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Hernán Cortés

Hernán(do) Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who conquered Mexico for Spain. Cortés was part of a new generation that would establish the Spanish Empire in the Americas. He was responsible for the destruction of many cultural artifacts although he did try to preserve some Aztec monuments. In modern Mexico, his name is reviled while that of the last emperor of the Aztecs, Cuauhtémoc, whom Cortés tried and executed, is revered. Ethnocentric attitudes prevented the Spanish from seeing very much of value in the cultures they encountered in the Americas, apart from gold and treasure. Cortés, an efficient soldier and adminstrator, was more often than not captive to the dominant, Euro-centric worldview of his time. Occasionally, as in his efforts to make peace with Indian tribes, his resistance to slavery and his preference for conversion by example not force, he rose above this. Arguably, he dealt with the natives more humanely than did his successors. However, his strategies in the main included torture, the capture of indigenous leaders and the destruction of property in order to retrieve the gold it contained. Conquest was also aided by the diseases the Spanish took with them from the old, to the new, world. The colonial process can not be reversed. However, efforts to reconstruct cultural heritages that have been all but destroyed continues to enrich our understanding of human achievement. Cortés can not really be blamed for doing exactly what his king wanted him to do, conquer territory and enrich the Spanish treasury. The Spanish had the Pope's blessing to occupy non-Christian territory, provided they evangelized the population.

Name

Cortés was known as Hernando or Fernando Cortés during his lifetime and signed all his letters Fernán Cortés.

Early life

Cortés was born in Medellín, in the province of Extremadura, in the Kingdom of Castile in Spain in 1485. His father, Martín Cortés de Monroy, was an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slender means. His mother was Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, Hernan was second cousin to Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the Inca empire of modern-day Peru (not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined Cortés to conquer the Aztecs).

Hernan Cortés is described as a sickly child by his biographer, chaplain, and friend Francisco López de Gómara. At the age of fourteen, Cortés was sent to study at the University of Salamanca. This was the great center of learning of the country and while accounts vary as to the nature of Cortés' studies, his later writings and actions suggest he studied Law and probably Latin.

After two years, Cortés, tired of schooling, returned home to Medellín, much to the annoyance of his parents, who had hoped to see him equipped for a profitable legal career. However, those two years at Salamanca, plus his long period of training and experience as a notary, first in Seville and later in Hispaniola, would give him a close acquaintance with the legal codes of Castile that was to stand him in good stead in justifying his unauthorized conquest of Mexico

At this point in his life, Cortés was described by Gómara as restless, haughty, and mischievous. This was probably a fair description of a sixteen-year-old boy who had returned home only to find himself frustrated by life in his small provincial town.

By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Columbus in the New World was streaming back to Spain. Cortés and his family must have been well aware of the potential it might hold for a young adventurous man.

Preparation to depart for the New World

Plans were made in 1502 for Cortés to sail to the Americas with a family acquaintance, Nicolas de Ovando, the newly appointed governor of Hispaniola, but an injury sustained while hurriedly escaping from the bedroom of a married woman of Medellin prevented him from making the journey. Instead, he spent the next year wandering the country, probably spending most of his time in the heady atmosphere of Spain's southern ports, listening to the tales of those returning from the Indies, who told of discovery and conquest, gold, Indians and strange unknown lands.

Arrival in the New World

Cortés did not arrive in the New World until 1503. He finally succeeded in reaching Hispaniola in a ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and reach the New World before them in order to secure personal advantages. Quintero's mutinous conduct may have served as a model for Cortés in his subsequent career. The history of the conquistadors is rife with accounts of rivalry, jockeying for position, mutiny and betrayal ^[1]

In 1503 at the age of eighteen, Cortés sailed in a convoy of merchant ships bound for Santo Domingo, the capital of Hispaniola. Upon his arrival, he registered as a citizen, which entitled him to a building plot and land for cultivation. Soon afterwards, Ovando, still the governor, gave him a[repartimiento]] of Indians and made him a notary of the town of Azuza. His next five years seem to have served to establish him in the colony, though he managed to contract syphilis from Indian women in the area, a disease which until that time had been unknown in the Old World but which wrought great havoc after its introduction there. In 1506 he took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba and got a large estate of land and Indian slaves for his effort.

Cortés in Cuba

In 1511, he accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide of the governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. At the age of 26, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsiblity of making sure the King of Spain got one-fifth of the profits from gold and slaves.

The governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, was so impressed with Cortés that he secured a high political position for him in the colony. Cortés continued to build a reputation as a daring and bold leader. He became secretary for Governor Velázquez. Cortés was appointed mayor (alcalde) of Santiago. In Cuba, Cortés became a man of substance with a repartimiento of Indians, mines and cattle. In 1514, Cortés led a group that wanted more natives for the settlers.

As time went on, relations between Cortés and governor Velázquez became strained. The governor twice jailed the young cavalier although each time Cortés managed to escape.

Cortés also found time to become romantically involved with Catalina Xuárez (or Juárez), the sister-in-law of Governor Velázquez. Part of Velázquez' displeasure seems to have been based on a belief that Cortés was trifling with Catalina's affections. Cortés was temporarily distracted by one of Catalina's sisters but finally married Catalina reluctantly under pressure from Governor Velázquez. However, by doing so, he secured the good will of both her family and of Velázquez. ^[2]

Looking Beyond Cuba

It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies, that Cortés began to look beyond his substantial status as mayor of the capital of Cuba and man of affairs in the thriving colony.

The invasion of Mexico

The most notable, or ingfamous, achievement of Cortés career was the invasion of Mexico and conquest of the Aztec empire. In 1518 Velázquez put him in charge of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. At the last minute, Velazquez changed his mind and tried to revoke his order to prevent the brash Cortés from stealing all the glory that might come from the expedition.

The decisive battle in this campaign was the siege of Tenochtitlan. Cortés' victory over the Aztecs at Tenochtitlan enabled the eventual Spanish conquest of Mexico.

Cortés married one of the daughters of Emperor Moctezuma and gave the other noble women to his men.

Cortés famously put Cuauhtémoc's feet to the fire to find the gold lost on La Noche Triste. This cruelty was, however, useless, because the greater part of the Mexican treasures had already passed into the hands of the Spaniards.

Appointment to governorship of Mexico

Because of his conquests and all the gold and jewels he had collected, Cortés was very popular back home in Spain. King Charles I of Spain, who had become Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, appointed Cortés governor and captain general of the newly conquered territory. Cortés received the title Marques del Valle de Oaxaca (Marquis of the Oaxaca Valley) in 1528.

Cortés served a term as Governor-General of "New Spain of the Ocean Sea" (as Juan de Grijalva had named Mexico before Cortés ever saw it), bringing stability and surprising civil rights to the country.

Cortés initiates the construction of Mexico City

Cortés began the construction of Mexico City on the Aztec ruins and brought many Spaniards over to live there. It soon became the most important European city in North America. He managed the founding of new cities and appointed men to extend Spanish rule to all of Mexico, which was renamed New Spain. Cortés also supported efforts to convert Indians to Christianity and sponsored new explorations.

Cortés the farmer

Cortés spent the next seven years establishing peace among the Indians of Mexico and developing mines and farmlands.

Cortés was one of the first Spaniards to attempt to grow sugar in Mexico and one of the first to import African slaves to early colonial Mexico. At the time of his death his estate contained at least 200 slaves who were either native Africans or of African descent.

Exploration of Honduras

In 1524, his restless urge to explore and conquer took Cortés south to the jungles of Honduras. Cortés took off on an expedition through Guatemala to Honduras to punish a fellow Spaniard who had betrayed him, and with his departure all shadow of personal authority left Mexico. The two arduous years that he spent on this disastrous expedition damaged his health and his position.

Execution of Cuauhtémoc

The execution of Cuauhtémoc on the journey to Honduras was another instance of the misconception by Cortés of aboriginal conditions. It is not at all unlikely that the Mexican chieftain was party to a plan to exterminate the Spaniards while they were floundering through the forests and swamps, but even if this were so, his execution was not necessary. By restraint the same object might have been achieved. But Cortés had an exaggerated conception of the power and influence of Cuauhtémoc's office, as he had in the case of Montezuma.

Cortés had Cuauhtémoc hanged over the strong objections of his men. Another account by Bernal Diaz del Castillo tells us that other Spaniards supported him on his brutal decision to execute Cuauhtémoc. The execution eventually had to be carried out by Tlaxcallan soldiers.

Notarized testimony at his many subsequent trials (for murdering his legal wife, etc.) has abundant testimony from friends and enemies alike that this crime ruined Cortés. He never forgave himself and seems to have gone somewhat mad. In the end he was said to have remarked, "I didn't want it this way."

Deteriorating relations with the Spanish government

The impression has prevailed that Cortés was treated by the Spanish Government with base ingratitude. It is true that a few years after 1521 an unfavourable change took place in his relations with the Emperor Charles V and his government. The change never led to an absolute break, but it caused a gradual curtailing of his power which Cortés felt very keenly.

While lavishly contributing his own means at the outset, Cortés made his conquest avowedly as a Spanish subject, for and in behalf of Spain and its monarch. Mexico became a Spanish colony through his instrumentality, but it was the duty of the Spanish Government to care for it.

Cortés personally was not ungenerously rewarded, but he speedily complained of insufficient compensation to himself and his comrades. Thinking himself beyond reach of restraint, he disobeyed many of the orders of the Crown, and, what was more imprudent, said so in a letter to the emperor, dated 15 October, 1524 (Ycazbalceta, "Documentos para la Historia de México", Mexico, 1858, I). In this letter Cortés, besides recalling in a rather abrupt manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to him alone, deliberately acknowledges his disobedience in terms which could not fail to create a most unfavourable impression.

Soon after the capture of the Indian settlement the Crown, as was its prerogative, in 1522 sent two Mexico officers to investigate the condition of affairs, and to report on the conduct of Cortés. To this he could not object, as it was an established custom. The commissioner, Tapia, charged with the investigation, was so hampered, however, by the officers of Cortés that he did not even reach the valley of Mexico, but returned without carrying out his orders. Cortés himself, while keeping at a distance, treated him with the utmost courtesy, but rendered all action on his part impossible. A second commissioner, Luis Ponce de León, was sent in 1526 with discretionary and very dangerous powers. He died at Mexico soon after his arrival, in a manner that leaves little doubt of foul play, although William H. Prescott discredits it. But Prescott did not have access to the documentary material that has since been unearthed. ^[3]

Cortés suspected of conspiring to secede from Spain

By 1528, the Spanish government was worried that Cortés was getting out of control in the Americas. His property was seized by the officials he had left in charge, and reports of the cruelty of their administration and the chaos it created aroused concern in Spain.

A number of minor charges were brought against Cortés, and they appear to have been substantiated. They could not fail to create grave suspicion, because they presented the picture of a conspiracy, the object of which was to make Cortés the independent ruler of Mexico. Under such circumstances the least that could be expected was the elimination of Cortés from the government of the new province.

The situation was a very critical one for the Crown. Cortés held the country and its resources, and controlled a body of officers and men who had, in 1520, expressed to the emperor in writing their admiration for their captain, and dwelt in the strongest terms on the obligations under which his achievements had placed the mother country. It is true, in case of a clash, Spain might have counted upon the support of the inhabitants of the Antilles, but the military reputation of Cortés had become so great that the selection of a leader against him would have been very embarrassing. Hence a conflict had to be avoided as long as possible. Cortés' position was gradually undermined, titles and honours were conferred upon him, but not the administrative authority he coveted. At the same time his attention was insensibly directed to explorations outside of America, to the much-desired Moluccas or Spice Islands ^[4]

Cortés accused of murdering his first wife

At a time when there was almost a certainty, in court circles in Spain, of an intended rebellion by Cortés, a charge was brought against him that cast a fatal blight upon his character and plans. He was accused of the murder of his first wife. Prescott makes light of the accusation, but his opinion has little weight because evidence has since been discovered which was not available to Prescott. This evidence leaves no doubt that Catalina Xuarez was strangled by her husband. The proceedings of the investigation were kept secret. No report, either exonerating or condemning Cortés, was published. Had the Government declared him innocent, it would have greatly increased his popularity; had it declared him a criminal, a crisis would have been precipitated by the accused and his party. Silence was the only safe policy. But that silence is a strong indication that grave danger was apprehended from his influence ^[5]

File:Karl V.jpg

Emperor Charles V with Hound (1532), a painting by the 16th century artist Jakob Seisenegger.

Cortés appeals to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor

Cortés was once quoted as saying that it was "more difficult to contend against (his) own countrymen than against the Aztecs." Governor Diego Velázquez continued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colonial department, to undermine him at court.

Cortés's fifth letter to Charles V attempts to justify his conduct and concludes with a bitter attack on “various and powerful rivals and enemies” who have “obscured the eyes of your Majesty.” But it was his misfortune that he was not dealing simply with a king of Spain but with an emperor who ruled most of Europe and who had little time for distant colonies, except insofar as they contributed to his treasury.

In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles V was attending to matters in his German domains and Spain was ruled by Bishop (later Pope) Adrian of Utrecht, who functioned as regent. Velázquez and Fonseca persuaded the regent to appoint a commissioner with powers to investigate Cortés's conduct and even arrest him.

The Spanish bureaucrats sent out a commission of inquiry under Licentiate Luis Ponce de León. Ponce de León arrived to conduct a residencia of Cortés but fell ill and died shortly after his arrival. Before he died, he appointed Marcos de Aguilar as alcalde mayor. The aged Aguilar also became sick and appointed Alonso de Estrada governor.

Cortés, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from taking over the government. Estrada sent Diego de Figueroa to the south; but de Figueroa raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his end when the ship carrying these treasures sunk.

In August 1527 a royal decree arrived confirming Estrada as governor. Albornoz persuaded him to release Salazar and Chirinos. When Cortés complained angrily after one of his adherent's hand was cut off, Estrada ordered him exiled. Cortés sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal to Emperor Charles V.

First return to Spain

In 1528, Cortés returned to Spain to appeal to the justice of his master, Charles V. He presented himself with great splendor before the court. By this time Charles V had returned and Cortés forthrightly responded to his enemy's charges. Denying he had held back on gold due the crown, he showed that he had contributed more than the quinto (one-fifth) required. Had he spent lavishly to rebuíld Tenochtitlán, damaged during the siege that brought down the Aztec empire? Of course he had, and the rebuilt Tenochtitlán was now more magnificent than any city in Europe, a true jewel in the Spanish crown.

He was received by Charles with every distinction, and decorated with the order of Santiago. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded by being named the Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, a noble title and senorial estate which was passed down to his descendents until 1811.

Mismanagement of Cortés's property during his absence

Cortés's property were mismanaged by abusive colonial administrators while he was in Spain. Cortés sided with local Indians in a lawsuit. The Indians documented the abuses in the Huexotzinco Codex.

Return to Mexico

Cortés returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and honors, but with diminished power, a viceroy having been entrusted with the administration of civil affairs, although Cortés still retained military authority, with permission to continue his conquests. This division of power led to continual dissension, and caused the failure of several enterprises in which Cortés was engaged.

On returning to Mexico, Cortés found the country in a state of anarchy. Furthermore, there were so many accusations made against him—even that he had murdered his first wife, Catalina, who had died that year—that, after reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order, he retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City. There he concentrated on the building of his palace and on Pacific exploration.

Remaining in Mexico between 1530 and 1541, Cortés quarreled with the greedy, brutal Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán and disputed the right to explore the territory that is today California with Antonio de Mendoza, the first viceroy ^[6]

Exploration of Baja California

In 1536, Cortés explored the northwestern part of Mexico and discovered the Baja California peninsula. Cortés also spent time exploring the Pacific coast of Mexico. The gulf that separates the Baja California peninsula from Mexico is named the Sea of Cortes. This was the last major expedition by Cortés.

Later life and death

Second return to Spain

After his exploration of Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in 1541, hoping to confound his enemies. On his return he was utterly neglected, and could scarcely obtain an audience.

On one occasion he forced his way through a crowd that surrounded the emperor's carriage, and mounted on the footstep. The emperor, astounded at such audacity, demanded of him who he was. "I am a man," replied Cortés proudly, "who has given you more provinces than your ancestors left you cities." <cited in "Cortes, Hernan" pp 205-7, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol 7 (1911) p 206</ref>

Expedition against Algiers

The emperor finally permitted him to join the great expedition against Algiers in 1541. During this unfortunate campaign, which was his last, he served with great bravery. Cortés was almost drowned in a storm that hit his fleet while he was pursuing Barbary pirates.

It may be that had the advice of Cortés been followed that undertaking would have had a less disastrous end; but he was not even consulted. Had his advice been heeded, the Spanish arms might have been saved from disgrace, and Europe delivered nearly three centuries earlier from the scourge of organized piracy.

Final Days and Death

Having spent a great deal of his own money to finance expeditions, he was now heavily in debt. In February 1544 he made a claim on the royal treasury, but was given a royal runaround for the next three years. Disgusted, he decided to return to Mexico in 1547. When he reached Seville, he was stricken with dysentery. He died in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville province, on December 2, 1547, from a case of pleurisy at age 62.

Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man. He left his many mestizo and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. He requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove the "natural" status of 3 of his children (legitimizing them in the eyes of the church), including Martín Cortés|Martin, the son he had with Doña Marina (also known as La Malinche), said to be his favorite.

Assessment of Cortés

It is extremely difficult to characterize this particular conquistador – his unspeakable atrocities, his tactical and strategic awareness, the rewards for his Tlaxcalteca allies along with the rehabilitation of the nobility (including a castle for Moctezuma's heirs in Spain that still stands), his respect for Indians as worthy adversaries and family members.

Cortés' dealings with the Native Americans

Cortés sought to pacify, not provoke; to appease with gifts, not oppress with guns. He hoped to acquire a productive province, not a slave state. Orders to his troops were explicit. No one was to "vex or offend" the natives. Women and children must always be spared. Only food, and that scrupulously paid for, might be taken. Looting and rape were punishable by death.

It must be remembered that Cortés's small army, however brave, could never have prevailed against hundreds of thousands of hostile foes. Only in the first few battles were they without allies. Cortés's policy of friendship allowed him to use the internal dissensions of the Aztec Empire to destroy it. In so doing, he made himself the champion of the vast majority of the Indians of New Spain. He was their friend and protector, and he never lost their love and respect. Whether these friendships were genuine or strategic, a tactic of divide and rule, though, is an open question.

Cortés hoped to avoid the errors that had been made in the Islands. His letters to Charles V are filled with warnings and pleas. He begged that only settlers be allowed in New Spain, not adventurers "intent on consuming the country's substance and then abandoning it." He asked for humble priests who would convert by pious example, not high prelates who would "dispose of the gifts of the Church and waste them in pomp and other vices." He recommended that lawyers be banned on the grounds that they encouraged contention in order to profit from the ensuing litigation. Most of all, he deplored the practice of repaying services to the Crown with Indian slaves to work land grants. Yet he had no other way of rewarding his own followers.

Charles V was not interested. He obviously believed his insistence on the conversion of the natives, thus ensuring their Heavenly reward, was quite enough and considered enslavement a small price to pay for such favors. Nor did he accede to any other request. The troublesome Cortés was soon replaced with a governing committee which exiled him.

Cortés' fall from grace was a black-letter day for the natives and they knew it. Had he chosen defiance, according to Francisco López de Gómara he would have had the support of natives as well as of the Spanish. When Cortés returned from Honduras after having been reported dead he found his lands confiscated, his treasury looted and his home occupied by enemies. The Indians greeted him with wild rejoicing and his fellow Spaniards were willing to join him in ousting the usurpers.

Instead, Cortés meekly sailed for Spain, hoping to clear his name with the Emperor. He succeeded and was fobbed off with a title and huge land grants, complete with thousands of slaves. He was graciously allowed to retain the office of Captain General and continue his profitable conquests for the Crown, but denied any say in their administration. Cortés was forced to watch as men like Nuño de Guzmán destroyed all he had hoped to build. [9]

The way Indians were treated varied from one part of the Americas to another. However, they were generally treated better in the Kingdom of New Spain than in Peru. With great vision, Hernán Cortés tried to preserve the monuments of the Aztecs and funded the construction of schools and hospitals out of his own pocket, providing for them in his will. [10]

Alternative assessment

Although many popular histories insist that Cortés was a uniquely brilliant military strategist, the "great man" myth of Cortés drastically overshadows the actual process of conquest. While Cortés can be credited with successfully identifying the complexities of local indigenous politics, especially the animosity felt by many native groups towards the Mexica-Aztec Empire, the use of native allies was hardly a new concept. This tactic was one which Cortés had experienced and adopted from earlier conquests in the Caribbean. Additionally, the use of terror and the capturing of native leaders reappear over and over in Spanish conquest history and were not unique inventions of Cortés. Even his attempt to justify his conquest of the Mexican mainland — a right held by the Governor of Cuba Diego Velasquez — through the founding of Veracruz and an appeal directly to Emperor Charles V had been used by other conquistadors interested in usurping the right of conquest.

It must be remembered that when Velasquez conquered Cuba he did so with the authority of the Governor of Santo Domingo, Diego Columbus. But when he established the city of Santiago, he formed a town council with which he resigned his offices from Columbus and established him as governor of Cuba under the Spanish Crown. The Crown gave him the legal authority once it recognized the fait accompli. It was a precedent that Velasquez would subsequently come to regret.

Ultimately, Cortés and the conquest of Mexico should not be viewed as a brilliant military feat but instead as the successful implementation of multiple conquest strategies derived from almost thirty years of Spanish conquest experience in the Caribbean. In addition, as stated above, smallpox turned out to be his greatest ally.

Notes

↑ [1].
↑ See[2] [3].
↑ See [4].
↑ see [5].
↑ [6] [7].
↑ [8].

Primary sources

Cortés, Hernán Letters – available as Letters from Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986 ISBN 0300090943

Gómara,Francisco López de Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things that have happened since they were acquired until the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New Spain Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966.
Castillo, Bernal Díaz del The Conquest of New Spain – available as The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517-1521 Cambridge, MA: De Capo Press, reprint edition, 2003ISBN 030681319X
Leon-Portilla, Miguel The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1992 ISBN 0807055018
Prescott, William Hickling History of the conquest of Mexico NY: Barnes & Noble Books, 2004 ISBN 0760759227 From original History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes [16]
Last Will and Testament of Hernán Cortés [17]

Secondary sources

Thomas, Hugh Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico NY: Simon & Schuster, 1993 ISBN 0671511041
White, Jon ManchipCortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire NY: St Martin's Press, 1971 ISBN 0786702710
Prescott, William HHistory of the Conquest of Mexico. NY: Barnes & Nobles, , 2004 ISBN O760759227
Passuth, László The Rain God cries over Mexico San Francisco, CA: Pacific Pub House, 1987 ISBN 0918872022
Restall, Matthew Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003) ISBN 0195160770
Todorov, Tzvetan The Conquest of America Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999 ISBN 0806131373
Jacobs, William Jay "Hernando Cortés" , New York, NY: Franklin Watts, Inc. 1974 ISBN 0531009742
Stein, R. C. "The World’s Greatest Explorers: Hernando Cortés." Chicago, IL: Children's Press, 1991 ISBN 0516030590
Genealogy of Hernan Cortés [18]
Chao, Jesus J Myth and Reality: The Legacy of Spain in America by Culture/Society Opinion. February 12, 1992. The Institute of Hispanic Culture of Houston

External links

Hernando Cortes on the Web – web directory with thumbnail galleries
Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)
Conquistadors, with Michael Wood – website for 2001 PBS documentary
Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.

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[1] [1].

[2] See[2] [3].

[3] See [4].

[4] see [5].

[5] [6] [7].

[6] [8].

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