Difference between revisions of "Emma of Normandy" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | '''Emma''' (c. [[985]]–[[March 6]], [[1052]] in [[Winchester]], [[Hampshire]]), called '''Ælfgifu''', was daughter of [[Richard I of Normandy|Richard the Fearless]], [[Duke of Normandy]], by his second wife [[Gunnora]]. She was [[Queen consort]] of the [[Kingdom of England]] twice, by successive marriages: initially as the second wife to [[Ethelred the Unready]] of [[England]] ([[1002]]-[[1016]]); and then to [[Canute the Great]] of [[Denmark]] ([[1017]]-[[1035]]). Two of her sons, one by each husband, and two stepsons, also by each husband, became kings of England, as | + | '''Emma''' (c. [[985]]–[[March 6]], [[1052]] in [[Winchester]], [[Hampshire]]), called '''Ælfgifu''', was daughter of [[Richard I of Normandy|Richard the Fearless]], [[Duke of Normandy]], by his second wife [[Gunnora]]. She was [[Queen consort]] of the [[Kingdom of England]] twice, by successive marriages: initially as the second wife to [[Ethelred the Unready]] of [[England]] ([[1002]]-[[1016]]); and then to [[Canute the Great]] of [[Denmark]] ([[1017]]-[[1035]]). Two of her sons, one by each husband, and two stepsons, also by each husband, became kings of England, as did her great-nephew, [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]], [[Duke of Normandy]] who used his kinship with Emma as the basis of his claim to the English throne. Her first marriage was by arrengemt between her brother, Richard II of Normandy and the English king, 20 years her senior, to create a cross-channel alliance against the Viking raiders from the North, with whom Emma was also related. Canute, 10 years her junior, who was king by conquest not by right, used his marriage with the Queen to legitimize his rule. An innovation in the Queen's coronation rite (her second) made her a partner in his rule, which represents a trend towards Queens playing a more significant role, at least symbolically, as peacemakers and unifiers of the realm. She is considered to be the first Queen who may known as Queen Mother when her sons ruled as monarch. Her first marriage resulted in her acquiring considerable land and wealth in her own right. She used her position to become one of the most powerful women in [[Europe]], possibly acting as regent during Canute's absences and immediately after his death in 1035, when she controlled the royal treasury. She was consulted on matters of state and about church appointments. Edward relieved her of most of her possessions in 1043, claiming that they belonged to the king, after which she went into exile only to be re-instated at court the following year. Emma devoted herself to promoting her sons' interests but appears to have been consulted |
==Life== | ==Life== | ||
| − | + | Emma was the son of the Duke of Normandy, Richard the I and the sister of his heir, Richard II. Richard negotiated her marriage with the English king, Ethelred. She would not have learned ro read or write although she may have had some instruction in Latin. She would have spoken a form of Old Scandinavian. Her training would have consisted of preparation for a royal marriage ti further the interests of the Dukedom and its ruling family. Her mother exercised considerable power at court, which may have given her ideas about how she would act as a king's wife. Her mother was also a "major player at court during several years of her son's reign."<ref "name=O'Brien">O'Brien, page 36.</ref> | |
| − | Ethelred's marriage to Emma was an English strategy to avert the aggression of dangerous Normandy | + | ===First Marriage=== |
| + | Ethelred's marriage to Emma was an English strategy to avert the aggression of dangerous Normandy by way of an alliance. Normandy was under feudal obligation to the kings of [[France]]. However, England was the Norman dukes' main target, after baronic feuds and rampaging pillages through Brittany had run their course and English kings could not afford to underestimate the Norman threat. Marriage between Ethelred and Emma promised an alliance with Normandy and protection against the Vikings who constantly raided from the North. A year before Emma's marriage, a [[Denmark|Danish]] fleet had pillages the Sussex coast. O'Brien writes that Emma would have been prepared from childhood for this type of marriage, in which her role would be that of a "peace-weaver", the "creator of a fragile fabric of friendship between hostile marriage."<ref "name=O'Brien">O'Brien, page 12.</ref> Although Ethelred was already married and Emma was to be his second wife, Richard II would have specifiied in the terms of the marriage that his sister be crowned Queen and given gifts of land. She received estates in Winchester (which was a traditional bridal gift for English Queens), Nottinghamshire and Exeter as her "personal property."<ref "name-O'Brien">O"Brien, page 36</ref>. Her marriage in 1002 was followed by a Coronation, which, says O'Brien, symbolized not only her union with the King "but also with his country." A later account describes her as wearing "gowns of finely woven linen" and an outer robe "adorned with embroidery into which precious stones were stone."<ref "name=O'Brien">O'Brien, page 36.</ref> Marriage and coronation were likely to have been "staged with a great deal of spendour" since no English king had married a foreign bride for eighty years.<ref "name=O'Brien">O'Brien, page 34</ref> On the one hand, recognition of her status as Queen did not confer any "great authority" but on the other hand it "elevated Emma way above her husband's subjects and offered healthy scope for developing a role of enormous power."<ref "name=O'Brien">O'Brien, page 36-37.</ref> Emma's name was Anglicized as Ælgifu.<ref "name=Stafford">Stafford, page 3</ref> Ethelred had six children by his first wife, who does not appear to have been crowned as Queen, unlike Emma. Two wives was not uncommon during this period when both pagan and Christian marriage practices co-existed. Thus, while the second forbade bigamy, the first sanctioned this. O'Brien speculates that Etherlred's first wife may have died, or that he chose to ignore this marriage because Emma was a better match; "It was not uncommon for a man, particularly a person of rank, to ignore his marriage vows if a better alliance with another family came his way - Emma's own family history was, after all, littered with such untidy arrangements."<ref "name=O'Brien">O'Brien, page 33.</ref> Her family would have insisted that there be no doubt about the legality of the marriage. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Having male sons was considered to be one of the most important roles a Queen had to fulfill, important both for her royal husband who needed heirs and for her own family, who wanted the alliance to continue after Ethelred's death. Dutifully, Emma gave birth to two sons, Edward and Alfred and a daughter, Godgifu. Ethelred already had male heirs but the tie with Normandy would be strengthened by children and part of the agreement with Richard may have been that if Emma had a male son, he would become heir-apparent.<ref "name=Stafford">Stafford, page 221.</ref><ref "name=O'Brien">O'Brien, page 34.</ref> More male children, too, could help to secure a dynasty's future since princes died or were killed in battle. On the other hand, royal sons also vied for succession; the rule of primogeniture was not firmly established and often the son who proved to be the strongest succeeded. A Queen's position could be risky if she was unable to produce male children; on the other hand, "a new Queen became a more assured member of the family when she produced its children."<ref "name=Stafford">Stafford, page 221.</ref> Whether or not such an agreement existed, Emma's estates appears to have been augmented following each birth. Also, she made gifts of land to each of her children, which demonstrates "that she clearly had powers in her own right."<ref "name=O'Brien">O'Brien, page 66.</ref> Later, she became renowned for patronizing the Church and she may have founded some Abbeys and monasteries during this period. Her legacy to Edward included the founding of Eynsham Abbey. The account of her life commissioned by Emma herself, the ''Encomium Emmae'' omits this period of her life focusing instead on her later marriage with Canute. Almost certainly, there would have been rivalry with Ethelred's first wife, although separate households were maintained; Emma lived in Winchester while | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===The Danish Invasion=== | ||
| + | Danish armies constantly invaded over the next decade, which could only be halted by payment of the [[Danegeld]]. Ethelred had little military success against these invasions. His eldest son Æthelstan, too, had died in 1014, after which his second son, Edmund challenged him for the throne. The resulting instability gave the Dane's the opportunity they needed. In 1013, [[Sweyn I of Denmark]] accompanied by his son, Canute, invaded and smashed Ethelred's army. Emma's sons by Ethelred - Edward the Confessor and Alfred Atheling - went to [[Normandy]] for safety, where they were to remain. Ethelred also took refuge overseas, returning after Sweyn's death a few weeks later. The Danes declared Canute King of England as well as of Denmark but in the initial confrontation between Ethelred and Canute, he was forced into retreat. Returning to Denmark, he recruited reinforcements and invaded again in 1015. It was Edmund, who earned his title as a result of leading the defense of the realm, who led the resistance against Canute's onslaught. Ethelred, who was now ill, died April 23, 1016. Edmund succeeded him as Edmund II. He was, however, losing the war. The final battle took place October 18, 1016, after which Edmund and Canute chosse to enter a peace agreement by which Edmund and Canute would each rule half of England. Edmund, however, only lived until November 30th. After his death, Canute became king of all England. As her husband and step-sons died and the Danish king assumed power, Emma was faced with a choice; to remain in England or to flee to Normandy. She chose the former. Had she returned to Normandy, she would have had very little status there and would have "been entirely dependent on her family". In England, she possessed land and personal wealth.<ref "name=O'Brien">O'Brien, page 103.</ref> This proved to be the right decision. Having conquered England, Canute needed to legitimize his rule in the eyes of the English or face constant revolt and opposition. At this period, kingship was understood in terms of royal birth - you were born to be King, or at least into the ruling family. Canute was concerned to legitimize his rule; one method was by marrying the Queen. "As the widow of an English king, she was already an English Queen; her consecration could now serve as a symbol of continuity if not of unity."<ref "name=Stafford">Stafford, page 178</ref> | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===Change to the Coronation Rite=== | ||
| + | Although she was ten years his senior, there appears to have been sound reasons for this decision, although it may also have followed a custom whereby conquering Vikings married, as a prize, the widow of their slain enemy. There is evidence, though, that considerable thought went into designing the ritual by which Canute would be crowned King and Emma would be crowned Queen, her second coronation. this took place in 1017. This thinking must have involved the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], who alone had the right to crown the king and Queen. The ritual emphasized throughout that the new King, and his new Queen, were "English". A change in the words of the rite refer to Emma, as Queen, as partner in her husband's rule, as ''consors imperii''. The rite made it quite explicit that Emma was to be "a partner in royal power." Stafford says that "1017 produced the theoretical apotheosis of English Queenship, ironically achieved in defeat and conquest." Canute chose to stress, via the coronation rite, that the rod with which he was invested was a "rod of justice, "not a rod of power and domination." Emma's rite also stressed that she was to be a "peace-weaver."<ref "name=Stafford">Stafford, page 177.</ref> There was, says Stafford, "no hint of subordination".<ref "name=Stafford">Stafford, page 34.</ref> | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===The Cult of Mary=== | ||
| + | It may be significant that at Winchester, the "dower borough of English Queens" the cult of Mary as Queen of Heaven was gaining popularity at this time. This appears tp have impacted visual representation of Emma as Queen. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Artistic representation of Canute and Emma (representations of Emma are the oldest of any English Queen to have survived) also stress their equality. In one drawing, | ||
| + | |||
| + | <blockquoate> | ||
| + | Emma bursts from the obscurity of earlier Queens in an image with equates her in stature with Cnut, deliberately parallels her with Mary above her, and places her, along with Mary, on the superior right-hand side of Christ ... the cult of Mary Queen of Heaven went hand in hand with the growing prominence of the English Queens of earth | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | <ref "name=Stafford">Stafford, page | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | Ethelred and his son, and Emma's stepson, [[Edmund II Ironside]], married her himself. He was to pledge that Harthacanute, Emma's son by him, should be the heir to his Danish sovereignty, which meant, through this wedding, the [[Normans]] were kept at arms length, contentedly quiet and quietly content. | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[Harthacanute]], named after the first head of Canute's royal house, was certainly intended to rule as the Danish ruler of England, along with most of Scandinavia, which, if he had succeeded, may have made for a very different history. It is thought though, due not least to the extolling of her [[encomium]], that Canute was fond of Emma. In this, an affectionate marriage and the ability to keep the threat from over the channel at bay, was seen as a happy coincidence. Unfortunately, events did not go as well as they might. | ||
After Canute's death, Edward and Alfred returned to England out of exile in 1036, in an expedition to see their mother and under their half-brother Harthacanute's protection. This was seen as a move against [[Harold Harefoot]], Canute's son by [[Aelfgifu of Northampton]], who now put himself forward as Harold I with the support of many of the English noblity. In contempt of Harthacanute, and at war with his enemies in Scandinavia, the younger Alfred was captured, blinded, and shortly after died from his wounds. The elder, Edward, escaped to Normandy. Emma herself was soon to leave for Bruges and the court of the Count of Flanders. It was at this court that the [[Encomium Emmae]] was written. | After Canute's death, Edward and Alfred returned to England out of exile in 1036, in an expedition to see their mother and under their half-brother Harthacanute's protection. This was seen as a move against [[Harold Harefoot]], Canute's son by [[Aelfgifu of Northampton]], who now put himself forward as Harold I with the support of many of the English noblity. In contempt of Harthacanute, and at war with his enemies in Scandinavia, the younger Alfred was captured, blinded, and shortly after died from his wounds. The elder, Edward, escaped to Normandy. Emma herself was soon to leave for Bruges and the court of the Count of Flanders. It was at this court that the [[Encomium Emmae]] was written. | ||
Revision as of 22:04, 12 August 2008
Emma (c. 985–March 6, 1052 in Winchester, Hampshire), called Ælfgifu, was daughter of Richard the Fearless, Duke of Normandy, by his second wife Gunnora. She was Queen consort of the Kingdom of England twice, by successive marriages: initially as the second wife to Ethelred the Unready of England (1002-1016); and then to Canute the Great of Denmark (1017-1035). Two of her sons, one by each husband, and two stepsons, also by each husband, became kings of England, as did her great-nephew, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy who used his kinship with Emma as the basis of his claim to the English throne. Her first marriage was by arrengemt between her brother, Richard II of Normandy and the English king, 20 years her senior, to create a cross-channel alliance against the Viking raiders from the North, with whom Emma was also related. Canute, 10 years her junior, who was king by conquest not by right, used his marriage with the Queen to legitimize his rule. An innovation in the Queen's coronation rite (her second) made her a partner in his rule, which represents a trend towards Queens playing a more significant role, at least symbolically, as peacemakers and unifiers of the realm. She is considered to be the first Queen who may known as Queen Mother when her sons ruled as monarch. Her first marriage resulted in her acquiring considerable land and wealth in her own right. She used her position to become one of the most powerful women in Europe, possibly acting as regent during Canute's absences and immediately after his death in 1035, when she controlled the royal treasury. She was consulted on matters of state and about church appointments. Edward relieved her of most of her possessions in 1043, claiming that they belonged to the king, after which she went into exile only to be re-instated at court the following year. Emma devoted herself to promoting her sons' interests but appears to have been consulted
Life
Emma was the son of the Duke of Normandy, Richard the I and the sister of his heir, Richard II. Richard negotiated her marriage with the English king, Ethelred. She would not have learned ro read or write although she may have had some instruction in Latin. She would have spoken a form of Old Scandinavian. Her training would have consisted of preparation for a royal marriage ti further the interests of the Dukedom and its ruling family. Her mother exercised considerable power at court, which may have given her ideas about how she would act as a king's wife. Her mother was also a "major player at court during several years of her son's reign."[1]
First Marriage
Ethelred's marriage to Emma was an English strategy to avert the aggression of dangerous Normandy by way of an alliance. Normandy was under feudal obligation to the kings of France. However, England was the Norman dukes' main target, after baronic feuds and rampaging pillages through Brittany had run their course and English kings could not afford to underestimate the Norman threat. Marriage between Ethelred and Emma promised an alliance with Normandy and protection against the Vikings who constantly raided from the North. A year before Emma's marriage, a Danish fleet had pillages the Sussex coast. O'Brien writes that Emma would have been prepared from childhood for this type of marriage, in which her role would be that of a "peace-weaver", the "creator of a fragile fabric of friendship between hostile marriage."[2] Although Ethelred was already married and Emma was to be his second wife, Richard II would have specifiied in the terms of the marriage that his sister be crowned Queen and given gifts of land. She received estates in Winchester (which was a traditional bridal gift for English Queens), Nottinghamshire and Exeter as her "personal property."[3]. Her marriage in 1002 was followed by a Coronation, which, says O'Brien, symbolized not only her union with the King "but also with his country." A later account describes her as wearing "gowns of finely woven linen" and an outer robe "adorned with embroidery into which precious stones were stone."[4] Marriage and coronation were likely to have been "staged with a great deal of spendour" since no English king had married a foreign bride for eighty years.[5] On the one hand, recognition of her status as Queen did not confer any "great authority" but on the other hand it "elevated Emma way above her husband's subjects and offered healthy scope for developing a role of enormous power."[6] Emma's name was Anglicized as Ælgifu.[7] Ethelred had six children by his first wife, who does not appear to have been crowned as Queen, unlike Emma. Two wives was not uncommon during this period when both pagan and Christian marriage practices co-existed. Thus, while the second forbade bigamy, the first sanctioned this. O'Brien speculates that Etherlred's first wife may have died, or that he chose to ignore this marriage because Emma was a better match; "It was not uncommon for a man, particularly a person of rank, to ignore his marriage vows if a better alliance with another family came his way - Emma's own family history was, after all, littered with such untidy arrangements."[8] Her family would have insisted that there be no doubt about the legality of the marriage.
Having male sons was considered to be one of the most important roles a Queen had to fulfill, important both for her royal husband who needed heirs and for her own family, who wanted the alliance to continue after Ethelred's death. Dutifully, Emma gave birth to two sons, Edward and Alfred and a daughter, Godgifu. Ethelred already had male heirs but the tie with Normandy would be strengthened by children and part of the agreement with Richard may have been that if Emma had a male son, he would become heir-apparent.[9][10] More male children, too, could help to secure a dynasty's future since princes died or were killed in battle. On the other hand, royal sons also vied for succession; the rule of primogeniture was not firmly established and often the son who proved to be the strongest succeeded. A Queen's position could be risky if she was unable to produce male children; on the other hand, "a new Queen became a more assured member of the family when she produced its children."[11] Whether or not such an agreement existed, Emma's estates appears to have been augmented following each birth. Also, she made gifts of land to each of her children, which demonstrates "that she clearly had powers in her own right."[12] Later, she became renowned for patronizing the Church and she may have founded some Abbeys and monasteries during this period. Her legacy to Edward included the founding of Eynsham Abbey. The account of her life commissioned by Emma herself, the Encomium Emmae omits this period of her life focusing instead on her later marriage with Canute. Almost certainly, there would have been rivalry with Ethelred's first wife, although separate households were maintained; Emma lived in Winchester while
The Danish Invasion
Danish armies constantly invaded over the next decade, which could only be halted by payment of the Danegeld. Ethelred had little military success against these invasions. His eldest son Æthelstan, too, had died in 1014, after which his second son, Edmund challenged him for the throne. The resulting instability gave the Dane's the opportunity they needed. In 1013, Sweyn I of Denmark accompanied by his son, Canute, invaded and smashed Ethelred's army. Emma's sons by Ethelred - Edward the Confessor and Alfred Atheling - went to Normandy for safety, where they were to remain. Ethelred also took refuge overseas, returning after Sweyn's death a few weeks later. The Danes declared Canute King of England as well as of Denmark but in the initial confrontation between Ethelred and Canute, he was forced into retreat. Returning to Denmark, he recruited reinforcements and invaded again in 1015. It was Edmund, who earned his title as a result of leading the defense of the realm, who led the resistance against Canute's onslaught. Ethelred, who was now ill, died April 23, 1016. Edmund succeeded him as Edmund II. He was, however, losing the war. The final battle took place October 18, 1016, after which Edmund and Canute chosse to enter a peace agreement by which Edmund and Canute would each rule half of England. Edmund, however, only lived until November 30th. After his death, Canute became king of all England. As her husband and step-sons died and the Danish king assumed power, Emma was faced with a choice; to remain in England or to flee to Normandy. She chose the former. Had she returned to Normandy, she would have had very little status there and would have "been entirely dependent on her family". In England, she possessed land and personal wealth.[13] This proved to be the right decision. Having conquered England, Canute needed to legitimize his rule in the eyes of the English or face constant revolt and opposition. At this period, kingship was understood in terms of royal birth - you were born to be King, or at least into the ruling family. Canute was concerned to legitimize his rule; one method was by marrying the Queen. "As the widow of an English king, she was already an English Queen; her consecration could now serve as a symbol of continuity if not of unity."[14]
Change to the Coronation Rite
Although she was ten years his senior, there appears to have been sound reasons for this decision, although it may also have followed a custom whereby conquering Vikings married, as a prize, the widow of their slain enemy. There is evidence, though, that considerable thought went into designing the ritual by which Canute would be crowned King and Emma would be crowned Queen, her second coronation. this took place in 1017. This thinking must have involved the Archbishop of Canterbury, who alone had the right to crown the king and Queen. The ritual emphasized throughout that the new King, and his new Queen, were "English". A change in the words of the rite refer to Emma, as Queen, as partner in her husband's rule, as consors imperii. The rite made it quite explicit that Emma was to be "a partner in royal power." Stafford says that "1017 produced the theoretical apotheosis of English Queenship, ironically achieved in defeat and conquest." Canute chose to stress, via the coronation rite, that the rod with which he was invested was a "rod of justice, "not a rod of power and domination." Emma's rite also stressed that she was to be a "peace-weaver."[15] There was, says Stafford, "no hint of subordination".[16]
The Cult of Mary
It may be significant that at Winchester, the "dower borough of English Queens" the cult of Mary as Queen of Heaven was gaining popularity at this time. This appears tp have impacted visual representation of Emma as Queen.
Artistic representation of Canute and Emma (representations of Emma are the oldest of any English Queen to have survived) also stress their equality. In one drawing,
<blockquoate> Emma bursts from the obscurity of earlier Queens in an image with equates her in stature with Cnut, deliberately parallels her with Mary above her, and places her, along with Mary, on the superior right-hand side of Christ ... the cult of Mary Queen of Heaven went hand in hand with the growing prominence of the English Queens of earth
Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag, she, was known as Aelfgifu[17], a mere replacement. With her marriage to Canute, set in the shade of his 'handfast' wife, Aelfgifu of Northampton, she, at the time was known as Aelfgifu of Normandy. Each of her marriages, then, in some way left her as a second Aelfgifu, which she was clearly inclined to abandon, preferring her other name, Emma. Despite her being a second wife her noble marriages created a strong connection between England and Normandy, which was to find its culmination under her great-nephew William the Conqueror, and 1066.
==
Encomium Emmae Reginae or Gesta Cnutonis Regis is an 11th century Latin encomium in honour of Queen Emma of Normandy. It was written in 1041 or 1042. The single manuscript surviving from that time is lavishly illustrated and believed to be the copy sent to Queen Emma or a close reproduction of that copy. One leaf has been lost from the manuscript in modern times but its text survives in late paper copies.
The Encomium is divided into three books. The first deals with Sweyn Forkbeard and his conquest of England. The second deals with his son, Canute the Great, his reconquest of England, marriage to Emma and career as king. The third deals with events after Canute's death; Emma's troubles during the reign of Harold Harefoot and the ascension of her sons, Harthacanute and Edward the Confessor to the throne.
The Encomium is a heavily biased and selective work. Commissioned by Queen Emma herself, it strives to show her and Canute in as favorable a light as possible. For example it completely omits mention of Emma's first marriage, to Æthelred.
Despite its faults the Encomium is an important primary source for early 11th century English and Scandinavian history.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Campbell, Alistar (editor and translator) and Simon Keynes (supplementary introduction) (1998). Encomium Emmae Reginae. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62655-2
Emma's issue with Ethelred the Unready was:
- Goda
- Edward the Confessor
- Alfred Aetheling
Her issue with the Canute the Great were
- Harthacanute
- Gunhilda of Denmark
http://www.britannia.com/history/winchester/plshare.html http://www.behindthename.com/name/emma
Family tree
Template:Canute tree
Bibliography
- Pauline Stafford. [Queen Emma and Queen Edith: Queenship and Women's Power in Eleventh-century England] 2001 Blackwell's
- Isabella Strachan. [Emma: The Twice-crowned Queen of England in the Viking Age] 2005 Peter Owen
- Harriet O'Brien. [Queen Emma and the Vikings] 2005 Bloomsbury U.S.A.
- Helen Hollick. The Hollow Crown. (August 2004) William Heinemann, Random House. ISBN 0-434-00491-X; Arrow paperback ISBN 0-09-927234-2. This is a historical novel about Queen Emma of Normandy, explaining why she was so indifferent to the children of her first marriage.
- Noah Gordon. [The Physician] 1986 Macmillan ISBN 067147748X . Novel set in the early 11th century.
References
- ↑ O'Brien, page 36.
- ↑ O'Brien, page 12.
- ↑ O"Brien, page 36
- ↑ O'Brien, page 36.
- ↑ O'Brien, page 34
- ↑ O'Brien, page 36-37.
- ↑ Stafford, page 3
- ↑ O'Brien, page 33.
- ↑ Stafford, page 221.
- ↑ O'Brien, page 34.
- ↑ Stafford, page 221.
- ↑ O'Brien, page 66.
- ↑ O'Brien, page 103.
- ↑ Stafford, page 178
- ↑ Stafford, page 177.
- ↑ Stafford, page 34.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedcnut
| Preceded by: ? |
Queen mother 1035 - 1052 |
Succeeded by: Edith of Wessex |
de:Emma von der Normandie es:Emma de Normandía fr:Emma de Normandie it:Emma di Normandia nl:Emma van Normandië no:Emma av Normandie pl:Emma z Normandii pt:Ema da Normandia ru:Эмма Нормандская fi:Emma Normandialainen sv:Emma av Normandie th:เอ็มมาแห่งนอร์มังดี สมเด็จพระราชินีแห่งอังกฤษ zh:諾曼第的愛瑪
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