Difference between revisions of "Hieroglyph" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
Line 6: Line 6:
 
[[Image:Foster Beach Hieroglyph.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A Hieroglyph found on The rocks on [[Chicago_beaches#Foster_Avenue_Beach|Foster Beach]] in [[Chicago]] ]]
 
[[Image:Foster Beach Hieroglyph.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A Hieroglyph found on The rocks on [[Chicago_beaches#Foster_Avenue_Beach|Foster Beach]] in [[Chicago]] ]]
  
−
A '''hieroglyph''' is a character of a [[logographic]] or partly logographic writing system. The term originally referred to the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], but is also applied to the ancient [[Cretan hieroglyphs|Cretan]] [[Anatolian hieroglyphs|Luwian]], [[Mayan hieroglyphs|Mayan]] and [[Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing|Mi'kmaq]] scripts, and occasionally also to [[Chinese character]]s. It was also used by Ancient Egyptians. Ancient Egyptian writing consisted of over 2,000 hieroglyphic characters where as the English only consists of 26. Each hieroglyphic characters represent a common object from their day.
+
A '''hieroglyph''' is a character used in a system of pictoral writing, and derives from the Greek term for “sacred carving,” translated from the Egyptian phrase “the god’s words.” The term originally referred only to the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], but was later also applied to ancient [[Cretan hieroglyphs| Cretan]], [[Anatolian hieroglyphs|Luwian]], [[Mayan hieroglyphs|Mayan]] and [[Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing|Mi'kmaq]] scripts. Despite<ref>2008. There is no connection between Egyptian hieroglyphs and other hieroflyphic scripts; all evolved independently of one another. <ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/265009/hieroglyph  Hieroglyph].<I> Encyclopædia Britannica</I>. Retrieved December 08, 2008.</ref>
  
 
==Etymology==
 
==Etymology==
−
The word ''Hieroglyphs'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words {{polytonic|ἱερός}} (''hierós'' 'sacred') and γλύφειν (''glúphein'' 'to carve' or 'to write', see ''[[glyph]]''), and was first used to describe [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]]. The Greeks who came to Egypt prior to and during the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic Period]] (305 B.C.E. - 30 B.C.E.) observed that while [[Demotic (Egyptian)|demotic]] script was employed for secular documents, pictorial characters were frequently found in religious contexts - carved on temple walls and funerary structures, as well as on official monuments.
+
The word ''Hieroglyphs'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words {{polytonic|ἱερός}} (''hierós'' 'sacred') and γλύφειν (''glúphein'' 'to carve' or 'to write', see ''[[glyph]]''. This was translated from the Egyptian phrase “the god’s words,” a phrase that showed hieroglyphic writing was used predominantly for religious or sacred purposes.  
  
−
The word "hieroglyphics" is derived from the fact that the Greeks called Egyptian hieroglyphs {{polytonic|τά ἱερογλυφικά γράμματα}} 'hieroglyphic letters'; however, they sometimes simply dropped the word {{polytonic|γράμματα}}, "letters," calling them {{polytonic|τά ἱερογλυφικά}} 'the hieroglyphics' ('letters' being understood). This was used in informal use.
+
The term “hieroglyphics,” used as a noun, was once commonly used, but now denotes more informal usage. In academic circles, the term “hieroglyphs” has replaced “hieroglyphic” to refer to both the language as a whole and the individual characters that compose it. “Hieroglyphic” is still used as an adjective (e.g., a hieroglyphic writing system).
  
−
In the same way, although the term "hieroglyphics" is still used today, this usage adds a tone of informality (such as in the above example of Greek practice). An alternative is to use the noun "hieroglyphs" for both the language as a whole and for the individual characters that compose it, or to use the term "hieroglyphic" as an adjective (e.g., a hieroglyphic writing system).
 
  
−
==Types==
+
==Major Hieroglyphic Writing Systems==
  
 
===Egyptian hieroglyphs===
 
===Egyptian hieroglyphs===
 
{{Main|Egyptian hieroglyphs}}
 
{{Main|Egyptian hieroglyphs}}
 
[[Image:Egypt Hieroglyphe4.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Hieroglyphs typical of the Graeco-Roman period]]
 
[[Image:Egypt Hieroglyphe4.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Hieroglyphs typical of the Graeco-Roman period]]
−
'''Egyptian hieroglyphs''' ({{pronEng|ˈhaɪərəʊɡlɪf}}; from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc-Grek|ἱερογλύφος}} "[[hieros|sacred]] [[glyph|carving]]," also '''hieroglyphic''' = {{lang|grc-Grek|τὰ ἱερογλυφικά [γράμματα]}}) was a formal [[writing system]] used by the [[ancient Egypt]]ians that contained a combination of [[logograph]]ic and [[alphabet]]ic elements. Egyptians used [[cursive hieroglyphs]] for religious literature on [[papyrus]] and wood. Less formal variations of the script, called [[hieratic]] and [[demotic (Egyptian)|demotic]], are technically not hieroglyphs. Hieroglyphs consist of three kinds of glyphs: phonetic glyphs, including single-consonant characters that functioned like an alphabet; logographs, representing [[morpheme]]s; and determinatives, which narrowed down the [[semantics|meaning]] of a logographic or phonetic words.
+
'''Egyptian hieroglyphs''' are a the most well-known hieroglyphic writing system, and the one from which the term “hieroglyphic” originated. This formal [[writing system]] used by the [[ancient Egypt]]ians consists of a combination of phonetic signs, ideograms, and determinatives. Phonetic signs work like letters of an alphabet: a single sign stands for a letter (or combination of letters.) Ideograms are made from signs that are accompanied by a verticle line, which indicates that the sign stands for the object it represents. Determinatives appear, when needed, at the end of a word, and give a clue as to the meaning of a word.<ref>Loy, Jim. 1997. [http://www.jimloy.com/hiero/types.htm Types of Signs in Egyptian.] Retrieved December 8, 2008.</ref>
  
−
Hieroglyphs emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on [[Gerzean]] pottery from ''circa'' 4000 B.C.E. resemble hieroglyphic writing. For many years the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the [[Narmer Palette]], found during excavations at [[Hierakonpolis]] (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to ''circa'' 3200 B.C.E. However, in 1998 a German archaeological team under [[Günter Dreyer]] excavating at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] (modern [[Umm el-Qa'ab]]) uncovered tomb U-j of a [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic]] ruler, and recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with [[proto-hieroglyphs]], dating to the [[Naqada IIIA]] period of the 33rd century B.C.E.<ref>[http://www.exn.ca/egypt/story.asp?st=Lifestyles The origins of writing], [[Discovery Channel]] (1998-12-15)</ref><ref>Richard Mattessich  (Jun 2002) [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_200206/ai_n9107461 The oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt], ''The Accounting Historians Journal''.</ref> The first full sentence written in hieroglyphs so far discovered was found on a seal impression found in the tomb of [[Seth-Peribsen]] at Umm el-Qa'ab, which dates from the [[Second dynasty of Egypt|Second Dynasty]]. In the era of the [[Old Kingdom]], the [[Middle Kingdom]] and the [[New Kingdom]], about 800 hieroglyphs existed. By the [[Greco-Roman]] period, they numbered more than 5,000.<ref>Antonio Loprieno, <cite>Ancient Egyptian; A Linguistic Introduction</cite>, Cambridge University Press, 1995 p.12</ref>
+
Egyptian hieroglyphs were used mainly for formal inscriptions (hence their name, which translates to “the god’s words”.) Everyday writing, such as record keeping or letter writing, used the Hieratic script, a simplified version of hieroglyphic writing. Hieratic script is structurally the same as hieroglyphic writing, but people, animals, and objects are no longer recognizeable.  
  
−
===Cursive hieroglyphs===
+
One of the oldest and most famous examples of Egyptian hieroglyphs can be found on the [[Narmer Palette]], a shield shaped palette that dates to around 3200 B.C.E. The palette was discovered in 1898 by archaeologist James Quibell in the ancient city of Nekhen (currently Hierakonpolis), believed to be the Pre-Dynastic capital of Upper Egypt. The palette is believed to be a gift offering from King Narmer to the god Amun-Ra. Narmer’s name is written at the top on both the front and back of the palette.<ref> Jourdan, Francesca. [[http://www.ptahhotep.com/articles/Narmer_palette.html The Narmer Palette.]] Retrieved December 8, 2008.</ref>
−
{{Main|Cursive hieroglyphs}}
+
 
−
[[Image:Papyrus Ani_curs_hiero.jpg|thumb|right|A section of the [[Papyrus of Ani]] showing cursive hieroglyphs.]]
+
Egyptian hieroglypic writing used a core of about 800 hieroglyphs. This number varied; during the [[Greco-Roman]] period, more than 5,000 hieroglyphs were in use.<ref>Antonio Loprieno, <cite>Ancient Egyptian; A Linguistic Introduction</cite>, Cambridge University Press, 1995 p.12</ref> Interestingly enough, hieroglyphic writing did not incorporate vowel sounds.
  
−
'''Cursive hieroglyphs''' are a variety of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] commonly used for religious documents written on [[papyrus]], such as the [[Book of the Dead|Book of the Dead]]. It was particularly common during the [[Ramesside Period]] and many famous documents, such as the [[Papyrus of Ani]], utilize it. It was also employed on wood for religious literature such as the [[Coffin Texts]].
 
  
−
Cursive hieroglyphs should not be confused with [[hieratic]]. Hieratic is much more cursive, having large numbers of [[Ligature (palaeography)|ligatures]] and signs unique to hieratic. However, there is, as might be expected, a certain degree of influence from hieratic in the visual appearance of some signs. One significant difference is that the orientation of cursive hieroglyphs is variable, reading right to left or left to right depending on the context, whereas hieratic is always read right to left.<ref>Davies 1990:93</ref>
 
  
 
===Dongba script===
 
===Dongba script===
 
{{Main|Dongba script}}
 
{{Main|Dongba script}}
 
[[Image:Painted Naxi panel.jpeg|thumb|250 px|left|An old Naxi painted storyboard]]
 
[[Image:Painted Naxi panel.jpeg|thumb|250 px|left|An old Naxi painted storyboard]]
−
The '''Dongba''', '''Tomba''' or '''Tompa''' script is a [[pictographic]] writing system used by the ''[[Dongba|²dto¹mba]]'' (Bon priests) of the [[Naxi people]]. In the [[Naxi language]] it is called ''²ss ³dgyu'' 'wood records' or ''²lv ³dgyu'' 'stone records'<ref>He, 292</ref>. Together with the syllabic [[geba script|''geba'']] and the [[Latin alphabet]], it is one of the three types of [[Naxi script]]s. Dongba script is about a thousand years old. Although the glyphs look like crude pictographs that only represent simple materialistic objects, they are actually ideograms capable of representing abstract ideas. <ref>He, 2008, p.146</ref>  Dongba writings are sometimes used as a [[rebus]]. It is a mnemonic system, and cannot by itself represent the Naxi language; different authors may use the same glyphs with different meanings, and it is often supplemented with the syllabic ''geba'' script for clarification.  
+
The '''Dongba''', '''Tomba''' or '''Tompa''' script is a [[pictographic]] writing system used by the priests of the [[Naxi people]], an ethnic minority found mainly near the Yangtze River in China, as well as Tibet. The Dongba script is unique in that it is the only living pictographic language in the world; Naxi priests still use the Dongba script to create manuscripts for ceremonies like funerals and blessings.<ref>Wiens, Mi Chu. 1999. [[http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9906/naxi1.html Living Pictographs.]] Library of Congress. Retrieved December 8, 2008.</ref>
 +
 
 +
The origin of the Dongba script is a matter of legend and debate. It is likely that the script has been in use for close to one thousand years, and was widely used by the tenth century. Both the Naxi language and script were suppressed after the Communist victory and during China’s Cultural Revolution in the 1960’s, but efforts have been made to revive interest in the language.  
 +
 
 +
The Dongba script consists of about 1,400 symbols. Ninety percent of these are pictograms, although some are used to represent phonetic values. The Naxi language is also written using Geba (a script more similar to Chinese character writing) or a Latin alphabet writing system based on Pinyin.<ref>Ager, Simon. 2008. [[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/naxi.htm Naxi Scripts.]] Omniglot. Retrieved December 8, 2008.</ref>
  
 
{|
 
{|
Line 41: Line 42:
 
| [[Image:Naxi manuscript (left) 2087.jpg|237px]]||[[Image:Naxi manuscript (right) 2088.jpg|244px]]
 
| [[Image:Naxi manuscript (left) 2087.jpg|237px]]||[[Image:Naxi manuscript (right) 2088.jpg|244px]]
 
|}
 
|}
−
The Dongba script is an independently developed ancient writing system. According to Dongba religious fables, the Dongba script was created by the founder of the [[Bön]] religious tradition of Tibet, Tönpa Shenrab (Tibetan: ston pa gshen rab) or Shenrab Miwo (Tibetan: gshen rab mi bo)<ref>He, 144</ref>. Unfortunately, there is currently no accurate record of the exact date of the Dongba script origin and many suspected that the fables provided only fictional explanation to the foundation of this script. From Chinese historical documents, however, it is certain that Naxi script was used as early as the 7th century during the early [[Tang Dynasty]]. By the [[Song Dynastry]] in 10th century, Dongba script was widely used by the [[Naxi]] people.<ref>He, 144</ref>
 
  
 +
 +
===Mayan hieroglyphs===
 +
{{Main|Mayan hieroglyphs}}
 +
[[Image:NaranjoStela10Maler.jpg|190px|right|thumb|An inscription in Maya glyphs from the site of [[Naranjo]], relating to the reign of king ''Itzamnaaj K'awil'', 784-810.]]
 +
The '''Mayan script''', also known as '''Mayan hieroglyphs''', was the [[Writing systems|writing system]] of the [[pre-Columbian]] [[Mayan civilization]] of [[Mesoamerica]], and consisted of a highly elaborate set of glyphs, which were laboriously painted on ceramics, walls or bark-paper [[codex|codices]], carved in wood or stone, or molded in [[stucco]]. While the earliest known Mayan script is dated around 250 B.C.E., the script may have been developed much earlier. The Mayan civilization itself may have developed as early as 3,000 B.C.E. The Yucatec Maya used the script up until the sixteenth century.
 +
 +
The Mayan script is made up of about 550 logograms (representing whole words,) and 150 syllabograms (representing syllables,) as well as glyphs for the names of places and gods. For much of modern history, it was commonly believed that the Mayan script was not a complete writing system, and did not actually represent a language. In the 1950’s, Russian ethnologist Yuri Valentinovich Knorosov correctly suggested the script was partly phonetic and represented the Yucatec Mayan language. Today, most Mayan texts can be interpreted.<ref>Ager, Simon. 2008. [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/mayan.htm Mayan Script.] Omniglot. Retrieved December 8, 2008.</ref>
 +
 
===Cretan hieroglyphs===
 
===Cretan hieroglyphs===
 
{{Main|Cretan hieroglyphs}}
 
{{Main|Cretan hieroglyphs}}
−
'''Cretan hieroglyphs''' are  found on artifacts of [[Bronze Age]] [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[Crete]] (early to mid 2nd millennium B.C.E., [[Minoan chronology|MM I to MM III]], overlapping with [[Linear A]] from MM IIA at the earliest). Symbol inventories have been compiled by Evans (1909), Meijer (1982), Olivier/Godart (1996). The known corpus has been edited in 1996 as ''CHIC'' (Olivier/Godard 1996), listing a total of 314 items, mainly excavated at four locations:
+
'''Cretan hieroglyphs''' were discovered by the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans, who is perhaps most well known for his excavations of the palace he named [[Knossos]] at [[Crete]], as well as the discovery of the [[Minoan]] civilization that inhabited it
−
*"Quartier Mu" at [[Malia (city)|Malia]] (MM II)
 
−
*the hieroglyphic deposit at Malia palace (MM III)
 
−
*the hieroglyphic deposit at [[Knossos]] (MM II or III)
 
−
*the [[Petras]] deposit (MM IIB).
 
−
 
 
−
The corpus consists of:
 
−
*clay documents with incised inscriptions (CHIC H: 1-122)
 
−
*sealstone impressions (CHIC I: 123-179)
 
−
*sealstones (CHIC S: 180-314)
 
−
*the [[Malia altar stone]]
 
−
*the [[Phaistos Disk]]
 
−
*the [[Arkalochori Axe]]
 
−
*seal fragment HM 992, showing a single symbol, identical to  Phaistos Disk glyph 21.
 
  
−
The relation of the last three items with the script of the main corpus is uncertain.
+
Cretan hieroglyphs are the first of three scripts discovered at Knossos, and are thought to date around 2000 B.C.E. This script was found on [[Bronze Age]] clay tablets and sealstones at Knossos, as well as artifacts from the Minoan Palace at [[Petras]] in eastern Crete.
  
−
The glyph inventory as presented by CHIC consists of 96 syllabograms, ten of which double as logograms, an additional 23 logograms, 13 fractions (including 4 in ligature), four levels of numerals (units, tens, hundreds, thousands) and two types of punctuation. Many symbols have apparent [[Linear A]] counterparts, so that it is tempting to insert [[Linear B]] sound values.
+
Later scripts, known as [[Linear A]] and [[Linear B]], may have evolved from these hieroglyphs. Linear A is thought to date to 1850-1700 B.C.E..; the original pictograms present in the hieroglyphic script have been reduced to a more linear form.<ref>[http://www.athenapub.com/11mnwrit.htm Bronze Age Writing on Crete: Hieroglyphs, Linear A, and Linear B,] Athena Review, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2004. Retrieved January 14, 2009.</ref>
−
 
 
−
Besides the supposed evolution of the hieroglyphs into the linear scripts, possible relations to [[Anatolian hieroglyph]]s were suggested, as well as to the [[Cypriot syllabary]].
 
  
 +
The Cretan hieroglyphic script contained over one hundred pictograms, including representations of a lyre, carpenter’s tools, dog heads, and bees.<ref>Evans, Arthur. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2842725 Writing in Prehistoric Greece,] The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 30, p.91, 1900. Retrieved January 14, 2009.</ref>
  
 
===Anatolian hieroglyphs===
 
===Anatolian hieroglyphs===
 
{{Main|Anatolian hieroglyphs}}
 
{{Main|Anatolian hieroglyphs}}
 
[[Image:Troy VIIb hieroglyphic seal reverse.png|thumb|160px|Drawing of the hieroglyphic seal found in the [[Troy VIIb]] layer.]]
 
[[Image:Troy VIIb hieroglyphic seal reverse.png|thumb|160px|Drawing of the hieroglyphic seal found in the [[Troy VIIb]] layer.]]
−
'''Anatolian hieroglyphs''' are an indigenous [[logographic]] script native to central '''[[Anatolia]]''', consisting of some 500 signs. They were once commonly known as '''Hittite hieroglyphs''', but the language they encode proved to be [[Hieroglyphic Luwian|Luwian]], not [[Hittite language|Hittite]], and the term '''Luwian hieroglyphs''' is used in English publications. They are typologically similar to [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s, but do not derive graphically from that script, and they are not known to have played the sacred role of hieroglyphs in Egypt. There is no demonstrable connection to [[Hittite cuneiform]].<ref>A. Payne, ''Hieroglyphic Luwian'' (2004), p. 1.</ref> <ref>Melchert, H. Craig. 2004. "Luvian," in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'', ed. Roger D. Woodard. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56256-2</ref> <ref>Melchert, H. Craig. 1996. "Anatolian Hieroglyphs," in ''The World's Writing Systems'', ed. Peter T. Daniels and William Bright. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0</ref>
+
'''Anatolian hieroglyphs''' were used in [[Anatolia]], as well as parts of modern [[Syria]] during the second and third millennia B.C.E. They were once commonly known as [[Hittite]] hieroglyphs, as one of the first discovered uses of the script was on personal seals from the ancient Hittite capital, Hattusha. The language represented is [[Luwian]] (sometimes spelled “Luvian”,) not [[Hittite language|Hittite]], and the term '''Luwian hieroglyphs''' is often used in English publications. It is possible that the script used on Hittite personal seals were used in a symbolic nature and were not intended to represent language, but rather concepts such as names, titles, or good luck symbols.<ref>Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright, [http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/hluvianscript.pdf The World’s Writing Systems,] Oxford University Press, p.120, 1996. Retrieved January 14, 2009.</ref>
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
Anatolian hieroglyphs are attested from the third and second millennia BCE across Anatolia and into modern Syria. The earliest examples occur on personal [[seal (device)|seal]]s, but these consist only of names, titles, and auspicious signs, and it is not certain that they represent language. Most actual texts are found as monumental inscriptions in stone, though a few documents have survived on lead strips.  
 
−
 
 
−
The first monumental inscriptions confirmed as Luwian date to the [[Late Bronze Age]], ca. 14th to 13th centuries B.C.E. And after some two centuries of sparse material the hieroglyphs resume in the Early [[Iron Age]], ca. 10th to 8th centuries. In the early 7th century, the Luwian hieroglyphic script, by then aged some 1,300 years, falls into oblivion.
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
It is obvious that the script was designed for the [[Luwian language]] (notably because of the absence of an ''e'' series), which when used is known as [[Hieroglyphic Luwian]], and no texts recording another language are known,<ref>R. Plöchl, ''Einführung ins Hieroglyphen-Luwische'' (2003), p. 12.</ref> although there is occasionally foreign material like [[Hurrian]] theonyms, or glosses in [[Urartian language|Urartian]] (such as [[Image:Hieroglyph Luwian Urartian aqarqi.jpg|500x33px]] ''á - ḫá+ra - ku'' for
 
−
[[Image:Hieroglyph Urartian aqarqi.jpg|100x33px]] ''aqarqi'' or [[Image:Hieroglyph Luwian Urartian tyerusi_1.jpg|500x33px]] ''tu - ru - za'' for [[Image:Hieroglyph Urartian tyerusi.jpg|100x33px]] ''ṭerusi'', two units of measurement).
 
−
 
 
−
As in Egyptian, characters may be logographic or phonographic—that is, they may be used to represent words or sounds. The number of phonographic signs is limited. Most represent CV syllables, though there are a few disyllabic signs. A large number of these are ambiguous as to whether the vowel is ''a'' or ''i.'' Some signs are dedicated to one use or another, but many are flexible.
 
−
 
 
−
Words may be written logographically, phonetically, mixed (that is, a logogram with a [[phonetic complement]]), and may be preceded by a [[determinative]]. Other than the fact that the phonetic glyphs form a [[syllabary]] rather that indicating only consonants, this system is analogous to the system of Egyptian hieroglyphs.
 
−
 
 
−
Unlike [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s, the lines of Luwian hieroglyphs are written alternately left-to-right and right-to-left. This practice was called by the [[Ancient Greek|Greeks]] ''[[boustrophedon]]'', meaning "as the ox turns" (as when plowing a field).
 
  
−
Some scholars compare the [[Phaistos Disc]] and [[Cretan hieroglyphs]] as possibly related scripts, but there is no consensus regarding this.
+
The Anatolian hieroglyphs utilize both logographic and phonographic elements, as well as the use of logographic elements that have a phonetic compliment. Most of the signs are pictoral in nature, representing human figures, plants, animals, and everyday objects. Text is most commonly arranged horizontally, beginning in a top corner and working its way down the page in alternating left-to-right/right-to-left registers. This practice was called by the [[Ancient Greek|Greeks]] ''[[boustrophedon]]'', meaning "as the ox turns" (as when plowing a field). Within each register, signs are arranged vertically in columns. There are no word breaks, although a word divider sign is sometimes found.<ref>Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright, [http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/hluvianscript.pdf The World’s Writing Systems,] Oxford University Press, pp.121-3, 1996. Retrieved January 14, 2009.</ref>
  
−
===Mayan hieroglyphs===
 
−
{{Main|Mayan hieroglyphs}}
 
−
[[Image:NaranjoStela10Maler.jpg|190px|right|thumb|An inscription in Maya glyphs from the site of [[Naranjo]], relating to the reign of king ''Itzamnaaj K'awil'', 784-810.]]
 
−
The '''Maya script''', also known as '''Maya hieroglyphs''', was the [[Writing systems|writing system]] of the [[pre-Columbian]] [[Maya civilization]] of [[Mesoamerica]], presently the only deciphered [[Mesoamerican writing systems|Mesoamerican writing system]]. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the [[3rd century B.C.E.]],<ref>[http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2006/106/2 ''Science''] (subscription required)</ref> and writing was in continuous use until shortly after the arrival of the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] ''[[conquistador]]es'' in the 16th century CE (and even later in isolated areas such as [[Tayasal]]). Maya writing used [[logogram]]s complemented by a set of [[syllabary|syllabic]] [[glyph]]s, somewhat similar in function to modern [[Japanese writing]]. Maya writing was called "hieroglyphics" or "hieroglyphs" by early European explorers of the 18th and 19th centuries who did not understand it but found its general appearance reminiscent of [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s, to which however the Maya writing system is not at all related.
 
  
−
Maya writing consisted of a highly elaborate set of glyphs, which were laboriously painted on ceramics, walls or bark-paper [[codex|codices]], carved in wood or stone, or molded in [[stucco]]. Carved and molded glyphs were painted, but the paint has not often survived.
+
****
−
 
 
−
About three-quarters or more of Maya writing can now be read with varying degrees of certainty, enough to give a comprehensive idea of its structure.
 
−
 
 
−
The Maya script was a [[logogram|logosyllabic]] system. Individual symbols ("glyphs") could represent either a word (actually a [[morpheme]]) or a [[syllable]]; indeed, the same glyph could often be used for both. For example, the calendaric glyph <small>MANIK’</small> was also used to represent the syllable ''chi''. (It's customary to write logographic readings in all capitals and phonetic readings in italics.) It is possible, but not certain, that these conflicting readings arose as the script was adapted to new languages, as also happened with Japanese [[kanji]] and with Assyro-Babylonian and Hittite [[cuneiform]]. There was ambiguity in the other direction as well: Different glyphs could be read the same way. For example, half a dozen apparently unrelated glyphs were used to write the very common [[grammatical person|third person]] pronoun ''u-''.
 
−
 
 
−
Maya was usually written in blocks arranged in columns two blocks wide, read as follows:
 
−
 
 
−
[[Image:Maya script reading direction.png|thumb|left|200px|Maya inscriptions were most often written in columns two glyphs wide, with each such column read left to right, top to bottom]]
 
−
 
 
−
Within each block, glyphs were arranged top-to-bottom and left-to-right, superficially rather like Korean [[Hangul]] syllabic blocks. However, in the case of Maya, each block tended to correspond to a noun or verb [[phrase]] such as ''his green headband''. Also, glyphs were sometimes ''conflated,'' where an element of one glyph would replace part of a second. Conflation occurs in other scripts: For example, in medieval Spanish manuscripts the word ''de'' 'of' was sometimes written Ð (a D with the arm of an E). A European example is the [[ampersand]] (&) which is a conflation of the Latin "et." In place of the standard block configuration Maya was also sometimes written in a single row or column, 'L', or 'T' shapes. These variations most often appeared when they would better fit the surface being inscribed.
 
  
 
===Olmec hieroglyphs===
 
===Olmec hieroglyphs===
 
{{Main|Olmec hieroglyphs}}
 
{{Main|Olmec hieroglyphs}}
 
[[Image:Cascajal-text.jpg|left||200px|thumb|The 62 glyphs of the Cascajal Block]]
 
[[Image:Cascajal-text.jpg|left||200px|thumb|The 62 glyphs of the Cascajal Block]]
−
;Cascajal Block
+
The Olmec civilization was one of the first complex societies in early Mesoamerica, dating from 1500 B.C.E. through 100 B.C.E, and possibly even later. Although it was known that Olmec culture was full of accomplishments in art, mathematics, and engineering, including drainage systems and accurate calendars, it was not until the [[Cascajal Block]] was discovered in 1999 that there was any evidence of a true Olmec writing system.  
−
The '''Cascajal Block''' is a writing tablet-sized [[serpentine]] slab which has been dated to the early first millennium B.C.E. incised with hitherto unknown characters that may represent the earliest [[writing system]] in the [[New World]]. Archaeologist [[Stephen D. Houston]] of [[Brown University]] said that this discovery helps to "link the [[Olmec]] civilization to literacy, document an unsuspected writing system, and reveal a new complexity to [the Olmec] civilization."
 
  
−
The Cascajal Block was discovered by road builders in the late 1990s in a pile of debris in the village of Lomas de Tacamichapa in the [[Veracruz]] lowlands in the ancient [[Olmec heartland]]. The block was found amidst ceramic shards and clay figurines and from these the block is dated to the [[Olmec]] [[archaeological culture]]'s [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán]] phase, which ended c. 900 B.C.E. This means that the characters on the block are some 400 years older than any other [[Mesoamerican writing systems|writing known in the Western hemisphere]]. Archaeologists Carmen Rodriguez and Ponciano Ortiz of the [[National Institute of Anthropology and History]] of Mexico examined and registered it with government historical authorities. It weighs about 11.5 kg (25 lb) and measures 36 cm × 21 cm × 13 cm. Details of the find were published by researchers in the 15 September 2006 issue of the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''.<ref>In a paper entitled "Oldest Writing in the New World," see Rodríguez Martínez ''et al.'' (2006)</ref>
+
The Cascajal Block was discovered by road builders in a pile of debris near [[Veracruz]] lowlands in the ancient [[Olmec heartland]]. The slab of rock is carved with sixty-two signs and dates to the early first millennium B.C.E. The block weighs approximately 26 pounds, and is 36 centimeters by 21 centimeters. The nature of the signs, their sequencing patterns, and consistent reading order are all indications that the tablet is an example of a Olmec writing system. Interestingly enough, the side of the Cascajal Block that contains text is concave, leading many to believe that the stone was polished down and reused numerous times.<ref>[http://brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2006-07/06-021.html Oldest Writing in the New World Discovered in Veracruz, Mexico,] Brown University. Retrieved January 14, 2009.</ref>
  
−
The Olmec flourished in the [[Gulf Coast of Mexico|Gulf Coast region of Mexico]], ca. 1250–400 B.C.E. The evidence for this writing system is based solely on the text on the Cascajal Block.
+
*****
−
 
 
−
The block holds a total of 62 [[glyphs]], some of which resemble plants such as [[corn]] and [[ananas]], or animals such as insects and fish. Many of the symbols are more abstract boxes or blobs. The symbols on the Cascajal block are unlike those of any other writing system in Mesoamerica, such as in Mayan languages or [[Isthmian script|Isthmian]], another extinct Mesoamerican script. The Cascajal block is also unusual because the symbols apparently run in horizontal rows and "there is no strong evidence of overall organization. The sequences appear to be conceived as independent units of information".<ref>Quote taken from Rodríguez Martínez ''et al.'' (2006).</ref>  All other known Mesoamerican scripts typically use vertical rows.
 
−
 
 
−
;Isthmian script
 
−
[[Image:La Mojarra Inscription and Long Count date.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Detail showing three columns of [[glyph (archaeology)|glyphs]] from [[La Mojarra Stela 1]]. The two right columns are Isthmian glyphs. The left column gives a [[Mesoamerican Long Count calendar]] date of 8.5.16.9.9, or 156 C.E.]]
 
−
The [[Isthmian script]] is a very early [[Mesoamerican writing system]] in use in the area of the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]] from perhaps 500 [[Common Era|BCE]] to 500 C.E., although there is disagreement on these dates. It is also called the '''La Mojarra script''' and the '''Epi-Olmec script''' ('post-Olmec script').
 
−
 
 
−
Isthmian script is structurally similar to the later [[Maya script]], and like Maya uses one set of characters to represent [[logograms]] (or [[morpheme|word units]]) and a second set to represent [[Syllabary|syllables]].<ref>Lo.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The four most extensive Isthmian texts are those found on:
 
−
 
 
−
* The [[La Mojarra Stela 1]]
 
−
* The [[Tuxtla Statuette|Tuxtla Statuette]]
 
−
* [[Tres Zapotes#Stela C|Tres Zapotes Stela C]]
 
−
* A [[Teotihuacan]]-style mask (shown at right).
 
−
 
 
−
Other texts include:
 
−
 
 
−
* A few Isthmian [[glyph (archaeology)|glyph]]s on four badly weathered [[stela]]e—5, 6, 8, and probably 15—at [[Cerro de las Mesas]].
 
−
* Approximately 23 glyphs on the O'Boyle "mask," a clay artifact in a private collection of unknown provenance.
 
−
* A small number of glyphs on a pottery-sherd from [[Chiapa de Corzo (Mesoamerican site)|Chiapa de Corzo]]. This sherd has been assigned the oldest date of any Isthmian script artifact: 450-300 B.C.E.<ref>Pérez de Lara and Justeson.</ref>
 
  
 
===Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing===
 
===Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing===
 
{{Main|Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing}}
 
{{Main|Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing}}
 
[[Image:Mikmaq sample (ave Maria).jpg|thumb|200 px|left|A sample of Mi'kmaq "hieroglyphic" writing, the Ave Maria.]]
 
[[Image:Mikmaq sample (ave Maria).jpg|thumb|200 px|left|A sample of Mi'kmaq "hieroglyphic" writing, the Ave Maria.]]
−
[[Míkmaq hieroglyphic writing]] was a writing system and memory aid used by the [[Míkmaq]].
+
[[Míkmaq hieroglyphic writing]] was used by the [[Míkmaq]], Indians native to [[Nova Scotia]] and its surrounding areas.
−
 
 
−
The glyphs were [[logogram]]s with phonetic elements used alongside (Schmidt & Marshall 1995). This is similar to [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s, which included [[logograph]]ic, [[alphabet]]ic, and [[ideogram|ideographic]] information.
 
  
−
It has been debated by scholars whether the original "hieroglyphs" qualified fully as a [[writing system]] rather than merely as a [[pictograph]]ic [[mnemonic]] device, before their adaptation for pedagogical purposes in the 17th century by the French missionary [[Chrétien Le Clercq]]. [[Ives Goddard]] and William Fitzhugh from the Department of [[Anthropology]] at the [[Smithsonian Institution]] contended in 1978 that the pre-missionary system was purely mnemonic, as it could not be used to write new compositions. Schmidt and Marshall argued in 1995 that the missionary system of the 1600s was able to serve as a fully functional writing system. This would mean that Míkmaq is the oldest writing system for a native language north of Mexico.
+
The Mi’kmaq script primarily consisted of a collection of [[ideogram]]s. The Mi’kmaq had a rich oral tradition, and it has been suggested that hieroglyphs were used mainly as either a memory aid or trail marking. Since written language was not a major part of Mi’kmaq life, the ideograms eventually fell out of use, and were eventually replaced by phonetic versions of the Mi’kmaq language using the Latin alphabet.<ref>[http://www.muiniskw.org/pgCulture4a.htm About Mi’Kmaw “Hieroglyphics’,] Mi’kmaq Spirit. Retrieved January 14, 2008.</ref>
  
 
[[Image:micmac-confirmation.jpg|frame|right|Text of the Rite of Confirmation in Míkmaq hieroglyphs. The text reads ''Koqoey nakla ms<s>i</s>t telikaqumilálaji?'' – literally 'Why / those / all / after he did that to them?', or "Why are all these different steps necessary?"]]
 
[[Image:micmac-confirmation.jpg|frame|right|Text of the Rite of Confirmation in Míkmaq hieroglyphs. The text reads ''Koqoey nakla ms<s>i</s>t telikaqumilálaji?'' – literally 'Why / those / all / after he did that to them?', or "Why are all these different steps necessary?"]]
  
−
Father le Clercq, a [[Roman Catholic]] missionary on the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] from 1675, claimed that he had seen some Míkmaq children 'writing' [[birch bark document|symbols on birchbark]] as a memory aid. This was sometimes done by pressing porcupine quills directly into the bark in the shape of symbols. Le Clercq adapted those symbols to writing prayers, developing new symbols as necessary. This writing system proved popular among Míkmaq, and was still in use in the 19th century. Since there is no historical or archaeological evidence of these symbols from before the arrival of this missionary, it is unclear how ancient the use of the mnemonic glyphs was. The relationship of these symbols with Míkmaq [[petroglyph]]s is also unclear.
+
Father le Clercq, a [[Roman Catholic]] missionary on the [[Gaspé Peninsula]], noted in 1691 that he had seen some Míkmaq children writing with charcoal [[birch bark document|symbols on birchbark]] while he taught them prayers. This and other accounts of writing that pre-dates missionary visits refutes claims that the Mi’kmaq writing system was developed by missionaries as a way to teach Christian prayers, though it is still possible that the ideograms existed purely as mnemonic memory aids. Missionaries worked to develop and understand the writing system into a fully functional written language in order to translate prayers like [[The Lord’s Prayer]], adding new ideographs to refer to concepts like God (a triangle to represent the [[trinity]]. <ref>[http://www.muiniskw.org/pgCulture4a.htm About Mi’Kmaw “Hieroglyphics’,] Mi’kmaq Spirit. Retrieved January 14, 2008.</ref>
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 258: Line 199:
 
*[http://indoeuro.bizland.com/project/script/luwia.html Luwian Hieroglyphics] from the Indo-European Database
 
*[http://indoeuro.bizland.com/project/script/luwia.html Luwian Hieroglyphics] from the Indo-European Database
 
*[http://www.hethport.uni-wuerzburg.de/luwglyph/Signlist.pdf Sign list], with logographic and syllabic readings
 
*[http://www.hethport.uni-wuerzburg.de/luwglyph/Signlist.pdf Sign list], with logographic and syllabic readings
−
 
+
*[ http://www.evertype.com/gram/olmec.html Analysis of Olmec Hieroglyphs]
  
 
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5347080.stm “Oldest” New World writing found] by Helen Briggs for [[BBC News]], 14 September 2006.
 
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5347080.stm “Oldest” New World writing found] by Helen Briggs for [[BBC News]], 14 September 2006.

Revision as of 20:19, 14 January 2009


File:Foster Beach Hieroglyph.jpg
A Hieroglyph found on The rocks on Foster Beach in Chicago

A hieroglyph is a character used in a system of pictoral writing, and derives from the Greek term for “sacred carving,” translated from the Egyptian phrase “the god’s words.” The term originally referred only to the Egyptian hieroglyphs, but was later also applied to ancient Cretan, Luwian, Mayan and Mi'kmaq scripts. DespiteCite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag

Etymology

The word Hieroglyphs derives from the Greek words ἱερός (hierós 'sacred') and γλύφειν (glúphein 'to carve' or 'to write', see glyph. This was translated from the Egyptian phrase “the god’s words,” a phrase that showed hieroglyphic writing was used predominantly for religious or sacred purposes.

The term “hieroglyphics,” used as a noun, was once commonly used, but now denotes more informal usage. In academic circles, the term “hieroglyphs” has replaced “hieroglyphic” to refer to both the language as a whole and the individual characters that compose it. “Hieroglyphic” is still used as an adjective (e.g., a hieroglyphic writing system).


Major Hieroglyphic Writing Systems

Egyptian hieroglyphs

Main article: Egyptian hieroglyphs
Hieroglyphs typical of the Graeco-Roman period

Egyptian hieroglyphs are a the most well-known hieroglyphic writing system, and the one from which the term “hieroglyphic” originated. This formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians consists of a combination of phonetic signs, ideograms, and determinatives. Phonetic signs work like letters of an alphabet: a single sign stands for a letter (or combination of letters.) Ideograms are made from signs that are accompanied by a verticle line, which indicates that the sign stands for the object it represents. Determinatives appear, when needed, at the end of a word, and give a clue as to the meaning of a word.[1]

Egyptian hieroglyphs were used mainly for formal inscriptions (hence their name, which translates to “the god’s words”.) Everyday writing, such as record keeping or letter writing, used the Hieratic script, a simplified version of hieroglyphic writing. Hieratic script is structurally the same as hieroglyphic writing, but people, animals, and objects are no longer recognizeable.

One of the oldest and most famous examples of Egyptian hieroglyphs can be found on the Narmer Palette, a shield shaped palette that dates to around 3200 B.C.E. The palette was discovered in 1898 by archaeologist James Quibell in the ancient city of Nekhen (currently Hierakonpolis), believed to be the Pre-Dynastic capital of Upper Egypt. The palette is believed to be a gift offering from King Narmer to the god Amun-Ra. Narmer’s name is written at the top on both the front and back of the palette.[2]

Egyptian hieroglypic writing used a core of about 800 hieroglyphs. This number varied; during the Greco-Roman period, more than 5,000 hieroglyphs were in use.[3] Interestingly enough, hieroglyphic writing did not incorporate vowel sounds.


Dongba script

An old Naxi painted storyboard

The Dongba, Tomba or Tompa script is a pictographic writing system used by the priests of the Naxi people, an ethnic minority found mainly near the Yangtze River in China, as well as Tibet. The Dongba script is unique in that it is the only living pictographic language in the world; Naxi priests still use the Dongba script to create manuscripts for ceremonies like funerals and blessings.[4]

The origin of the Dongba script is a matter of legend and debate. It is likely that the script has been in use for close to one thousand years, and was widely used by the tenth century. Both the Naxi language and script were suppressed after the Communist victory and during China’s Cultural Revolution in the 1960’s, but efforts have been made to revive interest in the language.

The Dongba script consists of about 1,400 symbols. Ninety percent of these are pictograms, although some are used to represent phonetic values. The Naxi language is also written using Geba (a script more similar to Chinese character writing) or a Latin alphabet writing system based on Pinyin.[5]

Facing pages of a Naxi manuscript, displaying both pictographic dongba and smaller syllabic geba.
Naxi manuscript (left) 2087.jpg Naxi manuscript (right) 2088.jpg


Mayan hieroglyphs

An inscription in Maya glyphs from the site of Naranjo, relating to the reign of king Itzamnaaj K'awil, 784-810.

The Mayan script, also known as Mayan hieroglyphs, was the writing system of the pre-Columbian Mayan civilization of Mesoamerica, and consisted of a highly elaborate set of glyphs, which were laboriously painted on ceramics, walls or bark-paper codices, carved in wood or stone, or molded in stucco. While the earliest known Mayan script is dated around 250 B.C.E., the script may have been developed much earlier. The Mayan civilization itself may have developed as early as 3,000 B.C.E. The Yucatec Maya used the script up until the sixteenth century.

The Mayan script is made up of about 550 logograms (representing whole words,) and 150 syllabograms (representing syllables,) as well as glyphs for the names of places and gods. For much of modern history, it was commonly believed that the Mayan script was not a complete writing system, and did not actually represent a language. In the 1950’s, Russian ethnologist Yuri Valentinovich Knorosov correctly suggested the script was partly phonetic and represented the Yucatec Mayan language. Today, most Mayan texts can be interpreted.[6]

Cretan hieroglyphs

Cretan hieroglyphs were discovered by the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans, who is perhaps most well known for his excavations of the palace he named Knossos at Crete, as well as the discovery of the Minoan civilization that inhabited it

Cretan hieroglyphs are the first of three scripts discovered at Knossos, and are thought to date around 2000 B.C.E. This script was found on Bronze Age clay tablets and sealstones at Knossos, as well as artifacts from the Minoan Palace at Petras in eastern Crete.

Later scripts, known as Linear A and Linear B, may have evolved from these hieroglyphs. Linear A is thought to date to 1850-1700 B.C.E.; the original pictograms present in the hieroglyphic script have been reduced to a more linear form.[7]

The Cretan hieroglyphic script contained over one hundred pictograms, including representations of a lyre, carpenter’s tools, dog heads, and bees.[8]

Anatolian hieroglyphs

Drawing of the hieroglyphic seal found in the Troy VIIb layer.

Anatolian hieroglyphs were used in Anatolia, as well as parts of modern Syria during the second and third millennia B.C.E. They were once commonly known as Hittite hieroglyphs, as one of the first discovered uses of the script was on personal seals from the ancient Hittite capital, Hattusha. The language represented is Luwian (sometimes spelled “Luvian”,) not Hittite, and the term Luwian hieroglyphs is often used in English publications. It is possible that the script used on Hittite personal seals were used in a symbolic nature and were not intended to represent language, but rather concepts such as names, titles, or good luck symbols.[9]

The Anatolian hieroglyphs utilize both logographic and phonographic elements, as well as the use of logographic elements that have a phonetic compliment. Most of the signs are pictoral in nature, representing human figures, plants, animals, and everyday objects. Text is most commonly arranged horizontally, beginning in a top corner and working its way down the page in alternating left-to-right/right-to-left registers. This practice was called by the Greeks boustrophedon, meaning "as the ox turns" (as when plowing a field). Within each register, signs are arranged vertically in columns. There are no word breaks, although a word divider sign is sometimes found.[10]


Olmec hieroglyphs

The 62 glyphs of the Cascajal Block

The Olmec civilization was one of the first complex societies in early Mesoamerica, dating from 1500 B.C.E. through 100 B.C.E., and possibly even later. Although it was known that Olmec culture was full of accomplishments in art, mathematics, and engineering, including drainage systems and accurate calendars, it was not until the Cascajal Block was discovered in 1999 that there was any evidence of a true Olmec writing system.

The Cascajal Block was discovered by road builders in a pile of debris near Veracruz lowlands in the ancient Olmec heartland. The slab of rock is carved with sixty-two signs and dates to the early first millennium B.C.E. The block weighs approximately 26 pounds, and is 36 centimeters by 21 centimeters. The nature of the signs, their sequencing patterns, and consistent reading order are all indications that the tablet is an example of a Olmec writing system. Interestingly enough, the side of the Cascajal Block that contains text is concave, leading many to believe that the stone was polished down and reused numerous times.[11]

Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing

A sample of Mi'kmaq "hieroglyphic" writing, the Ave Maria.

Míkmaq hieroglyphic writing was used by the Míkmaq, Indians native to Nova Scotia and its surrounding areas.

The Mi’kmaq script primarily consisted of a collection of ideograms. The Mi’kmaq had a rich oral tradition, and it has been suggested that hieroglyphs were used mainly as either a memory aid or trail marking. Since written language was not a major part of Mi’kmaq life, the ideograms eventually fell out of use, and were eventually replaced by phonetic versions of the Mi’kmaq language using the Latin alphabet.[12]

Text of the Rite of Confirmation in Míkmaq hieroglyphs. The text reads Koqoey nakla msit telikaqumilálaji? – literally 'Why / those / all / after he did that to them?', or "Why are all these different steps necessary?"

Father le Clercq, a Roman Catholic missionary on the Gaspé Peninsula, noted in 1691 that he had seen some Míkmaq children writing with charcoal symbols on birchbark while he taught them prayers. This and other accounts of writing that pre-dates missionary visits refutes claims that the Mi’kmaq writing system was developed by missionaries as a way to teach Christian prayers, though it is still possible that the ideograms existed purely as mnemonic memory aids. Missionaries worked to develop and understand the writing system into a fully functional written language in order to translate prayers like The Lord’s Prayer, adding new ideographs to refer to concepts like God (a triangle to represent the trinity. [13]

Notes

  1. ↑ Loy, Jim. 1997. Types of Signs in Egyptian. Retrieved December 8, 2008.
  2. ↑ Jourdan, Francesca. [The Narmer Palette.] Retrieved December 8, 2008.
  3. ↑ Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian; A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1995 p.12
  4. ↑ Wiens, Mi Chu. 1999. [Living Pictographs.] Library of Congress. Retrieved December 8, 2008.
  5. ↑ Ager, Simon. 2008. [Naxi Scripts.] Omniglot. Retrieved December 8, 2008.
  6. ↑ Ager, Simon. 2008. Mayan Script. Omniglot. Retrieved December 8, 2008.
  7. ↑ Bronze Age Writing on Crete: Hieroglyphs, Linear A, and Linear B, Athena Review, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2004. Retrieved January 14, 2009.
  8. ↑ Evans, Arthur. Writing in Prehistoric Greece, The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 30, p.91, 1900. Retrieved January 14, 2009.
  9. ↑ Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright, The World’s Writing Systems, Oxford University Press, p.120, 1996. Retrieved January 14, 2009.
  10. ↑ Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright, The World’s Writing Systems, Oxford University Press, pp.121-3, 1996. Retrieved January 14, 2009.
  11. ↑ Oldest Writing in the New World Discovered in Veracruz, Mexico, Brown University. Retrieved January 14, 2009.
  12. ↑ About Mi’Kmaw “Hieroglyphics’, Mi’kmaq Spirit. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
  13. ↑ About Mi’Kmaw “Hieroglyphics’, Mi’kmaq Spirit. Retrieved January 14, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Robinson, Andrew. The story of writing with over 350 illustrations, 50 in color. New York: Thames & Hudson 2003. ISBN 0500281564
  • Andrew Robinson (2007). Alphabets, Hieroglyphs and Pictograms, London: Thames & Hudson.
  • Angelika Rauch (1997). The Hieroglyph of Tradition, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.
  • Douglas J (2007). Egypt and the Egyptians, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Cruz-Uribe, Eugene. 2001. "Scripts: An Overview." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, edited by Donald B. Redford. Vol. 3. Oxford, New York, and Cairo: Oxford University Press and The American University in Cairo Press. 192–198 [194–195].
  • Davies, William Vivian. 1990. "Egyptian Hieroglyphs." In Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the Alphabet. London: British Museum Press. 74–135.
  • W. C. Brice, Notes on the Cretan Hieroglyphic Script: I. The Corpus. II. The Clay Bar from Malia, H20, Kadmos 29 (1990) 1-10.
  • W. C. Brice, Cretan Hieroglyphs & Linear A, Kadmos 29 (1990) 171-2.
  • W. C. Brice, Notes on the Cretan Hieroglyphic Script: III. The Inscriptions from Mallia Quarteir Mu. IV. The Clay Bar from Knossos, P116, Kadmos 30 (1991) 93-104.
  • W. C. Brice, Notes on the Cretan Hieroglyphic Script, Kadmos 31 (1992), 21-24.
  • J.-P. Olivier, L. Godard, in collaboration with J.-C. Poursat, Corpus Hieroglyphicarum Inscriptionum Cretae (CHIC), Études Crétoises 31, De Boccard, Paris 1996, ISBN 2-86958-082-7.
  • G. A. Owens, The Common Origin of Cretan Hieroglyphs and Linear A, Kadmos 35:2 (1996), 105-110.
  • G. A. Owens, An Introduction to «Cretan Hieroglyphs»: A Study of «Cretan Hieroglyphic» Inscriptions in English Museums (excluding the Ashmolean Museum Oxford), Cretan Studies VIII (2002), 179-184.
  • I. Schoep, A New Cretan Hieroglyphic Inscription from Malia (MA/V Yb 03), Kadmos 34 (1995), 78-80.
  • J. G. Younger, The Cretan Hieroglyphic Script: A Review Article, Minos 31-32 (1996-1997) 379-400.
  • Bruhns, Karen O. and Nancy L. Kelker, Ma. del Carmen Rodríguez Martínez, Ponciano Ortíz Ceballos, Michael D. Coe, Richard A. Diehl, Stephen D. Houston, Karl A. Taube, and Alfredo Delgado Calderón (2007-03-09). Did the Olmec Know How to Write?. Science 315 (5817): pp.1365–1366.
  • Houston, Stephen D. (2004). "Writing in Early Mesoamerica", in Stephen D. Houston (ed.): The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.274–309. ISBN 0-521-83861-4. OCLC 56442696. 
  • Rodríguez Martínez, Ma. del Carmen and Ponciano Ortíz Ceballos, Michael D. Coe, Richard A. Diehl, Stephen D. Houston, Karl A. Taube, and Alfredo Delgado Calderón (2006-09-16). Oldest Writing in the New World. Science 313 (5793): pp.1610–1614.
  • Skidmore, Joel (2006). The Cascajal Block: The Earliest Precolumbian Writing (PDF). Mesoweb Reports & News. Mesoweb. Retrieved 2007-06-20.
  • Magni, Caterina (2008). "Olmec Writing. The Cascajal Block: New Perspectives", in Laurence Mattet (ed.): Arts & Cultures 2008: Antiquité, Afrique, Océanie, Asie, Amérique, revue annuelle des musées Barbier-Mueller, 9. Paris, Genève/Barcelona: Somogy Éditions d'art, in collaboration with The Association of Friends of the Barbier-Mueller Museum, pp.64–81. ISBN 978-2-7572-0163-3. 

Yang, Zhengwen (2008). Zhengwen Naxi Study Collection. Beijing: Culture Publisher. ISBN 978-7-105-08499-9. 

Fang, Guoyu (2008). Guoyu Naxi Study Collection. Beijing: Culture Publisher. ISBN 978-7-105-08271-1. 

He, Zhiwu (2008). Zhiwu Naxi Study Collection. Beijing: Culture Publisher. ISBN 978-7-105-09099-0. 

Crampton, Thomas (Feb. 12), "Hieroglyphic Script Fights for Life", International Herald Tribune 

  • Brigham Young University press-release on behalf of Brigham Young University archaeologist Stephen Houston and Yale University professor emeritus Michael Coe disputing the Justeson-Kaufman findings.*Diehl, Richard A. (2004) The Olmecs: America's First Civilization, Thames & Hudson, London.
  • Houston, Stephen, and Michael Coe (2004) "Has Isthmian Writing Been Deciphered?," in Mexicon XXV:151-161.
  • Justeson, John S., and Terrence Kaufman (1993), "A Decipherment of Epi-Olmec Hieroglyphic Writing" in Science, Vol. 259, 19 March 1993, pp. 1703-11.
  • Justeson, John S., and Terrence Kaufman (1997) "A Newly Discovered Column in the Hieroglyphic Text on La Mojarra Stela 1: a Test of the Epi-Olmec Decipherment", Science, Vol. 277, 11 July 1997, pp. 207-10.
  • Justeson, John S., and Terrence Kaufman (2001) Epi-Olmec Hieroglyphic Writing and Texts.
  • Lo, Lawrence; "Epi-Olmec," at Ancient Scripts.com] (accessed January 2008).
  • Pérez de Lara, Jorge, and John Justeson "Photographic Documentation of Monuments with Epi-Olmec Script/Imagery", Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies (FAMSI).
  • Schuster, Angela M. H. (1997) "Epi-Olmec Decipherment" in Archaeology, online (accessed January 2008).
  • Hewson, John. 1982. Micmac Hieroglyphs in Newfoundland. Languages in Newfoundland and Labrador, ed. by Harold Paddock, 2nd ed., 188-199. St John's, Newfoundland: Memorial University
  • Hewson, John. 1988. Introduction to Micmac Hieroglyphics. Cape Breton Magazine 47:55-61. (text of 1982, plus illustrations of embroidery and some photos)
  • [Kauder, Christian]. 1921. Sapeoig Oigatigen tan teli Gômgoetjoigasigel Alasotmaganel, Ginamatineoel ag Getapefiemgeoel; Manuel de Prières, instructions et changs sacrés en Hieroglyphes micmacs; Manual of Prayers, Instructions, Psalms & Hymns in Micmac Ideograms. New edition of Father Kauder's Book published in 1866. Ristigouche, Québec: The Micmac Messenger.
  • Lenhart, John. History relating to Manual of prayers, instructions, psalms and humns in Micmac Ideograms used by Micmac Indians fof Eastern Canada and Newfoundland. Sydney, Nova Scotia: The Nova Scotia Native Communications Society.
  • Schmidt, David L., and B. A. Balcom. 1995. "The Règlements of 1739: A Note on Micmac Law and Literacy," in Acadiensis. XXIII, 1 (Autumn 1993) pp 110-127. ISSN 0044-5851
  • Schmidt, David L., and Murdena Marshall. 1995. Míkmaq Hieroglyphic Prayers: Readings in North America's First Indigenous Script. Nimbus Publishing. ISBN 1-55109-069-4

External links

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Hieroglyph&oldid=902245

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki