general spirits in the polydaemonic sense, or even ancestors, as in the case of some Asian religious systems.

Consistently, polytheistic beliefs are associated with extensive mythologies tracing the day to day lives of the Gods. Unlike the Abrahamic God whose whose history is inextricably linked to the history He makes for humanity, polytheistic gods have extensive accounts of their own histories, including their family affairs, sexual partnerships, offspring, and battles they participated in, among other things. Further, these stories tell of the complex social arrangements of the gods. For example, gods have friends, allies, spouses, lovers and enemies; further, they experience human emotions such as jealousy, whimsy or uncontrolled rage, or may even practise infidelity and subsequently be punished for it. Moreover, the many gods featured in the mythologies provided a medium by which humans could answer questions not only of cosmogony, but also to account for certain social, political and religious practices they observed. The polytheistic notion of divinity is highly differentiated and structured, reflecting the human view of the cosmos which similarly divides one thing from another. Many gods, providing separate forces for the maintenance of various aspects of reality, (e.g. Apollo being synonymous with the sun) allowed human beings to assert essential differences between these various aspects. Thus, mythologies and the gods included therein became an epistemological foundation for understanding the totality of the universe. It is not surprising, then, that in many cases (such as those of the Greek or Norse mythology), the stories of the gods form the cornerstone of virtually all religious endeavor. These histories make polytheistic gods even more appealing to the human mind, as they no doubt bridged the gap between human and divine more readily than in some monotheistic faiths.

Varieties of Polytheism found in Human Culture

Mesopotamian and Sumerian Mythology

Mesopotamian and Sumerian myths told of numerous gods such as An (god of Heaven), Enlil, (god of the air and storms), Enki, (the god of water and the earth), Ninhursag (the goddess of the earth) and Inanna (the goddess of love and war), among others. Further, certain gods represented various jurisdictions of the Mesopotamian empire, such as Ashur, the main God of Assyria, and Marduk, main god of Babylon. As far as religious practices went, every shrine in Sumeria was named after a single God; for example, the E'anna temple in Uruk was named after Inanna. With the extension of the Sumerian civilisation into other surrounding areas these Gods became part of a single family of divinities known as the Anunaki. The degree to which Sumerian and Mesopotamian gods were conceived as anthropomorphic also developed through the centuries and with the expansion of the empire. Early on, the Sumerians conceived themselves as living inside a divine realm. Rather than viewing An as "the God" of the Heavens, he was the heavens. With the growth in size and importance of the temples, the social status of the temple functionaries grew as well, and a hierarchy developed headed by the En or chief priest. Thus, the chief priest of the God of Air (Lil) at the E-kur temple at the city of Nippur became "Enlil", and Gods came to assume more human attributes. These gods and their mythologies formed the template for later mythologies, most notably those of the Greeks.

Greek Mythology

The Greek gods provide perhaps the most famous example of polytheism throughout history. Extensive mythology shows that the ancient Greeks believed that their gods were independent deities who were not aspects of a greater divinity. Rather, they stood on their own, representing certain aspects of the cosmos or human experience. The first gods were largely tied to natural or primoridal processes, such as Uranus, the father god of the Sky, Gaia, the mother goddess of Earth, and Chronos, the godly personification of time. Later gods, such as the Olympians, became identified with more specific aspects of experience. For instance, Apollo was the god of light, dance, reason, music, archery and medicine, while also exemplifying the difficulties of human relationships through the stories of his many failed loves. Athena, meanwhile, was heralded as the goddess of wisdom, artistry, education and inner beauty, as well as war. Finally, Zeus represented the god of weather. While each of these gods and goddesses evidently had dominion over a certain portion of reality, such gods as Chronos, Uranus, and finally Zeus were all at various junctures considered rulers of the other gods. Thus, Greek polytheism is best described as henotheism. Later movements of the Greek philosophers no doubt shifted the Greek belief from polytheism or henotheism to a more monistic theism. That is, Plato and Aristotle each spoke of a perfected unity which governed all things, thus, the gods no doubt came to be seen merely as ephemeral emanations of this truly real oneness, similar to the Hindu variation of polytheism we will observe later.

Egyptian Mythology

Early Egyptians mythological beliefs can be split into five distinct groups tied closely to localities. Within each of these localities existed numerous gods, above whom one chief god was hailed as supreme. For the Ennead of Heliopolis, the chief god was Atum. For the Ogdoad of Hermopolis, it was Ra. Among the Chnum-Satet-Anuket triad of Elephantine, the chief god was Chnum; among the Amun-Mut-Chons triad of Thebes, it was Amun, and among the the Ptah-Sekhmet-Nefertem triad of Memphis the chief god was Ptah. Throughout the complex history of Egypt, the dominant beliefs of the ancient Egyptians changed considerably as leaders of different groups assumed power over the other localities. For example, when the New Kingdom was formed by the merger of the Ogdoad and the Amun-Mut-Chons, the respective chief Gods Ra and Amun became Amun-Ra. This amalgamation of two gods into a single god was typical in Egypt and, over time, deities took part in multiple syncretic relationships such as these. However, even when taking part in these relationships, the original deities did not become completely "absorbed" into the combined deity. Similar to the Greeks, Ancient Egyptians also believed that certain Gods were aspects of a greater God, although the individuality of that weaker god was often greatly impoverished. Also, these syncretic relationships sometimes involved more than just two deities. For instance, Ptah, Seker and Osiris, were merged to become Ptah-Seker-Osiris. Goddesses followed similar patterns. Thus, even though Egyptian gods and goddesses may have had distinct personalities and traits, they seem to have been considered aspects of other, greater deities.

Norse Mythology

Norse mythology aknowledges three "clans" of deities, the Æsir, the Vanir, and the Iotnar. The Æsir refers to the principle Norse gods, including notable mythological figures such as Odin (the chief god, commonly representing wisdom, battle and death), Baldr (the god of innocence and beauty), Loki (the god of foolery), and Thor (the god of thunder), among others. The Vanir, a secondary pantheon of gods including Njord (god of fertile coastal land and sailing) and Freyja (goddess of love and sexuality). The Iotnar refers to a race of superhuman giants who stand in opposition to the gods. The Æsir and Vanir are said to have engaged in a prolonged which the Æsir had finally won wars. This lead to a pact of peace, after which the two groups reigned together. Some gods belong in both camps. The Æsir and the Vanir are generally considered to be enemies with the Iotnar. Some of the giants are mentioned by name in the Eddas, and they seem to be representations of natural forces. There are numerous additional supernatural beings such as Fenrir the gigantic wolf, and Jörmungandr the sea-serpent, the progeny of Loki. Further, supernatural power is attributed to human capacities such as thought and memory, which are given form in the beings of Hugin and Munin, the two ravens who alert Odin of earthly happenings.

Aztec Mythology

Aztec religion was polytheistic right from the beginning, it seems, as is evident in one of the most prominent of their many creation myths. In this myth, the creation of the earth is parallelled by the creation of the twin gods Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca. Quetzalcoatl was seen as the primary creator god and representative of rulership, priests and merchants. His presence was manifest in the natural world through the wind. Tezcatlipoca, meanwhile, existed as a rival to Quetzalcoatl. He was viewed as an omnipotent god of sorcerers and warriors, closely related to darker imagery such as night and death. In nature, he was represented as a jaguar. The Aztecs acknowledged hundreds of gods and goddesses, the most notable among them Xipe Totec (god of the seasons, seed germination and renewal; the patron of goldworkers), Huitzilopochtli (supreme god of the city of Tenochtitlan; patron of war, fire and the sun), and Nanahuatzin (a diminutive goddess whose self-immolation saved humanity from immanent destruction).

Roman Mythology

The Romans held beliefs very similar to those of the Greeks, attributable to the fact that the Romans inherited much of their mythology after conquering the Greeks in 146 B.C.E. Romans asserted the existence of numerous, highly specialized Gods who held dominion over virtually all aspects of human life. Janus and Vesta watched over the door and hearth, while Ceres overlooked the growth of grain and Pomon the ripening of the fruit, for example. Gods and goddesses even interceded in aspects of life beyond the natural world, such as Cloacina, who was the goddess responsible for the Roman sewage system. Watching over these gods and all the others was the triad of Mars, god of youthful men, Quirinus, patron of the armies, and Jupiter, the overall ruler of the gods. Thus, while Roman religion is polytheistic in its belief in a multiplicity of gods and goddesses, like the Greek tradition it is probably better characterized as henotheistic.

Hindu Traditions

It is considered likely that Hinduism as it is known today evolved from the merging of two ancient polytheistic systems: the proto-Indo-European pantheon of the Aryans, and a Dravidian religion which may have been related to the ancient Sumerian beliefs. Early Vedic Hinduism is replete with the activities of numerous gods, such as Varuna, keeper of the heavenly waters, Indra, the warrior god, and Agni, the god of fire, among others. Of these gods, Indra was typically seen as the overlord when compared to the others, a title he won from Varuna in a battle thoroughly documented in the Vedic texts. Thus, this early Hindu polytheism should be considered henotheistic, just as that of the Greeks. The classification of early Hinduism as solely polytheistic can be further undercut by such phrases as "Truth is One, though the sages know it as many", which suggests that the Vedic people identified a deeper unity beyond the personas of the many gods and goddesses mentioned in the texts. Thus, the Vedas may have been hinting at the kind of emanational mystical monotheism which became more prominent in later Hindu conceptions of divinity.

With the arrival of the Upanishads, the primary commentaries on the Vedas, came the idea of Brahman, a supreme, indescribeable entity which pervaded all of existence. Although this idea may sound monistic, pantheistic, or even monotheistic, it lead to the development of a religious system that outwardly appears to be polytheism, and has popularly been perceived as such by outsiders. Many members of the Hindu faith take the view that it is only through conception of a multiplicity of divine beings that humans can trace for themselves what this transcendent, indescribeable Brahman really is. This view has persisted into modern times, and remains very much alive in such schools of thought as the Smarta philosophy. This theory allows for the veneration of numberless deities, but all with the understanding that each of the various gods are really just manifestations of the single divine power, Brahman. For example, Smarta philosophers would hold that Vishnu and Shiva are different aspects of Brahman. As mentioned earlier, this system is often perceived by non-Hindus as polytheistic; however, it is better described as emanational mystical monotheism, where the one primordial principle is perceived as having many forms. All gods, then, are cut from the same cloth of Brahman, a sharp contrast to the Greek belief that any two gods are essentially different entities. Hindu writers often go to great lengths to clarify this point to practitioners, so their beliefs are not confused with more compartmentalized beliefs in multiple gods. By contrast, other Hindu sects, such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism conform more closely to a Western standard of monotheism. For instance, a Vaishnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God. This attitude resonates with that of the Abrahamic religions. However, the Smartha philosophy defines a large part of Hindu philosophy, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their pluralism and tolerance.

Despite these qualified forms of polytheism, there is one of the major Hindu philosophies which can be declared explicitly polytheistic, that of Mimamsa. According to the Mimamsa philosophers, the devas (celestial spirits) are the sovereign rulers over the forces of nature, with no particular deva rising above the others as the supreme deity. To perform a desired action, human beings must please one or more of these devas by worshipping them with proper rituals. These ideas could be regarded as purely polytheistic. This view is still held today by a substantial proportion of Hindus, even though later Mimamsa thinkers actually retracted this view and accepted Īshvara, the notion of one supreme god above and beyond all others.

Shinto

Followers of Shinto, the ancient religion of Japan, pursue the path of the kami, which generally refers to mysterious supernatural forces. Kami is thought of as anything which appears outside the realm of the ordinary and the everyday, possessing a power which inspires awe. Collectively, the totality of kami are called Yaoyorozu no Kami, an expression which literally means "eight million kami". This figure was most likely chosen aribtrarily to reflect the sheer multitude of kami in the Shinto consciousness. This quality is apparent in a virtually innumerable amount of things, therefore everything from natural entities to objects of the Shinto folk cult fall under this heading of kami. This includes notions of gods and goddesses, as well. The most widely worshipped of the kami is the sun-goddess Amaterasu. Many shrines have been constructed in her honour, though the most notable is the Grand Shrine of Ise. Within this shrine, Amaterasu is usually symbolised by a mirror. Alternatively, the inner sanctum may be empty. This emptiness symbolizes the idea that everything one sees through the mirror is the embodiment of Amaterasu, as well as every other kami. Thus, the notion of an underlying oneness in spite of external multiplicity which often characterizes polytheistic beliefs seems to be present in Shinto, as well.

Neopaganism

Although the interpretation of the concept of deity varies widely among Neopagan traditions, most are polytheistic. In Wicca, for example, two deities are worshipped: an Earth or Mother Goddess similar to the Greek goddess Gaia, and her male consort, the God. The Goddess and God are seen as playing complementary roles, with neither dominating. In some traditions, however, the Goddess alone is worshipped with the God playing a diminished role, or none at all. It is also common among more traditional groups to acknowledge a Dryghten, or supreme godhead, which is often composed of ancient Celtic deities. While most historical Pagans usually did not believe in a single, basal divinity at the core of all these gods and goddesses, some modern Neopagans assert that there is a single life force throughout the universe which is present within the world as well as the various gods and goddesses. The numerous manifestations of this divinity are not viewed as wholly separate from the divine, but rather as different aspects of it.

Goddess Spirituality

Recent decades have seen the emergence of numerous variations of Goddess spirituality, a series of movements propounding the importance of female spirituality. Such movements are typically grounded in Feminist thought, which has questioned the theological foundations of monotheistic belief. That is, monotheism commonly asserts that one god is the most rational means by which to conceive of divinity. Furthermore, since religion and theology up until recently has been almost exclusively male-dominated, this one monotheistic entity has been ubiquitously conceived of as male and described in masculine terms. That is, this God is dominant over the world, often described as wholly other and rationally cohesive, an idea which feminists see as reinforcing patriarchy. Goddess spirituality is often based in the belief that this emphasis on rationality and the primacy of the mind in the quest for god has lead to a denial of the body in spiritual pursuits. Moreover, since God is most often conceived of as male, the male body frequently becomes the standard for humanity, and subsequently the female body is considered an abberation of the "true" human form. Such ideas have further perpetuated the lower standing of women in the monotheistic traditions. Feminist theologians cite archaelogical evidence that suggests goddess worship flourished in civilizations existing before the rise of male-dominated empires such as those of Greece and Rome. Thus, goddess spirituality hearkens back to these ancient forms of polytheism, acknowledging and giving worship to the many goddesses from antiquity, such as those of the Mesopotamian and Sumerian mythology discussed earlier. In doing so, goddess spirituality infuses the female body within the conception of the divine, while also stepping away from the undertones of masculine dominance which can be associated with the history and philosophy of monotheistic thought. The multiplicity of gods conceived by goddess spiritualists to exist in the transcendent realm acknowledges and embraces the immense diversity we perceive in the immanent realm, not only in the case of genders, but also in such spheres as ethnicity or even religious affiliation. Thus, polytheism has served as a inclusive, liberating concept for feminist theologians who have etched out the contemporary spirituality of the goddess.

Significance of Polytheism

Polytheism has often been pitted against monotheism, mainly by monotheists and academics who claim that polytheism is an inferior belief system, particularly in the Near-Eastern or Western world. Critics cite the fact that the idea of multiple god takes away from the rational unity of one solitary divine being. Further, polytheism has been identified with idolatry in such Near-Eastern Abrahamic faiths as Islam and Judaism. Academics charting the course of religious development in humanity such as Max Muller put polytheism beneath monotheism and atheism on the evolutionary hierarchy of faith. As an undeniable result of these criticisms, polytheism has declined virtually everywhere, except for some Indo-Asiatic religions. Polytheism need not be seen as an inherently inferior or outmoded way of religious thinking, however. As Alain Danielou writes, "we may be nearer to a mental representation of divinity when we consider an immense number of gods than when we try to stress their unity; for the number one is in a way the number farthest removed from infinity" (p. 7). The lasting value of polytheism is no doubt evident in the aforementioned goddess spiritualities, which have developed polytheistic theologies almost exclusively in the modern, Western context.

See also

• Agnosticism
• Atheism
• Celtic polytheism
• Deism
• Heathenry
• Henotheism
• Integrational Polytheism
• Kathenotheism
• Monotheism
• Pantheism
• Polydeism

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Blain, Jenny "An Understanding of Polytheism" <http://www.manygods.org.uk/articles/traditions/polytheism.html>. [Accessed April 29 2006.]
• Christ, Carol. "Feminist Theology: Methodology, Sources, and Norms." In Sexism and God-Talk, Rosemary Radford Ruether, ed. Boston: Beacon Press, 1984. 12-24.
• Danielou, Allen. Hindu Polytheism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1964.
• Hutton, Ronald. The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
• Lindow, John. Handbook of Norse mythology. Santa Barbara, CAL : ABC-CLIO, 2001.
• Ochshorn, Judith. The Female Experience and the Nature of the Divine. Bloomington: India University Press, 1981.
• "Polytheism." Encyclopedia of Religion, Mercia Eliade, ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987.

External links

• godchecker.com – a very lighthearted and irreverent God database
• The Association of Polytheist Traditions - APT A UK-based community of Polytheists with a website and a discussion group open to non-members, and a closed list for paid-up members.
• BritPoly discussion group The Association of Polytheist Tradition's (APT) discussion group open to non-members. All polytheists are welcome, though the emphasis and style of the group is based on that of the UK.

• [1] The Pagan Federation - A predominantly polytheistic educational and campaigning organisation serving the Pagan community.

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