Liezi

The Liezi (Chinese: 列子; pinyin: Lièzĭ; Wade-Giles: Lieh Tzu; literally "[Book of] Master Lie") is a Daoist text attributed to Lie Yukou, a circa 5th century B.C.E. Hundred Schools of Thought philosopher, but Chinese and Western scholars believe it was compiled around the 4th century CE.

Lie Yukou (Chinese: 列圄寇/列禦寇; pinyin: Lìe Yǔkòu; Wade-Giles: Lieh Yü-k'ou; fl. ca. 400 B.C.E.) is considered the author of the Daoist book Liezi, which uses his honorific name Liezi (列子; Lièzĭ; Lieh-tzu; "Master Lie"). The second Chinese character in Yukou is written kou 寇 "bandit; enemy"; the first is written yu 圄 "imprison", yu 禦 "resist; ward off", or occasionally yu 御 "drive (carriage); ride (horse); control" (the Zhuangzi claims Liezi could yufeng 御風 "ride the wind").

Since there is little historical evidence of Lie Yukou as a Hundred Schools of Thought philosopher during the Warring States Period, some scholars believe that the Zhuangzi invented him as a Daoist exemplar. Frederic H. Balfour, who translated several Daoist texts, called Liezi "a philosopher who never lived" (1887:?) Lionel Giles expresses doubt in his Introduction:

Very little is known of our author beyond what he tells us himself. His full name was [Lie Yukou], and it appears that he was living in the [Zheng] State not long before the year 398 B.C.E., when the Prime Minister [Zi] Yang was killed in a revolution. He figures prominently in the pages of [Zhuangzi], from whom we learn that he could 'ride upon the wind'. On the insufficient ground that he is not mentioned by the historian Sima Qian, a certain critic of the [Song] dynasty was led to declare that [Liezi] was only a fictitious personage invented by [Zhuangzi], and that the treatise which passes under his name was a forgery of later times. This theory is rejected by the compilers of the [great Catalogue of Qianlong Emperor's Library], who represent the cream of Chinese scholarship in the eighteenth century." (Giles 1912:12-13)[1]

Textual history

The first two references to the Liezi book are from the Former Han Dynasty. The editor Liu Xiang notes he eliminated repetitions in Liezi and rearranged it into eight chapters (pian 篇). The Book of Han bibliography section (藝文志) says it has eight chapters (篇) and concludes that since the Zhuangzi quotes Liezi, he must have lived before Zhuangzi. There is a three-century historical gap until the next evidence of the Liezi: the Jin Dynasty commentary by Zhang Zhan 張湛 (fl. ca. 370 C.E.). Zhang's preface claims his Liezi copy was transmitted down from his grandfather. All received Liezi texts derive from Zhang's version, which is divided into eight chapters (zhuan 巻).

During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, the Liezi was designated a Daoist classic, completing the trilogy with the more famous Daodejing and Zhuangzi, and it was honorifically entitled the Chongxu zhenjing (沖虛真經; "True Classic of Simplicity and Vacuity", a.k.a. "Classic of Perfect Emptiness"). This "Simplicity and Vacuity" is Wing-tsit Chan's translation; chongxu (literally "soar/young/simple empty/skies/modest") usually means "soar aloft, rise high; carefree, unburdened with ambition". During the reign of Emperor Zhenzong of Song, the Liezi was further honored as the Chongxu zhide zhenjing (沖虛至德真經; “True Classic of Simplicity and Vacuity and Perfect Virtue”).

Contents

The eight Liezi chapters are shown below (with the titles translations adapted from Graham 1960).

Chapter	Chinese	Pinyin	Translation
1	天瑞	Tian Rui	Heaven's Gifts
2	黃帝	Huang Di	The Yellow Emperor
3	周穆王	Zhou Mu Wang	King Mu of Zhou
4	仲尼	Zhong Ni	Confucius
5	湯問	Tang Wen	The Questions of Tang
6	力命	Li Ming	Endeavor and Destiny
7	楊朱	Yang Chu	Yang Chu
8	說符	Shuo Fu	Explaining Conjunctions

Most Liezi chapters are named after famous figures in Chinese mythology and history. Either sage rulers like the Yellow Emperor (supposedly r. 2698?-2599? BCE), King Tang of Shang (r. 1617?-1588? BCE), and King Mu of Zhou (r. 1023?-983? BCE); or philosophers like Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and Yang Zhu (fl. ca. 350 B.C.E.).

The Liezi is generally considered to be the most practical of the major Daoist works, compared to the philosophical writings of Laozi and the poetic narrative of Zhuangzi. Although the Liezi has not been extensively published in the West, some passages are well known. For example, Gengsangzi (庚桑子; cf. Zhuangzi chap. 23) gives this description of Daoist pure experience:

My body is in accord with my mind, my mind with my energies, my energies with my spirit, my spirit with Nothing. Whenever the minutest existing thing or the faintest sound affects me, whether it is far away beyond the eight borderlands, or close at hand between my eyebrows and eyelashes, I am bound to know it. However, I do not know whether I perceived it with the seven holes in my head and my four limbs, or knew it though my heart and belly and internal organs. It is simply self-knowledge. (chap. 4, tr. Graham 1990:77-78)

Compare the Zhuangzi saying, "The Perfect Man uses his mind like a mirror — going after nothing, welcoming nothing, responding but not storing. Therefore he can win out over things and not hurt himself." (chap. 7, tr. Watson[2])

Authenticity

Liezi scholars have long recognized that it shares many passages with other pre-Han texts like the Zhuangzi, Daodejing, and Lüshi chunqiu (呂氏春秋; "Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals"; 3rd century B.C.E.). Barrett (1993:298) says opinion is "divided as to whether it is an ancient work with later interpolations or a forgery confected from ancient sources." On the one hand, the Liezi could contain a core of circa 400 B.C.E. authentic writings of Lie Yukou; on the other hand, it could be a circa 400 C.E. compilation forged by Zhang Zhan.

The Liezi is most similar with the Zhuangzi. They share many characters and stories; Graham (1990:12) lists sixteen complete episodes plus sections from others. The Zhuangzi also mentions Liezi in four chapters and Lie Yukou in three. For example, this famous passage:

[Liezi] could ride the wind and go soaring around with cool and breezy skill, but after fifteen days he came back to earth. As far as the search for good fortune went, he didn't fret and worry. He escaped the trouble of walking, but he still had to depend on something to get around. If he had only mounted on the truth of Heaven and Earth, ridden the changes of the six breaths, and thus wandered through the boundless, then what would he have had to depend on? Therefore I say, the Perfect Man has no self; the Holy Man has no merit; the Sage has no fame. (chap. 1, tr. Watson)

The final two chapters have heterogeneous contents that differ from the Daoism elsewhere in the book. Chapter 7 records the Hedonist philosophy of "Yang Zhu" (Yangzi), infamous for the criticism of Mencius that he, "believed in 'every man for himself.' If he could have helped the whole world by plucking out a single hair, he would not have done it." (chap. 7A, tr. Muller) Zhang Zhan speculates that this chapter, focusing on indulgence in physical and temporary pleasures, was from Lie Yuko's earlier years as a hedonist, before he became a Daoist. The well-known scholar of Chinese philosophy, Wing-Tsit Chan (1963:309) calls the "Yang Zhu" chapter "negative Daoism" in contrast with the Daoism of Laozi, Zhuangzi, and Huainanzi that were "all positive in that each represents something new." Chapter 8, "Explaining Conjunctions," is primarily taken from other early sources, not only Daoist but Confucian and Mohist texts, two philosophies that opposed the philosophical Daoism this book expounds.

Angus C. Graham, Professor Emeritus of the School of Oriental and African Studies, illuminated the textual provenance. After translating Liezi (1960), which Barrett (1993:307) calls undoubtedly "the best translation into a Western language to date", Graham (1961) linguistically analyzed internal evidence and textual parallels. He discovered many cases where the Liezi is clearly secondary to other texts, but none where it is the primary source for a passage. The Preface to the revised Liezi translation (1990:xi-xv) explains his significant change in attitude.

Although in 1960 most scholars in China already recognized the late date of [Liezi], most Westerners were still disinclined to question its antiquity. My own textual studies, not yet completed when this translation first appeared, supported the Chinese dating, which by now prevails also in the West. … One result of the textual investigation came as a surprise to me. The present book describes the hedonist 'Yang [Zhu]' chapter as 'so unlike the rest of [Liezi] that it must be from another hand … The thought is certainly very different, and it does show the signs of editing and interpolation by the Taoist author … But although close scrutiny generally reveals marked differences in style between the body of the book and passages borrowed from earlier sources, I could find none to distinguish the hedonist chapter from the rest. (1990:xiii)

Owing to occasional Liezi textual misunderstandings in Zhang Zhan's commentary, Graham concludes that the "guiding hand" probably belonged to Zhang's father or grandfather, which would mean circa 300 C.E.

Suggestions of Buddhist influences in Liezi chapters 3 and 6 are potentially corroborating evidence for a late date of composition; see Buddhism in China. "King Mu of Zhou" discusses sense perceptions as illusions; "Endeavor and Destiny" takes a fatalistic (if not karmic) view of destiny, which goes against the traditional Daoist concept of Wuwei.

Translations

There are fewer English translations of the Liezi than other Daoist texts. The first were partial versions; Lionel Giles (1912) translated chapters 1-6 and 8, while Anton Forke (1912) covered chapter 7 ("Yang Zhu"). As mentioned above, A.C. Graham (1960, 1990) wrote a definitive scholarly translation. The most recent Liezi rendition is by Eva Wong (2001).

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Barrett, T.H. "Lieh tzu 列子". In Michael Loewe, ed., Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, pp. 298-308. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China. 1993. ISBN 1557290431.
• Balfour, Frederic H. Leaves from my Chinese Scrapbook. London: Trubner. 1887. Reprint. 2001.
• Chan Wing-Tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NH: Princeton University Press. 1963. ISBN 0691019649
• Giles, Lionel, tr. Taoist Teachings from the Book of Lieh-Tzŭ. London: Wisdom of the East. 1912.
• Forke, Anton, tr. Yang Chu's Garden of Pleasure. London: Wisdom of the East. 1912. (chapter 7)
• Graham, A.C. "The Date and Composition of Liehtzyy," Asia Major 8, pp. 139-198. 1961.
• Graham, A.C., tr. The Book of Lieh-tzǔ: A Classic of Tao. New York: Columbia University Press. 1960, revised 1990. ISBN 0-231-07237-6
• Lafitte, J-J, tr. Traité du vide parfait. Paris: Albin Michel. 1997. ISBN 2-226-09426-1 (in French)
• Wong, Eva, tr. Lieh-Tzu: A Taoist Guide to Practical Living. 2001. Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 1570628998

External links

• Lieh-tzu: A Biographical Note, Taoism Initiation Page
• Taoist Teachings Translated from the 'Book of Lieh-Tzu', Giles' translation, Internet Sacred Text Archive
• Liezi, Laurenţiu Teodorescu
• Liezi, Taoist Culture & Information Centre
• Lieh Tzu, Overview of World Religions
• Lieh Tzu, Ancient Landmarks
• Lieh-tzu or the Ch'ung-hsu chen-ching, Taoism Initiation Page
• Taoist Teachings Translated from the Book of Lieh-Tzu, Giles' translation, Internet Sacred Text Archive
• Yang Chu's Garden of Pleasure, Forke's translation, Internet Sacred Text Archive
• Liezi 列子, Chinese Text Project (in Chinese)

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

• Liezi  ^history
• Lie_Yukou  ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

• History of "Liezi"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.