Isvara

Ishvara (ईश्वर in devanagari script, Classical pronunciation /i:ɕvərə/), also variously transliterated (romanized) as Ishvar, Īśvara, etc. (Sanskrit: "the Supreme Lord, and hence the Cosmic Controller") is a Hindu philosophical concept of God meaning 'that entity or the Supreme Being which is the lord and the ruler of everything'. When referring to God as female, particularly in Shaktism, the feminine "Ishvari" is sometimes used. Hinduism uses the term Ishvara exclusively to refer to the Supreme God in a monotheistic sense. This conception of god is very often personalistic; however, the term should not be confused with the various Hindu deities or devas, since Ishavara is no one specific deity but rather a general concept of the supreme divine. Often in popular speech the Hindu terms Ishvara, Paramatman and Bhagavan are used interchangeably for God, however each word has its own specific meaning in the original scriptural context.

Etymology & Early Usage

Isvara can be used interchangably with terms such as isa and isana, all of which can be translated as "lord" or "possessor of power", and share a common derivation from the Sanskrit verb root īś, meaning to "have power". This root is often used in the Rg Veda to describe the powers of specific deities, indicating their dominion over aspects of the cosmos or the natural world. While supreme lordship is not fixed enduringly upon any particular deity, certain gods such as Rudra and Indra are awarded the title isana or "ruling one" in recognition of their exceptional power. In the Atharvaveda Samhita and the Taittiriya Brahmana, Isana is a title referring specifically to the "lord" or "master" of the universe. The term isvara first itself appears in the Atharvaveda Samhita, designating presiding powers, but also to identify the original cosmic man Purusha, who sacrificed himself allowing for the creation of the universe from his severed parts. This concept is further developed in Upanishadic texts, particularly the Svetasvatara, with the description of the Supreme Lord who spawned the entirety of the cosmos and who provides liberation to individual souls. Isvara, isa and isana are all used to describe this being.

It was in the post-Vedic literature, especially the Bhagavadgita, where the term Ishvara took on a meaning which most closely resembles the modern usage of the term. With Krishna, the abstract notion of the supreme divine now has a highly personalized figure attached to it. This is obvious in the Gita, where Krishna is referred to as bhutanam isvarah, "the lord of all creatures, as well as "the highest person." Further, the soul of each human individual presiding in the physical world is identified with the supreme self, which serves as his or her internal guide. This personalistic notion of god is prescribed to be the focal point of one's personal religious concentration. Thus, Ishvara had come to full fruition as the notion of god who was the ground of all existence, while also being worth of an individual's unquestioning devotion, or bhakti.

Ishvara in Indian Philosophical Schools

Of the six major schools of Hindu philosophy, only two, Samkhya and Mimamsa, do not acknowledge the concept of Ishvara. The four remaining schools, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Nyaya, have each developed their own notion of Ishvara, though the debate over the nature of Ishavara has been most extensive in the Vedanta school.

Vedanta

Advaita (or "non-dualistic") Vedanata holds that Ishvara is a creation of the limited, finite human mind. Brahman, the monistic essence of the universe, is the only thing that truly exists, and everything other individual things perceived in the universe is essentially an illusion. Ishvara, since it takes on a personal form, is part of this illusion, since it has taken on such particular qualities as personality, motherhood, and fatherhood, among others, which Shankara perceived to be projections of human attributes open the divine. Perception of such qualities within God, he claimed, is ultimately based on ignorance or maya. Thus Ishvara is only a part of the "Nirguna Brahman", the aspect of the greater Brahman which does not have qualities and cannot be perceived, and is therefore subordinate to it. Advaita Vedanta accepts the fact that acknowledgement of Ishvara may be helpful in aiding individuals toward the divine. However, such an acknowledgement creates an affirmation of dualism between the ultimate Brahman and the human soul (atman), and must be overcome if an individual wishes

Visistadvaita (or "qualified non-dualistic") attributes Ishvara with more significance when compared to Brahman. Rather than relegating Ishvara beneath the featureless Brahman, the innumerable auspicious qualities of Ishvara's character are celebrated. Ishvara is said to be omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, Creator of the world, its active ruler and also the eventual destroyer. He is causeless, eternal and unchangeable — and is yet the material and the efficient cause of the world. He is both immanent (like whiteness in milk) and transcendent (like a watch-maker independent of a watch). He is the subject of worship. Thus, Ishvara is not merely a human projection, but rather the Supreme Cosmic Spirit who maintains complete control over the Universe and all the sentient beings. Together these beings and the universe form the pan-organistic body of Ishvara. Thus, individual souls are only a part of god and therefore cannot be said to be equivalent to him. The triad of Ishvara along with the universe and the sentient beings is Brahman, the monistic essence of all existence. Ramanuja, the chief proponent of Visistadvaita, most often equated Ishvara with Vishnu. According to Ramanuja, the goal of religious activity should be to surrender oneself to Ishvara in devotion, a process known as bhakti.

Unlike the other Vedanta schools, Dvaita ("dualism") Vedanta considers Ishvara to be the efficient but not the material cause of the universe. Thus, Ishvara exists totally separate from the material world and the sentient beings within it. Drawing upon the cosmological argument, Dvaita claims that Ishvara's creation alone suggests his irreconcilable transcendence. Ishvara's personalistic attribtues do not mitigate his supremacy, since each one of His characteristics is fully perfected. Dvaita followers claim that a conception of the divine without such attributes is impractical in the context of everyday worship, and therefore have little use for the concept of the incorporeal, nirguna Brahman. Instead, Ishvara alone is the highest form of truth and one must devote themselves unselfishly to this infinite and yet personal being if they wish to attain salvation. This viewpoint closely resembles western theism which is the standard in Abrahamic faiths.

Other Schools

Other orthodox Hindu schools developed their own unique understandings of Ishvara. The Yoga school, founded by Patanjali acknowledges the existence of Isvara, although He is neither the efficient or material cause of the cosmos. Instead, his role is a highly practical one, as he serves as an object of concentration for the yogic practicioner. Yogins are to focus upon Isvara as a representation of absolute freedom, where spirit (or purusha) has been freed from the fetters of material existence. Devotion to Isvara (or isvarapranidhana), then, is strictly an intellectual exercize.

Later Nyaya thinkers, putting forward various logical arguments for the existence of God, also drew upon some distinctly theistic ideas. Udayana's Nyaya Kusumanjali suggests that God must exist since every effect is produced by a cause, thus the universe itself must also have a cause. This was Ishvara, the possessor of all the material within creation. It is Ishvara who joins together atoms in an orderly fashion, and it is Ishvara who maintains the world's continual integration. According to the Nyaya school, Ishvara is the source of all knowledge, and is credited with authorship of the Vedas, all because his existence logically explains the existence of each of these aspects of reality. Ishvara also determines the fruits of actions, upholding the laws of karma. Furthermore, this being can only be one, since arguments for the existence of multiple divine beings would inevitably be illogical. Since this entity is not seen in the material world, Nyaya considered him to be outside of it. The Vaisesika school was also atomistic, and, like Nyaya claimed that that the interactions of different types of atoms leading to the creation of new material had to be directed by the will of a higher power, that is, Ishvara.

Contemporary Worship

In addition to their belief in the abstract principle of Brahman, most Hindus worship God on a day-to-day basis in personalistic forms. However, these forms are considerably less abstract than Ishvara proper. In accordance, the worship of specific deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, or Shakti, among others, has become very prevalent. Therefore, the modern Hindus conceive not only as an abstract principle or concept, but also as a personal being, much like God in the Judeo-Christian religions.

Some schools have gone further, elevating the personalistic Ishvara, above and beyond the indescribable Brahman. Devotional monotheistic schools of contemporary times, such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism, worship their chosen supreme deities (Vishnu and Shiva respectively) as the one and only Ishvara. Also, contemporary adherents to the tradition Gaudiya Vaishnavism, such as International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), hold that Krishna is the supreme personality in the universe, representing the monistic essence of all being, including Brahman.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Myers, Michael W. Brahman: A Comparative Theology. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2001. ISBN 0700712577
• Sinha, H.P. Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā. (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publishers, 1993. ISBN 81-208-2144-0
• Sullivan, H.P. "Isvara." Encyclopedia of Religion. Edited by Mercia Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 498-499. ISBN 0029098505
• Swami Bhaskarananda, The Essentials of Hinduism. Viveka Press, 1994. ISBN 1-884852-02-5

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